Telecom 1 UNIT

Mobile Communication System (MCS) Overview of Mobile Communication
EETP/ BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 1 of 34
For Restricted Circulation

1 OVERVIEW OF MOBILE COMMUNICATION- HANDSET,
SIM
STRUCTURE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.3 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS: INCEPTION AND OVERVIEW
1.4 HANDOVER
1.5 LOCATION UPDATE
1.6 MOBILE HANDSET
1.7 SIM (SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY MODULE)
1.8 IDENTIFIERS
1.9 SUMMARY
1.10 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.11 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
We see that today that Mobile telephones has become an essential part of daily life. In the last
one decade, our country has witnessed tremendous growth in mobile communication area.
Currently number of mobile telephone connections are many a times more than that of fixed
(wire line) telephone connections. About 7- 8 million mobile subscribers are added every
month in our country.
In mobile communications the connectivity of the user (Mobile Subscriber) with Mobile
Network is through radio signals and there are no wires from the network to user equipment.
The objective of mobile communications is to provide a truly Anytime, Anywhere
communication. Today mobile is providing Voice, messaging and a number of data services
to users like real time TV, on line payments of utility bills, m-commerce, news,
entertainments etc.
Although mobile telephony can be seen in broad sense as the wireless communication and
wireless services can be offered through various technologies like GSM, CDMA, Cor-DECT,
etc. but here we will talk about GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) as a
wireless communication technology.

1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completion of this training module, trainees will:
Be able to appreciate difference in Fixed line and Mobile networks.
Have a broad understanding of Mobile Communications.
Be able to understand concept of a Cell and Radio Coverage.
Be able to understand key functions of Handset and SIM card in GSM Network.
1.3 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS: INCEPTION AND
OVERVIEW
From ancient to modern times, mankind has been looking for means of long distance
communications. For centuries, letter proved to be the most reliable way to transmit
information. Fire, flags, horns, etc. were used to transmit information faster. Technical
improvements in the 19
th
century simplified long distance communications resulting in
Telegraphy, and later on telephony. Both techniques were wire line. In 1873, J.C.Maxwell
laid the foundation of the electro-magnetic theory, which is still valid today. It would
however several decades after (in 1895) that Marconi made economic use of this theory by
developing devices for wireless transmission of Morse signals (in 1895). Voice was
transmitted on wireless for the first time in 1906 (R. Fesseden), and one of the first radio
broadcast transmission 1909 in New York.

The economically most successful wireless application in the first half of the 20th century
was radio broadcast. There is one transmitter, the so-called radio station. Information, such as
news, music, etc. is transmitted from the radio station to the receiver equipment, the radio
device. This type of one-way transmission is called simplex transmission. The transmission
takes place only in one direction, from the transmitter to the receiver. This was the first type
of fixed wireless transmission.
For conversation, a technical solution is required, where the information flow can take
place in two directions. This type of transmission is called duplex transmission. Walky-talky
was already available the early 1930's. This system already allowed a transmission of user
data in two directions, but there was a limitation: The users were not allowed to transmit at
the same time. In other words, you could only receive or transmit user information at any
given instant of time. This type of transmission was therefore often called semi-duplex
transmission. For telephony services, a technical solutions is required, where subscribers have

Comparison of Wire Line &
Wireless Telephony
Feature Wire-Line Wire-Less
User
Terminal
Telephone
Set
Mobile
Handset
Portability Fixed Portable
Connectivity Wired Wireless
Services
offered
Limited Many

the impression, that they can speak (transmit) and hear (receive) simultaneously. This type of
transmission solution is regarded as full duplex transmission.

Figure 1: Comparison of Wire-line and wireless systems.
A limited amount of mobility along with duplex transmission resulted in the Mobile
Telephony. The first commercial wireless car phone telephone service started in the late 1940
in St. Louise, Missouri (USA). It was a car phone service, because at this time, the mobile
phone equipment was bulky and heavy. Actually, in the start-up, it occupied the whole back
of the car. But it was a real full duplex transmission solution. In the 1950s, several vehicle
radio systems were installed in Europe also. These systems are called single cell systems. The
user data transmission takes place between the mobile phone and the base station (BS). A
base station transmits and receives user data. While a mobile phone is only responsible for its
users data transmission and reception, a base station is capable to handle the calls of several
subscribers simultaneously. The transmission of user data from the base station to the mobile
phone is called downlink (DL), the transmission from the mobile phone to the base station
uplink (UL) direction. The area, where the wireless transmission between mobile phones and
the base station can take place, is the base stations supply area, called cell.

Figure 2: Cell Coverage Area.
Cell = supply area
Uplink
(UL)
Base station
Downlink (DL)

1.4 HANDOVER
Single cell systems are quite limited. The more and more distant the subscriber is from the
base station, the lower the quality of the radio link. If the subscriber is leaving the supply area
of the cell, the communication is not possible any more. In other words, the mobile
communication service was only available within the cell. In order to overcome this
limitation, Multi-cellular systems were introduced. A cellular mobile communication system
consists of several cells, which can overlap. By doing so, a whole geographical area can be
supported with the mobile communication service.
But what happens, when a subscriber moves during a call from one cell to another cell? It
would be very annoying, if the call is dropped. If the subscriber is leaving a cell, and in
parallel is entering a new cell, then the system makes new radio resource available in the
neighboring cell, and then the call is handed over from on cell to the next one. By doing so,
service continuation is guaranteed, even when the subscriber is moving. This process is called
handover (HO).
A handover takes place during a call, i.e. when the mobile phone is in active (dedicated)
mode. A mobile phone can also be in idle mode. In this case, the mobile phone is switched
on, but no resources are allocated to it to allow transmission of user data. In this mode, the
mobile phone is still listening to information, broadcasted by the base station. Why? Imagine,
there is an incoming call to this mobile. The mobile phone is then paged in the cell. This
means the phone receives information that there is a mobile terminated call. A cellular system
may consist of hundreds of cells. If the mobile network does not know, in which cell the
mobile phone is located, it must be paged in all of them. To reduce load on networks, paging
is done in small parts rather to a group of cells of a mobile network. The group of cells in
administrative units in operation is called location area (LA). A mobile phone is paged in
only one location area at a time. The LA is used by the GSM system to search for a
subscriber in an active state.
But how does the cellular system know, in which location area the mobile phone is
located? And how does the mobile phone know? In every cell, system information is
continuously transmitted. The system information includes the location area information. In
the idle mode, the mobile phone is listening to this system information. If the user moves
from one cell to the next cell, and the new cell belongs to the same location area, the mobile
stays idle. If the new cell belongs to a new location area, then the mobile phone has to
become active. It starts a communication with the network; information is send to the mobile
network. This is stored in databases within the mobile network, and if there is a mobile
terminated call, the network knows where to page the subscriber.
1.5 LOCATION UPDATE
The process, where the mobile phone informs the network about its new location is called
Location Update Procedure (LUP). The registration of the Mobile is done at the VLR (Visitor
Location Register) associated with the Mobile Switching Network.


The first mobile telephone call was made on 17 June 1946
from a car in St. Louis, Missouri, USA, using the Bell System's
Mobile Telephone Service. This was followed in 1956 by the
worlds first partly automatic car phone system, Mobile
System A (MTA) in Sweden. The MTA phones were
composed of vacuum tubes and relays, and had a weight of
88.2 pounds (40 kg)
1.6 MOBILE HANDSET
As mentioned earlier also, the mobile handset is the only mobile part in the mobile
communication system. A mobile phone (also known as a cellular phone or cell phone) is a
device that can make and receive telephone calls over a radio link whilst moving around a
wide geographic area.
In addition to telephony, modern mobile phones also support a wide variety of other
services such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-range wireless
communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, gaming and photography.
Mobile phones that offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to as
Smartphone.

Figure 3: The beginning of Mobile phones.
The common components found on all phones are:
An input mechanism to allow the user to interact with the phone. Most common input
mechanism is a keypad, but touch screens are also found in some high-end Smart
phones.
Antenna to transmit and receive RF signals.
Display: Today, we have displays of different sizes and Compositions
Associated Terms: AMOLED, LCD, Super LCD, Retina, PPI, Clear Black.
Processor: The processor is the engine that drives phone. As phones become more
powerful, processors are getting into dual core and quad core territory.
Associated Terms: Dual Core, Quad Core, 800 MHz,
1/1.2/1.5GHz, Snapdragon, Tegra, Intel, Qualcomm.
RAM: The RAM allows the phone to run multiple applications simultaneously and do
various tasks in the background.
Associated Terms: 256 MB, 512 MB, 768 MB, 1 GB.
Camera: Once considered a luxury in Smartphones, the Camera is now an integral
part of Smartphones.

Associated terms: 3.2/5/8/12/41 Megapixels, Auto Focus, Shooting Modes, HD
video, LED/Xenon flash.
Battery: The battery (with a capacity expressed in mAh or milli ampere hour)
determines how long your phone keeps working on a single charge.
Associated terms: Li-ion, mAh, removable, non-removable.
Device Connectivity: There are various wired and wireless technologies embedded
today on mobile devices to connect them with other phones, tablets, televisions or
various accessories.
Associated terms: USB On-The-Go, HDMI, Bluetooth 2.0/2.1/3.0, Wi-Fi.
Mobile Internet Connectivity: Phones are no longer used to just make calls and
swap texts. Almost every Smartphone now comes with some sort of Internet connectivity via
the operator's data services.
Associated terms: GPRS/EDGE , 3G, 3.5G , HSPA, HSDPA, 4G.

Figure 4: Components of a Mobile Phone.
OS/Platform: The operating system of a phone is the software that makes the phone
work, handling basic tasks like calling, texting as well as more complex ones like mail and
Web browsing. It works in a similar way like Windows and Mac OS do, on a computer.

1.7 SIM (SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY MODULE)
A SIM is an integrated circuit that securely stores the Information related to the
subscribers identity which is used to identify and authenticate the subscriber
within the GSM Networks.
A SIM is embedded into a removable SIM card, which can be transferred
between different mobile devices. A SIM card contains its unique serial number
(ICCID), international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI), security authentication
and ciphering information, temporary information related to the local network, a
list of the services the user has access to and two passwords: a personal
identification number (PIN) for ordinary use and a personal unblocking code
(PUK) for PIN unlocking.
What is inside the SIM?
Hardware: CPU, I/O Devices, ROM, RAM, EEPROM
Software: IMSI, PIN, PUK, Authentication Keys e.g. Ki, Kc, Algorithms like A3, A8.
A SIM can be used for various basic applications like storing contact book, SMS etc. as well
as for Value Added Services (VAS) like STK. A SIM may be with single IMSI or with two
IMSI (Dual IMSI) or three IMSI (triple IMSI). Dual IMSI or Triple IMSI application allows
the operator to offer more than one different accounts on the same SIM card without any
impact on the network side. Dual/Triple IMSI SIMs are used for international roaming as in
other countries the same IMSI will not work (national IMSI) therefore we need a multiple
IMSI card.
1.8 IDENTIFIERS
The Handset and SIM are identified in the network with a set of identifiers. The Handset is
identified with IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity). Whereas SIM is identified
with ICCID (Integrated Circuit Card Identifier) and IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber
Identity).
1.9 SUMMARY
Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) is the most widely used wireless
technology in the world today. GSM is a second generation (2G) wireless technology that
provides high-quality voice and circuit-switched data services in a wide variety of spectrum
bands. GSM pioneered many of the world's most popular data services, such as Short
Message Service (SMS) and Multimedia Message Service (MMS).
The GSM subscriber is provided with a SIM which is used to identify and authenticate the
subscriber over the networks. The SIM provides the freedom to use a compatible handset of
his/ her choice. Handsets are available ranging from a very basic phone to smart phones.


1. Name the only mobile component in mobile communication
2. Name the various identifiers used with SIM and Handsets.
3. State various advantages of mobile communication over wire line communication.
4. Handover is done due to _____________________________________________.
5. What is Location Area (LA) and why it is use?
6. Explain Location Update Procedure?
7. What does SIM contain?
8. Which wireless technology is widely used in the world?
9. What is the full form of PUK and name uses of PUK?
10. List the identities in SIM Card?
1. GSM System Engineering By Asha Mehrotra
2. The GSM System for Mobile Communications By Michel Mouly, Marie-Bernadette
Pautet.
3. Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice By Theodore S. Rappaport.

Mobile Communication System (MCS) Mobile Antenna System
EETP/Platinum Certification Course Page 10 of 34

2 MOBILE ANTENNA SYSTEM
STRUCTURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 OBJECTIVES
2.3 ANTENNA
2.4 POLARIZATION
2.5 PROPAGATION PATTERN/RADIATION PATTERN:
2.6 GAIN
2.7 IMPEDANCE
2.8 VSWR
2.9 MECHANICAL FEATURES OF ANTENNA:
2.10 ANTENNA SYSTEMS
2.11 DIVERSITY
2.12 ANTENNA TILT

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The transmission and reception of information using Electro Magnetic (EM) waves is known
as Radio or Wireless communication. An EM wave, consists of an Electrical component and
a Magnetic component. The directions of the Electric component, the Magnetic component
and Propagation are mutually perpendicular to each other.

Figure 1: Electro Magnetic Spectrum

2.2 OBJECTIVES

After completion of this module you will be able to know
Electromagnetic wave
Antenna
Properties of antenna
Antennas used in Mobile
Polarization
2.3 ANTENNA
Antennas transform wire-propagated waves into space-propagated waves. They receive
electromagnetic waves and pass them onto a receiver or they transmit electromagnetic waves,
which have been produced by a transmitter. All the features of passive antennas can be
applied for reception and transmission alike (reciprocality). On one side RF cable is
connected and the other side it is the environment, therefore the surroundings of the antenna
have a strong influence on the antennas electrical features.

2.3.1 THE PRINCIPLE OF AN ANTENNA:
A transmitter sends a high frequency wave into a co-axial cable. A pulsing electrical field is
created between the wires, which cannot free itself from the cable
The end of the cable is bent open. The field lines become longer and are orthogonal to the
wires.
The cable is bent open at right angles. The field lines have now reached a length, which
allows the wave to free itself from the cable. The apparatus radiates an electromagnetic wave,
whereby the length of the two bent pieces of wire corresponds to half of the wavelength. This
is the basic principle of lamda/2-dipole antenna.
An electrical field (E) is created due to the voltage potential (U) but also a magnetic field (H)
which is based on the current (I) The amplitude distribution of both fields corresponds to the
voltage and current distribution on the dipole.
The free propagation of the wave from the dipole is achieved by the permanent
transformation from electrical into magnetic energy and vice versa. The thereby resulting
electrical and magnetic fields are at right angles to the direction of propagation


Figure 2: Field distribution on a Dipole

2.4 POLARIZATION
Polarization can be defined as the direction of oscillation of the electrical field vector. In
Plane polarization, the direction of the 'E' component does NOT change whereas in Circular
polarization, the direction of the 'E' component changes. The polarization of an antenna is the
orientation of the electric field (E-plane) of the radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface
and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its orientation. It has
nothing in common with antenna directionality terms: "horizontal", "vertical", and "circular".
Thus, a simple straight wire antenna will have one polarization when mounted vertically, and
a different polarization when mounted horizontally. "Electromagnetic wave polarization
filters are structures which can be employed to act directly on the electromagnetic wave to
filter out wave energy of an undesired polarization and to pass wave energy of a desired
polarization.
Plane polarization is generally used in terrestrial radio systems and Circular in Satellite
communications. Nowadays, dual polarized antennae are a common sight. Polarization helps
in discrimination and augmenting the capacity of a radio system as well.

Figure 3: Polaization
For Mobile communications generally vertical polarization is used.
For Broadcast systems horizontal polarization is used.
2.5 PROPAGATION PATTERN/RADIATION PATTERN:
In most cases the propagation characteristic of an antenna can be described via elevations
through the horizontal and vertical radiation diagrams Very often a 3-dimensional description
is chosen to describe a complex antenna. The radiation pattern diagram leads to Major and
Minor Lobes of the antenna. Major Lobes of the antenna are those radiation patterns in which
the intensity or strength of the signal is maximum. Minor Lobes are those in which the
intensity is less.
Half-Power-Beam-Width:
This term defines the aperture of the antenna. The HPBW is defined by the points in the
horizontal and vertical diagram, which show where the radiated power has reached half the
amplitude of the main radiation direction. These points are also called 3 dB points. Normally
only the major lobe is considered for this. .


2.6 GAIN
An antenna without gain radiates energy in every direction. An antenna with gain
concentrates the energy in a defined angle segment of 3-dimensional space. The l/2-dipole is
used as a reference for defining gain. At higher frequencies the gain is often defined with
reference to the isotropic radiator. The isotropic radiator is a non-existent ideal antenna,
which has also an omni directional radiation characteristic in the E-plane and H-plane.
2.7 IMPEDANCE
The impedance of the antenna is simply equal to the voltage applied to its input terminals
divided by the current flow. The frequency dependant impedance of a dipole or antenna is
often adjusted via a symmetry or transformation circuit to meet the 50-Ohm criterion.
Adjustment across a wider frequency range is achieved using compensation circuits.
2.8 VSWR
An impedance of exactly 50 Ohm can only be practically achieved at one frequency. The
VSWR defines how far the impedance differs from 50 Ohm with a wide-band antenna. The
power delivered from the transmitter can no longer be radiated without loss because of this
incorrect compensation. Part of this power is reflected at the antenna and is returned to the
transmitter The forward and return power forms a standing wave with corresponding voltage
minima and maxima. This wave ratio (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) defines the level of
compensation of the antenna and was previously measured by interval sensor measurements.
A VSWR of 1.5 is standard within mobile communications. In this case the real component
of the complex impedance may vary between the following values:
Maximum Value: 50 Ohms x 1.5 = 75 Ohms
Minimum Value: 50 Ohms / 1.5 = 33 Ohms
2.9 MECHANICAL FEATURES OF ANTENNA
Antennas are always mounted at exposed sites. As a result the antenna must be designed to
withstand the required mechanical loading.
1.Vehicle antennas, for example, must withstand a high wind velocity, vibrations, saloon
washing and still fulfill a limited wind noise requirement
2.Antennas for portable radio equipment are often exposed to ill handling and sometimes
even played with by the user.

3.Base station antennas are exposed to high wind speed, vibrations, ice, snow, a corrosive
environment and of course also extreme electrostatic loading via lightning
2.9.1 OMNI DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS:
The horizontal radiation pattern covers 360 degrees and vertical half power beam width is 78
degrees. Hence there will be lot of waste of energy both upwards and downwards in the
desired horizontal plane.

2.9.2 OMNI DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS WITH GAIN:
By connecting single, and vertically stacked dipoles at a middle distance of one wavelength
the half power beam width can be reduced. As a result the radiated power in the horizontal
plane is increased. This increase is called gain, which is nothing other than binding the
radiated power in a defined direction. A doubling of the number of dipoles results in a gain
increase of 3 dB (double the power).

2.9.3 DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS
Directional antennas are provided with reflectors behind the radiating element. This focuses
the energy in a desired direction avoiding transmission in the rear side of the antenna. The
directional antennas are classified into the following types:
1.Grid Parabolic Reflector antennas
2. Parabolic Reflector antennas.
3.Cassegrain antennas.
4. Array antennas.
The first two types of antennas are mainly used in fixed point-to-point radio links and the grid
types are employed up to 2GHz whereas the solid parabolic reflector antennas are used for
higher frequencies.
The connectivity between the antennas to the equipments is by coaxial cable up to 2GHz and
for higher frequencies it is by hollow copper tube called wave-guide. The beam width of
these antennas depends on the diameter of the antenna and frequency of operation. They
produce very narrow beams.

Cassegrain antennas are associated with Satellite communication are comparatively larger
which makes them to be fixed on the ground or roof tops and orient themselves towards the
satellite by operating gear arrangement either manually or using motors.
Array antennas are more predominantly used in broadcasting and mobile communications.
There are two types

(i)End Fire Arrays,
(ii)Panel Antennas

2.9.4 END-FIRE ARRAYS
Directional antennas whose mechanical features are parallel to the main radiation beam are
called "End-fire Arrays". Examples:
Yagi antennas
Logarithmic periodic (log-per) antennas
Yagi antennas are very common due to their simple and cheap method of construction. The
gain and bandwidth of Yagi antennas are electrically coupled with one other which is an
electrical disadvantage, ie. one criterion is weighed off the other. The mechanical concept is
not suitable for extreme climatic conditions.
A log-periodic antenna is a broadband, multi-element, directional, narrow-beam antenna that
has impedance and radiation characteristics that are regularly repetitive as a logarithmic
function of the excitation frequency.

2.9.5 PANEL ANTENNAS-BROADSIDE ARRAYS

Panel antennas are made up of several dipoles mounted in front of a reflector so that gain can
be achieved from both the horizontal and vertical plane. This type of antenna is very well
suited for antenna combinations.

2.10 ANTENNA SYSTEMS
Special applications, which cannot be realised by using a single antanna, are very often
achieved via antenna combinations. The combination is made up of several single antennas
and a distribution system (power splitter and connecting cable). Very often a combination is
designed in order to achieve a higher gain. Many different antennas are also used to achieve a
wide range of horizontal radiation characteristics by varying the number of antennas, the
azimuth direction, the spacing, the phase and the power ratio.

2.11 DIVERSITY

Diversity is used to increase the signal level from the mobile to the base station The problem
with this path is the fact that the mobile telephone only works with low power and a short
antenna. Diversity is applied on the reception side of the base station.


2.11.1 SPACE DIVERSITY

This system consists of two reception antennas spaced a distance apart. One antenna has a
certain field strength profile with maxima and minima from its coverage area, the other
antenna has a completely different field strength profile although only spaced a few meters
away. Ideally the minima of one antenna will be completely compensated by the maxima of
the other The improvement in the average signal level achieved with this method is called
diversity-gain.
2.11.2 POLARIZATION DIVERSITY
The reflections, which take place within urban areas, are not all of the same polarization, ie.
Horizontal components also exist. Furthermore a mobile telephone is never held exactly
upright which means that all polarizations between vertical and horizontal are possible. It is
therefore logical that these signals be also used. Space diversity uses 2 vertically polarized
antennas as reception antennas and compares the signal level. Polarization diversity uses 2
orthogonally polarized antennas and compares the resulting signals.

Figure 4: Horizontal and Vertical Polarization

The dipoles of both antenna systems are horizontally and vertically polarized respectively. A
spatial separation is not necessary which means that the differently polarized dipoles can be
mounted in a common housing. Sufficient isolation can be achieved even if the dipoles are
interlocked into one unit so that the dimensions of a dual-polarized antenna are not greater
than that of a normal polarized antenna.

A minimum horizontal spacing is only required between the antennas, the antennas can also
be mounted one above the other on the same mast. This makes the complete sector very
compact, thereby easing permission procedures.

Figure 5: Polarization +45/-45
It is also possible to use dipoles at +45/-45 instead of horizontally and vertically (0/90)
placed. One now has two identical systems, which are able to handle both horizontally and
vertically polarized components.

2.12 ANTENNA TILT

Generally two types of tilts
Mechanical
Electrical


2.12.1 MECHANICAL
Often the base station antenna provides over coverage. That is there is large overlap between
two adjacent cells, which causes increase in handover between the base stations. This puts a
strain on the system. This may also cause disturbances in a neighboring cell which has the
same frequency. For the coverage of the sector, the only that energy which is radiated below
the horizon can be used. Down tilting the antenna limits the range by reducing the field
strength in the horizon and increases the radiated power in the cell that is actually to be
covered. Different methods of down tilting are used. The simplest method of down tilting the
vertical diagram of a directional antenna is the mechanical method to achieve a certain angle
while using an adjustable joint. (Figure below) But the required down tilt is only valid for the
main direction of the horizontal radiation pattern. In the tilt axis direction (+/-90 from main
beam) there is no down tilt at all. Between the angles of 0 and 90 the down tilt angle varies
according to the azimuth direction. These results in a horizontal half-power beam width,
which gets bigger with increasing down tilt angles. The resulting gain reduction depends on
the azimuth direction. Practically upto 6 degree is advisably further reduce the antenna
height.

Figure 6: Mechanically down tilt of Panel

2.12.2 ELECTRICAL TILT
The other method used is electrical down tilt. In this method, the altering the phases of the
signal being fed to dipoles of an antenna. By altering the phases, the main direction of the
vertical radiation pattern can be adjusted. Figure (next page), shows dipoles that are fed from
top to bottom with a rising phase of 70. The different phases are achieved by using feeder
cables of different lengths for each dipole. The electrical down tilt has the advantage, that the
adjusted down tilt angle is constant over the whole azimuth range. The horizontal half-power
beam width remains unaltered. However, the down tilt angle is fixed and cannot be changed.
Practically upto 6 degree is advisably further reduce the antenna height.


Electrical down tilt and the effect on radiation pattern at differing down tilt.
When Electrical tilt is given it is not advisable to give mechanical tilt and via-versa (First
preference should be given to electrical tilt as it horizontal half-power beam width remains
unaltered .

1. An EM wave consists of a__________________ component and a
_________________component. The directions of the Electric component, the
Magnetic component and Propagation are ________________________________ to
each other
2. As frequency increases wavelength _______________________ and length of
antenna dipole ___________________________.
3. Antennas transform ___________________ waves into ________________ waves.
4. In Plane polarization, the direction of the 'E' component does _____________
whereas in Circular polarization, the direction of the 'E' component _________. Plane
polarization is generally used in _________________ radio systems and
____________ in Satellite communications.
5. The frequency dependant impedance of a dipole or antenna is often adjusted via a
symmetry or transformation circuit to meet the _________ Ohm criterion.
6. The connectivity between the antennas to the equipments is by
__________________ up to 2GHz and for higher frequencies it is by hollow copper
tube called _____________________.
7. When Electrical tilt is given it is not advisable to give ______________ tilt and via-
versa The First preference should be given to _________________________ as it
horizontal half-power beam width remains unaltered
8. Diversity is used to _________________ the signal level from the mobile to the base
station. Diversity is applied on the_______________ side of the base station
9. By connecting single, and vertically stacked dipoles at a middle distance of one
wavelength the _____________________________ can be reduced. As a result the

radiated power in the horizontal plane is ___________. This increase is called
____________________, which is nothing other than binding the radiated power in a
defined direction.
10. A doubling of the number of dipoles results in a gain increase of ________________

Mobile Communication System (MCS) Feeder Cable & VSWR

3 FEEDER CABLE & VSWR
STRUCTURE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 OBJECTIVE
3.3 RF FEEDER CABLE BASICS
3.4 HOW RF FEEDER CABLE WORKS
3.5 RF JUMPER CABLE
3.6 VSWR AND ITS MEASUREMENTS
3.7 SUMMARY

3.1 INTRODUCTION
RF feeder cable is used to feed antennas and deliver radio frequency power from one
point to another. The most common type of antenna feeder used today is undoubtedly coaxial
feeder or coax cable. Coax cable, often referred to as RF cable, offers advantages of
convenience of use while being able to provide a good level of performance. In view of this
vast amount of coax cable, coax feeder are manufactured each year, and it is also available in
a wide variety of forms for different applications.
3.2 OBJECTIVE
After reading this unit, you should be able to understand:
RF Feeder Cable Basics of Mobile communication.
How Feeder Cable works.
RF Jumpers Cable of Mobile communication.
VSWR and its Measurements.
3.3 RF FEEDER CABLE BASICS
RF feeder cable is normally seen as a thick electrical cable. The cable is made from a
number of different elements that when together enable the coax cable to carry the radio
frequency signals with a low level of loss from one location to another. The main elements
within a feeder cable are:
1. Centre conductor
2. Insulating dielectric
3. Outer conductor
4. Outer protecting jacket or sheath

The overall construction of the RF feeder cable can be seen in the diagram below and from
this it can be seen that it is built up from a number of concentric layers. Although there are
many varieties of coax cable, the basic overall construction remains the same.

Cross section though RF feeder cable
1. Centre conductor The centre conductor of the RF feeder is almost universally made
of copper. Sometimes it may be a single conductor whilst in other RF cables it may
consist of several strands.

2. I nsulating dielectric Between the two conductors of the feeder cable there is an
insulating dielectric. This holds the two conductors apart and in an ideal world would
not introduce any loss, although it is one of the chief causes of loss in reality. This
feeder cable dielectric may be solid or as in the case of many low loss cables it may
be semi-airspace because it is the dielectric that introduces most of the loss. This may
be in the form of long "tubes" in the dielectric, or a "foam" construction where air
forms a major part of the material.

3. Outer conductor The outer conductor of the RF cable is normally made from a copper
braid. This enables the feeder cable to be flexible which would not be the case if the
outer conductor was solid, although in some varieties made for particular applications
it is. To improve the screening double or even triple screened feeder cables are
sometimes used. Normally this is accomplished by placing one braid directly over
another although in some instances a copper foil or tape outer may be used. By using
additional layers of screening, the levels of stray pick-up and radiation are
considerably reduced. The loss is marginally lower.

4. Outer protecting jacket or sheath Finally there is a final cover or outer sheath to the
feeder cable. This serves little electrical function, but can prevent earth loops forming.
It also gives a vital protection needed to prevent dirt and moisture attacking the cable,
and prevent the feeder cable from being damaged by other mechanical means.


3.4 HOW RF FEEDER CABLE WORKS
A feeder cable carries current in both the inner and the outer conductors. These
current are equal and opposite and as a result all the fields are confined within the cable and it
neither radiates nor picks up signals.
This means that the cable operates by propagating an electromagnetic wave inside the
cable. As there are no fields outside the feeder cable it is not affected by nearby objects.
Accordingly it is ideal for applications where the RF cable has to be routed through or around
buildings or close to many other objects. This is a particular advantage of coaxial feeder
when compared with other forms of feeder such as two wire (open wire, or twin) feeders
refers to the technique of transmitting information over microwave frequencies, using various
integrated technologies. The portion of the microwave spectrum called millimeter wave is
highly susceptible to attenuation by the atmosphere (especially during wet weather). The term
SHF corresponds to "MICROWAVE" Cent metric waves. As a convention frequencies,
above 1 GHz and up to 40 GHz are termed as Microwave. However, most of the m/w
systems available are in the range of 1 to 18 GHz.
3.5 RF JUMPER CABLE

RF Jumper cables serve its varied purposes as a connector between main feeders and
antennas. Also, these jumpers can be connected in between main feeders and RF equipment,
such as telecom tower, BTS, antenna feeder system.
1.5.1 Application: Used for connection between Antenna and Feeder Cable, connecting
between Cabinet and Feeder Cable
1.5.2 Features: a. Excellent VSWR Performance
b. Flexibility and small bending diameters
c. Complete weatherproof
d. Available in any cable length with a large variety of connector
combination

3.6 VSWR AND ITS MEASUREMENTS
Standing-wave ratio (SWR) is a mathematical expression of the non-uniformity of an
electromagnetic field (EM field) on a transmission line such as coaxial cable. Usually, SWR
is defined as the ratio of the maximum radio-frequency (RF) voltage to the minimum RF
voltage along the line. This is also known as the voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR). Under
ideal conditions, the RF voltage on a signal transmission line is the same at all points on the
line. The ideal VSWR is therefore 1:1. (Often the SWR value is written simply in terms of
the first number, or numerator, of the ratio because the second number, or denominator, is
always 1.) When the line and load impedances are identical and the SWR is 1, all of the RF
power that reaches a load from a transmission line is utilized by that load. If the impedance of
the load is not identical to the impedance of the transmission line, the load does not absorb all
the RF power that reaches it. Instead, some of the RF power is sent back toward the signal
source when the signal reaches the point where the line is connected to the load. This is
known as reflected power or reverse power.

The VSWR on a transmission line is mathematically related to the ratio of reflected power to
forward power. In general, the higher the ratio of reflected power to forward power, the
greater is the VSWR. The converse is also true. When the SWR on a transmission line is
high, the power loss in the line is greater than the loss that occurs when the VSWR is 1. For
this reason, RF engineers strive to minimize the VSWR on communications transmission
lines. A high VSWR can have other undesirable effects, too, such as transmission-line
overheating or breakdown of the dielectric material separating the line conductors. The
permissible value of the VSWR is 1.3 maximum.
3.6.1 VSWR MEASUREMENTS

Regardless of the calibration method used, the frequency range for the desired
measurements must be set before calibrating the site Master. The following procedure selects
the frequency range for the calibration.

Step 1. Press the FREQ/DIST key.
Step 2. Press the F1 soft key.
Step 3. Enter the desired start frequency using the key pad or the Up/Down arrow key.
Step 4. Press ENTER to set F1 to the desired frequency.
Step 5. Press the F2 soft key.
Step 6. Enter the desired stop frequency using the keypad or the Up/Down arrow key.
Step 7. Press ENTER to set F2 to the desired frequency.

3.6.2 CALIBRATION
For accurate results, the Site Master must be calibrated before making any
measurements. The Site Master must be re-calibrated whenever the setup frequency changes
or when the test port extension cable is removed or replaced.

Step 1. Select the appropriate frequency range, as described in the procedure above.
Step 2. Press the START CAL key. The massage CONNECT OPEN or InstaCal to RF out
Port will appear in the display.
Step 3. Connect the InstaCal module to the RF Out port.
Step 4. Press the ENTER key. The Site Master senses the InstalCal module and
automatically calibrates the unit using the OSL (Open, Short & Load) procedure. The
calibration should take about 45 seconds.
Step 5. Verify that the calibration has been properly performed by checking that the CAL
ON! Message is displayed in the upper left corner of the display.
3.6.3 DISTANCE TO FAULT VSWR MEASUREMENT
Step 1. Press the FREQ/DIST key. Press the MODE key.
Step 2. Set the D1 and D2 values. The Site Master default for D1 is zero.
Step 3. Select DTF-SWR using the Up/Down arrow key and press ENTER.
Step 4. Connect the Test Port Extension cable to the RF port and calibrate the Site Master.
Step 5. Save the calibration set up.
Step 6. Connect the Device under Test to the Site Master Phase stable Test Port Extension
cable. A trace will be displayed on the screen as long as the Site Master is in sweep
mode.
Step 7. The Value of VSWR & Distance from the site master will be displayed.


3.7 SUMMARY

RF feeder cable is used to feed antennas and deliver radio frequency power from BTS
to Antenna. RF Jumper cables serve its varied purposes as a connector between main feeders
and antennas. Also, these jumpers can be connected in between main feeders and RF
equipment, such as telecom tower, BTS, antenna feeder system. VSWR is defined as the ratio
of the maximum radio-frequency (RF) voltage to the minimum RF voltage along the line.

Q. 1 The radius of the constant SWR circle is

a) Voltage SWR b) current SWR c) Both d) None

Q.2 In the bench the source is always followed by

a) Attenuator b) Isolator c) Wave meter d) Detector

Q.3 The centre conductor of the RF feeder is almost universally made of

a) Iron b) Copper c) Silver d) Aluminum
b)
Q.4 In the bench the source is modulated by a frequency

a) 1 KHz b) 10 KHz c) 100 KHz d) None33.

Q.5 Tunable probe exists over / in

a) VSWR meter b) Slotted section c) Attenuator d) None34.

Q.6 The method used to measure high VSWR is

a) Slotted line method b) Double minimum method c) Both d) None35.

Q.7 Low VSWR method can be used to measure VSWR up to

a) ten b) five c) three d) None

Q.8 What is standard VSWR within mobile communications

a) 1 b) 1.5 c) 2.5 d) None

Q.9 If the RF connector is not terminated properly on the feeder cable, which is
connected to the antenna, then it will result in

a) Power amp will become faulty b) The Radiated power will become low c) Both
d) None.

Q.10 The device which can convert wire-propagated waves into space propagated waves

a) Antenna b) Reflector c) Feeder Cable d) None.

Question No. Answer Question No. Answer
1 C 6 B
2 B 7 A
3 B 8 B
4 A 9 B
5 B 10 A

www.datasheetarchive.com
tutorials.telecomseva.com
www.datasheetarchive.com
www.leoni.com
www.antenna-theory.com
www.aeroflex.com
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www.edaboard.com

Mobile Communication System (MCS) Cellular Concept

4 CELLULAR CONCEPTS
STRUCTURE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 CELLS
4.3 CELLULAR SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
4.4 FREQUENCY REUSE
4.6 REFERENCES:

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Traditional mobile service was structured similar to television broadcasting: One very
powerful transmitter located at the highest spot in an area would broadcast in a radius of up to
fifty kilometers. The Cellular concept structured the mobile telephone network in a different
way. Instead of using one powerful transmitter many low-powered transmitter were placed
through out a coverage area. For example, by dividing metropolitan region into one hundred
different areas (cells) with low power transmitters using twelve conversation (channels) each,
the system capacity could theoretically be increased from twelve conversations using one
hundred low power transmitters.
The cellular concept employs variable low power levels, which allows cells to be sized
according to subscriber density and demand of a given area. As the populations grows, cells
can be added to accommodate that growth. Frequencies used in one cell cluster can be reused
in other cells. Conversations can be handed over from cell to cell to maintain constant phone
service as the user moves between cells.
Objective
The cellular system design was pioneered by during70s by Bell Laboratories in the United
States, and the initial realization was known as AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service).
The AMPS cellular service was available in United States in 1983. AMPS is essentially
generation 1 analog cellular system in contrast to generation 2 digital cellular systems of
GSM and CDMA (1S-95).
4.2 CELLS
A cell is the basic geographic unit of cellular system. The term cellular comes from the
honeycomb areas into which a coverage region is divided. Cells are base stations transmitting
over small geographic areas that are represented as hexagons. Each cell size varies depending
upon landscape. Because of constraint imposed by natural terrain and man-made structures,
the true shape of cell is not a perfect hexagon.
A group of cells is called a cluster. No frequencies are reused in a cluster.
Features of Digital Cellular Systems:
Small cells
Frequency reuse

Small, battery-powered handsets
Performance of handovers
4.3 CELLULAR SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
4.3.1 GENERAL
Cellular radio systems allow the subscriber to place and receive telephone calls over the
wire-line telephone network where ever cellular coverage is provided. Roaming capabilities
extend service to users traveling outside their outside home service areas.
4.3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL CELLULAR SYSTEMS
The distinguishing features of digital cellular systems compared to other mobile radio
systems are:
Small cells
A cellular system uses many base stations with relatively small coverage radii (on the
order of a 100 m to 30 km).
Frequency reuse
The spectrum allocated for a cellular network is limited. As a result there is a limit to the
number of channels or frequencies that can be used. For this reason each frequency is
used simultaneously by multiple base-mobile pairs. This frequency reuse allows a much
higher subscriber density per MHz of spectrum than other systems. System capacity can
be further increased by reducing the cell size (the coverage area of a single base station),
down to radii as small as 200 m.
Small, battery-powered handsets In addition to supporting much higher densities than
previous systems, this approach enables the use of small, battery-powered handsets with
a radio frequency that is lower than the large mobile units used in earlier systems.
Performance of handovers
In cellular systems, continuous coverage is achieved by executing a handover (the seamless
transfer of the call from one base station to another) as the mobile unit crosses cell
boundaries. This requires the mobile to change frequencies under control of the cellular
network.

4.4 FREQUENCY REUSE
4.4.1 WHY FREQUENCY REUSE
The spectrum allocated for a cellular network is limited. As a result there is a limit to the
number of frequencies or channels that can be used. A cellular network can only provide
service to a large number of subscribers, if the channels allocated to it can be reused. Channel
reuse is implemented by using the same channels within cells located at different positions in
the cellular network service area.
Radio channels can be reused provided the separation between cells containing the same
channel set is far enough apart so that co-channel interference can be kept below acceptable
levels most of the time. Cells using the same channel set are called co-channel cells.

4.4.2 CELL CLUSTERING
Within the service area (PLMN), specific channel sets are reused at a different location
(another cell). In the example, there are 7 channel sets: A through G. Neighboring cells are
not allowed to use the same frequencies. For this reason all channel sets are used in a cluster
of neighboring cells. As there are 7 channel sets, the PLMN can be divided into clusters of 7
cells each. The figure shows three clusters.
The number of channel sets is called K. K is also called the reuse factor. In the figure, K=7.
Valid values of K can be found using equation (where i and j are integers):
K=i+j+I*j

4.4.3 OTHER CELL CLUSTERS
The more cells in a cluster, the greater the separation between co-channel cells when Other
clusters are deployed. The idea is to keep co-channel cell separation the same throughout the
system area for cells of the same size. Some valid cluster sizes that allow this are: 1, 3, 4, 7, 9
and 12.
4.4.4 PROCEDURE FOR LOCATING CO-CHANNEL CELLS
It is always possible to find cells using the same channel set, if only the value of K is known.
The following procedure is used.

Step Action
1 Use the integer values i and j from the equation, and start
With the upper left cell. Through this cell, draw the j-axis.
2 Draw the i-axis. To find the starting point for the i-axis, count j cells
down the j-axis. In the example, one has to count 2 cells down (j=2).
The positive direction of the i-axis is always two cell faces (120
degrees) relative to the positive direction of the j-axis.
3 Find the first co-channel cell. It is found by counting i cells in the positive
i-axis direction. In the example, i = 3.
4 Find the other co-locating cells by repeating the previous steps. The
Starting point is again at the upper left cell, but now choose another
Direction for the j-axis (e.g. rotate the j-axis with 60 degrees, which is
one cell face). As each cell has 6 faces, one will find 6 co-channel cells
around the starting cells. These are the nearest located co-channel
cells.

Signal attenuation With distance
Frequencies can be reused throughout a service area because radio signals typically attenuate
with distance to the base station (or mobile station). When the distance between cells using
the same frequencies becomes too small, co-channel
Interference might occur and lead to service interruption or unacceptable quality of
serviceCapacity/Performance Trade-offs :
n If K increases, then performance increases
n If K increases, then call capacity decreases per cell
The number of sites to cover a given area with a given high traffic density, and hence the cost
of the infrastructure, is determined directly by the reuse factor and the number of traffic
channels that can be extracted from the available spectrum. These two factors are

compounded in what is called spectral efficiency of the system. Not all systems allow the
same performance in this domain: they depend in particular on the robustness of the radio
transmission scheme against interference, but also on the use of a number of technical tricks,
such as reducing transmission during the silences of a speech communication. The spectral
efficiency, together with the constraints on the cell size, determines also the possible
compromises between the capacity and the cost of the infrastructure. All this explains the
importance given to spectral efficiency.
Many technical tricks to improve spectral efficiency were conceived during the system design
and have been introduced in GSM. They increase the complexity, but this is balanced by the
economical advantages of a better efficiency. The major points are the following:
The control of the transmitted power on the radio path aims at minimizing the average power
broadcast by mobile stations as well as by base stations, whilst keeping transmission quality
above a given threshold. This reduces the level of interference caused to the other
communications;
Frequency hopping improves transmission quality at slow speeds through frequency
diversity, and improves spectral efficiency through interferer diversity;
Discontinuous transmission, where by transmission is suppressed when possible, allows a
reduction in the interference level of other communications. Depending on the type of user
information transmitted, it is possible to derive the need for effective transmission. In the case
of speech, the mechanism called VAD (Voice Activity Detection) allows transmission
requirements to be reduced by an important factor (typically, reduced by half);
The mobile assisted handover, whereby the mobile station provides measurements
concerning neighboring cells, enables efficient handover decision algorithms aimed at
minimizing the interference generated by the cell (whilst keeping the transmission quality
above some threshold).

1. How cellular concepts increase the capacity of the network?
2. The cellular system design was pioneered by during70s by
______________________________in the United States, and the initial realization
was known as _____________________________________________.
3. List out the characteristics of digital cellular systems?
4. Why frequency reuse is done.
5. What is co-channel and adjacent channel?
6. What is discontinuous transmission?
7. Explain VAD?
8. Explain cell clustering with a formula.
9. Suggest the ways in which interference can be reduced in mobile network.
10. Explain the trade-off between capacity and coverage.

4.6 REFERENCES:
1. The GSM system for mobile communication-Michel Mouly & Marie-
Bernadette Pautet.
2. GSM system Engineering-Asha Mehrotra (Artech House Publisher).

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Mobile Communication System (MCS) Overview of Mobile Communication

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