Pronouns

Pronouns are words we use in the place of a full noun.

There are many different kinds of pronouns.
personal pronouns
it and there
you and they
possessive pronouns (see possessives:- pronouns)
this, that, these and those
one and ones
questions
reflexive pronouns
reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another
indefinite pronouns
relative pronouns
personal pronouns
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ronouns - personal pronouns (!, me, you etc)
Pronouns are words we use in the place of a full noun.
"e have #oth subject and object pronouns:

Subject Object
! me
you you
he him
she her
it it
we us
Subject Object
you you
they them

"e use he/him to refer to men, and she/her to refer to women. "hen we are not sure if we are
talkin$ a#out a man or a woman we use they/them.
This is %ack. He&s my #rother. ! don&t think you have met him.
This is 'n$ela. (he&s my sister. Have you met her #efore)
Talk to a friend. 'sk them to help you.
*ou could $o to a doctor. They mi$ht help you.
Subject pronouns
"e use su#+ect pronouns as subject of the verb:
I like your dress.
You are late.
He is my friend
It is rainin$
She is on holiday
We live in ,n$land.
They come from -ondon.

Warning
.emem#er: ,n$lish clauses always have a su#+ect:
His father has +ust retired. "as a teacher. / He was a teacher.
!&m waitin$ for my wife. !s late. / She is late.
!f there is no other su#+ect we use it or there. "e call this a dummy subject.
Object pronouns
"e use o#+ect pronouns:
0 as the o#+ect of the ver#:
1an you help me please)
! can see you.
(he doesn&t like him.
! saw her in town today.
"e saw them in town yesterday, #ut they didn&t see us.
0 after prepositions:
(he is waitin$ for me.
!&ll $et it for you.
2ive it to him.
"hy are you lookin$ at her)
3on&t take it from us.
!&ll speak to them.
it and there
,n$lish clauses always have a su#+ect:
His father has +ust retired. "as a teacher. / He was a teacher.
!&m waitin$ for my wife. !s late. / She is late.
-ook at the time4 !s half past two./ !t&s half past two.
except for the imperative see more!
"o away.
Play it a$ain please.
If we have no other su#+ect we use there or it.
there
"e use there as a dummy subject with part of the ver# be followed #y a noun phrase. (see
1lauses, sentences and phrases):
0 to introduce a new topic:
There is a meetin$ this evenin$. !t will start at seven.
There has been an accident. ! hope no one is hurt.
0 with numbers or #uantities:
There was a lot of rain last ni$ht.
There must have been more than five hundred in the audience.
0 to say where somethin$ is:
There used to be a play$round at the end of the street.
There are fairies at the #ottom of the $arden.
! wonder if there will be anyone at home.
0 with an indefinite pronoun or expressions of #uantity and the to-infinitive:
There is nothin$ to do in the villa$e.
There was plenty to read in the apartment
There was nothin$ to watch on television.
There is a lot of work to do
!f we want to show the su#+ect of the to-infinitive we use for:
There is nothing for the children to do in the villa$e.
There was plenty for us to read in the apartment
There was nothing for them to watch on television.
There is a lot of work for you to do.
0 with an indefinite pronoun or expressions of #uantity and an -ing ver#:
There is someone waitin$ to see you.
There were a lot of people shoutin$ and wavin$.
"e use a singular ver# if the noun phrase is singular:
There is a meetin$ this evenin$. !t will start at seven.
There was a lot of rain last ni$ht.
There is someone waitin$ to see you.
"e use a plural ver# if the noun phrase is plural:
There are more than twenty people waitin$ to see you.
There were some #iscuits in the cup#oard.
There were a lot of people shoutin$ and wavin$.
It
"e use it to talk a#out:
0 times and dates:
It&s nearly one o&clock.
It&s my #irthday.
0 weather:
It&s rainin$.
It&s a lovely day.
It was $ettin$ cold.
0 to $ive an opinion a#out a place:
It$s very cold in here.
It will be nice when we $et home.
It$s very comfortable in my new apartment.
0 to $ive an opinion followed #y to%infinitive:
It$s nice to meet you.
It will be great to $o on holiday.
It was interesting to meet your #rother at last.
0 to $ive an opinion followed #y an -ing verb:
It$s great livin$ in (pain.
It$s awful drivin$ in this heavy traffic.
It can be hard wor& lookin$ after youn$ children.
'sing (it( to tal& about people
"e use it to talk a#out ourselves:
0 on the telephone:
Hello. It&s 2eor$e.
0 when people cannot see us:
56ary knocks on door7 It&s me. It&s 6ary.
"e use it to talk a#out other people:
0 when we point them out for the first time:
-ook. It$s (ir aul 6c1artney.
"ho&s that) ! think it$s %ohn&s #rother.
0 when we cannot see them and we ask them for their name:
5telephone rin$s, we pick it up7 Hello. "ho is it)
5someone knocks on door. "e say:7 "ho is it)
this) that) these and those
pronouns: this, that, these and those
Why do we use this and these*
"e use this (sin$ular) and these (plural) as pronouns:
- to talk a#out people or thin$s near us:
This is a nice cup of tea.
"hose shoes are these)
- to introduce people:
This is %anet.
These are my friends, %ohn and 6ichael.
"'.8!82:
"e don&t say These are John and Michael.
"e say This is John and this is Michael.
- to introduce ourselves to #e$in a conversation on the phone:
Hello, this is 3avid, 1an ! speak to (ally)
Why do we use that and those*
"e use that (sin$ular) and those (plural):
- to talk a#out thin$s that are not near us:
"hat&s that)
This is our house, and that&s .e#ecca&s house over there.
Those are very expensive shoes.
- "e also use that to refer #ack to somethin$ someone said or did:
- (hall we $o to the cinema)
- *es, that&s a $ood idea.
- !&ve $ot a new +o#.
- That&s $reat.
- !&m very tired.
- "hy is that)
this) these) that, those with nouns
"e also use this, these, that and those with nouns to show proximity
"e use this and these for people or thin$s near us:
"e have lived in this house for twenty years.
Have you read all of these #ooks)
9 and that and those for people or thin$s that are not near us:
"ho lives in that house)
"ho are those people)
one and ones
"e use one (sin$ular) and ones (plural) to avoid unnecessary repetition.
(ee those two $irls) Helen is the tall one and %ane is the short one.
"hich is your car, the red one or the #lue one)
6y trousers are torn. ! need some new ones.
(ee those two $irls. Helen is the one on the left.
-et&s look at the photo$raphs. The ones you took in aris.
"e often use them after Which ... in questions:
*ou can #orrow a #ook. "hich one do you want)
There are lots of #ooks here. "hich ones are yours)
#uestions
Which #uestion word to use*
"e use who to ask questions a#out people:
Who is that)
Who lives here)
Who did you see)
"e use whose to ask a#out possession:
Whose coat is this) 5or7 Whose is this coat)
Whose #ook is that) 5or7 Whose is that #ook)
Whose #a$s are those) 5or7 Whose are those #a$s)
"e use what to ask questions a#out things:
What is that)
What do you want)
"e use which to ask someone to choose somethin$:
Which came first, the chicken or the e$$)
!&ve $ot two #ooks. Which do you want)
"e can also use what and which with nouns:
What subjects did you study at school)
What newspaper do you read)
Which newspaper do you read : the Times or the 2uardian)
Which boo& do you want)
Which one is yours)
+uestions with prepositions,
;uestions endin$ in prepositions are very common in ,n$lish. 'fter Who, Which or What we
often have a preposition at the end of the sentence:
Who does this #ook #elon$ to)
What are you lookin$ for)
Which university did you $o to)
What country do you come from)
refle-ive pronouns
The reflexive pronouns are:

Singular, myself - yourself - himself - herself - itself
Plural, ourselves - yourselves - themselves
When we use a refle-ive pronoun
"e use a reflexive pronoun:
0 as a direct object when the object is the same as the subject of the ver#:
I am teachin$ myself to play the piano.
<e careful with that knife. You mi$ht cut yourself.
"e can use a reflexive pronoun as direct o#+ect with most transitive ver#s, #ut these are the most
common:
amuse #lame cut dry en+oy help
hurt introduce kill prepare satisfy teach

(ome ver#s change their meaning sli$htly when they have a reflexive pronoun as direct o#+ect:
"ould you like to help yourself to another drink)
= Would you like to take another drink.
! wish the children would #ehave themselves.
= I wish the children would behave well.
He found himself lyin$ #y the side of the road.
= He was surprised when he realised that he was at the side of the road.
! saw myself as a famous actor.
= I imagined that I was a famous actor.
(he applied herself to the +o# of mendin$ the li$hts.
= She worked very hard to mend the lights.
He #usied himself in the kitchen.
= He worked busily in the kitchen.
! had to content myself with a few ,uros.
= I had to be satisfied with a few uros.
"e do not use a reflexive pronoun after ver#s which descri#e thin$s people usually do for
themselves, such as wash,shave, dress:
He washed 5himself7 in cold water.
He always shaved 5himself7 #efore $oin$ out in the evenin$.
6ichael dressed 5himself7 and $ot ready for the party.
"e only use reflexives with these ver#s for emphasis:
He dressed himself in spite of his injuries.
She$s old enough to wash herself.
0 as indirect object when the indirect object is the same as the subject of the ver#:
"ould you like to pour yourself a drink.
"e&ve #rou$ht ourselves somethin$ to eat.
0 as the object of a preposition when the o#+ect refers to the subject of the clause:
They had to cook for themselves.
He was feelin$ very sorry for himself.
Warning
<ut we use personal pronouns, not reflexives, after prepositions of place...
He had a suitcase beside him.
Warning
and after with when it means >accompanied by>:
(he had a few friends with her.

"e use a reflexive pronoun...
0 with the preposition by when we want to show that someone did
somethin$ alone and?or without any help:
He lived by himself in an enormous house.
(he walked home by herself.
The children $ot dressed by themselves.
! prepared the whole meal by myself.
0 to emphasise the person or thin$ we are referrin$ to:
.endal itself is quite a small town.
especially if we are talkin$ a#out someone very famous:
Sir Paul /c0artney himself san$ the final son$.
"e often put the reflexive pronoun at the end of the clause when we are usin$ it for emphasis:
I #aked the #read myself.
She mended the car herself
indefinite pronouns
The indefinite pronouns are:

somebody someone something
any#ody anyone anythin$
no#ody no one nothin$
every#ody everyone everythin$

"e use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or thin$s without sayin$ exactly who or what they
are. "e use pronouns endin$ in -body or -one for people, and pronouns endin$ in -
thing for things:
1verybody en+oyed the concert.
! opened the door #ut there was no one at home.
!t was a very clear day. "e could see everything.
"e use a singular verb after an indefinite pronoun:
,very#ody loves (ally.
,verythin$ was ready for the party.
"hen we refer bac& to an indefinite pronoun we normally use a plural pronoun:
1verybody en+oyed the concert. They stood up and clapped.
! will tell somebody that dinner is ready. They have #een waitin$ a lon$ time.
"e can add -'s to an indefinite pronoun to make a possessive.
They were stayin$ in somebody$s house.
!s this anybody$s coat)
"e use indefinite pronouns with no- as the subject in negative clauses (not pronouns with any.)
'ny#ody didn&t come // 2obody came.
"e do not use another ne$ative in a clause with nobody, no one or nothing:
8o#ody came.
8othin$ happened.
"e use else after indefinite pronouns to refer to people or thin$s in addition to the ones we
already mentioned.
'll the family came, #ut no one else.
!f 6ichael can&t come we&ll ask some#ody else.
(o that@s e$$s, peas and chips. 3o you want anythin$ else)
relative pronouns
The relative pronouns are:
Subject Object Possessive
who who(m) whose
Subject Object Possessive
which which whose
that that

"e use who and whom for people, and which for thin$s.
Ar we can use that for people or thin$s.
"e use relative pronouns:
0 after a noun, to ma&e it clear which person or thin$ we are talkin$ a#out:
the house that %ack #uilt
the woman who discovered radium
an ei$ht-year-old #oy who attempted to ro# a sweet shop
0 to tell us more a#out a person or thin$:
6y mother, who was #orn overseas, has always #een a $reat traveller.
-ord Thompson, who is BC, has +ust retired.
"e had fish and chips, which is my favourite meal.
<ut we do not use that as a subject in this kind of relative clause.
"e use whose as the possessive form of who:
This is 2eor$e, whose #rother went to school with me.
"e sometimes use whom as the object of a ver# or preposition:
This is 2eor$e, whom you met at our house last year.
This is 2eor$e&s #rother, with whom ! went to school.
<ut nowadays we normally use who:
This is 2eor$e, who you met at our house last year.
This is 2eor$e&s #rother, who ! went to school with.
"hen whom or which have a preposition the preposition can come at the beginning of the
clause...
! had an uncle in 2ermany, from who5m7 ! inherited a #it of money.
"e #ou$ht a chainsaw, with which we cut up all the wood.
9 or at the end of the clause:
! had an uncle in 2ermany who5m7 ! inherited a #it of money from.
"e #ou$ht a chainsaw, which we cut all the wood up with.
"e can use that at the #e$innin$ of the clause:
! had an uncle in 2ermany that ! inherited a #it of money from.
"e #ou$ht a chainsaw that we cut all the wood up with.
3eterminers and #uantifiers
2eneral and specific determiners
3eterminers are words which come at the #e$innin$ of the noun phrase.
They tell us whether the noun phrase is specific or $eneral.
3eterminers are either specific or general
Specific determiners,
The specific determiners are:
the definite article: the
possessives: my, your, his, her, itsD our, their, whose
demonstratives: this, that, these, those
interro$atives: which
"e use a specific determiner when we #elieve the listener4reader &nows exactly what we are
referrin$ to:
1an you pass me the salt please)
-ook at those lovely flowers.
Thank you very much for your letter.
Whose coat is this)
"eneral determiners,
The $eneral determiners are:
a; an; any; another; other; what
"hen we are talkin$ a#out thin$s in $eneral and the listener?reader does not know exactly what
we are referrin$ to, we can use a uncount noun or a plural noun with no determiner:
/il& is very $ood for you. (= uncount noun)
Health and education are very important. (= E uncount nouns)
"irls normally do #etter in school than boys. (= plural nouns with no determiner)
9 or you can use a sin$ular noun with the indefinite article a or an:
5 woman was lifted to safety #y a helicopter.
5 man clim#in$ near#y saw the accident.
"e use the $eneral determiner any with a sin$ular noun or an uncount noun when we are talkin$
a#out all of those people or thin$s:
!t&s very easy. 5ny child can do it. (= 'll children can do it)
"ith a full licence you are allowed to drive any car.
! like #eef, lam#, pork - any meat.
"e use the $eneral determiner another to talk a#out an additional person or thin$:
"ould you like another $lass of wine)
The plural form of another is other:
! spoke to %ohn, Helen and a few other friends.
;uantifiers
"e use quantifiers when we want to $ive someone information a#out the num#er of somethin$:
how much or how many.
interrogative determiners, which and what
"e use >which> as a determiner to ask a question a#out a specific $roup of people or thin$s:
"hich restaurant did you $o to)
"hich countries in (outh 'merica have you visited)
"hen we are askin$ a general question we use >what> as a determiner:
"hat films do you like)
"hat university did you $o to)
indefinite article, a and an
F. "e use the indefinite article, a?an, with count nouns when the hearer4reader does not
&now exactly which one we are referrin$ to:
olice are searchin$ for a FG year-old $irl.
E. "e also use it to show the person or thin$ is one of a group:
(he is a pupil at -ondon .oad (chool.
olice have #een searchin$ for a FG year-old $irl who has #een missin$ since
Hriday.
%enny <rown, a pupil at -ondon .oad (chool, is descri#ed as F.C metres tall
with short #londe hair.
(he was last seen wearin$ a #lue +acket, a #lue and white #louse and dark
#lue +eans and #lue shoes.
'nyone who has information should contact the local police on IJIIKGLBJF.
K. "e do not use an indefinite article with plural nouns and uncount nouns:
(he was wearin$ #lue shoes. (= plural noun)
(he has short #londe hair. (= uncount noun)
olice have #een searchin$ for a FG year-old $irl who has #een missin$ since
Hriday.
%enny <rown, a pupil at -ondon .oad (chool, is descri#ed as F.C metres tall
with short #londe hair.
(he was last seen wearin$ a #lue +acket, a #lue and white #louse and dark
#lue +eans and #lue shoes.
'nyone who has information should contact the local police on IJIIKGLBJF.

G. "e use a?an to say what someone is or what job they do:
6y #rother is a doctor.
2eor$e is a student.
M. "e use a?an with a sin$ular noun to say somethin$ a#out all things of that kind:
' man needs friends. (= 'll men need friends)
' do$ likes to eat meat. (= 'll do$s like to eat meat)
definite article, the
The definite article the is the most frequent word in ,n$lish.
"e use the definite article in front of a noun when we #elieve the hearer4reader &nows exactly
what we are referrin$ to.
0 #ecause there is only one:
The Pope is visitin$ .ussia.
The moon is very #ri$ht toni$ht.
The Shah of Iran was deposed in FLBL.
This is why we use the definite article with a superlative ad+ective:
He is the tallest boy in the class.
!t is the oldest building in the town.
0 #ecause there is only one in that place or in those surroundin$s:
"e live in a small villa$e next to the
church.
= (the church in our villa$e)
3ad, can ! #orrow the car) =
(the car that #elon$s to our
family)
"hen we stayed at my $randmother&s
house we went to the #each every day.
=
(the #each near my
$randmother&s house)
-ook at the #oy in the #lue shirt over
there.
= (the #oy ! am pointin$ at)

0 #ecause we have already mentioned it:
' woman who fell FI metres from Hi$h eak was lifted to safety #y a helicopter. The
woman fell while clim#in$.
The rescue is the latest in a series of incidents on Hi$h eak. !n %anuary last year two men
walkin$ on the pea&were killed in a fall.
"e also use the definite article:
0 to say somethin$ a#out all the things referred to #y a noun:
The wolf is not really a dan$erous animal (= "olves are not really dan$erous animals)
The kan$aroo is found only in 'ustralia (= Nan$aroos are found only in 'ustralia)
The heart pumps #lood around the #ody. (= Hearts pump #lood around #odies)
"e use the definite article in this way to talk a#out musical instruments:
%oe plays the piano really well.(= 2eor$e can play any piano)
(he is learnin$ the $uitar.(= (he is learnin$ to play any $uitar)
0 to refer to a system or service:
How lon$ does it take on the train.
! heard it on the radio.
*ou should tell the police.
0 "ith adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed to talk a#out groups of people:
-ife can #e very hard for the poor.
! think the rich should pay more taxes.
(he works for a $roup to help the disabled.
The definite article with names,
"e do not normally use the definite article with names:
"illiam (hakespeare wrote Hamlet.
aris is the capital of Hrance.
!ran is in 'sia.
<ut we do use the definite article with:
0 countries whose names include words like kingdom, states or republic:
the Onited Nin$domD the kin$dom of 8epalD the Onited (tatesD the eople&s .epu#lic of
1hina.
0 countries which have plural nouns as their names:
the 8etherlandsD the hilippines
0 geographical features, such as mountain ran$es, $roups of islands, rivers, seas, oceans and
canals:
the HimalayasD the 1anariesD the 'tlanticD the 'tlantic AceanD the 'maPonD the anama
1anal.
0 newspapers:
The TimesD The "ashin$ton ost
0 well known buildings or wor&s of art:
the ,mpire (tate <uildin$D the Ta+ 6ahalD the 6ona -isaD the (unflowers
0 organisations:
the Onited 8ationsD the (eamen&s Onion
0 hotels, pubs and restaurantsQ:
the .itPD the .itP HotelD the Nin$&s HeadD the 3R+S Tu
Q8ote: "e do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or restaurant is the name
of the owner, e.$.,<rown&sD <rown&s HotelD 6orel&sD 6orel&s .estaurant, etc.
0 families:
the A#amasD the %acksons
#uantifiers
"e use quantifiers when we want to $ive someone information a#out the num#er of somethin$:
how much or how many.
(ometimes we use a #uantifier in the place of a determiner:
6ost children start school at the a$e of five.
"e ate some #read and #utter.
"e saw lots of #irds.
"e use these quantifiers with both count and uncount nouns:
all any enou$h less a lot of lots of
more most no none of some

and some more collo#uial forms:
plenty of heaps of a load of loads of tons of etc.

(ome quantifiers can #e used only with count nouns:
#oth each either (a) few fewer neither several

and some more collo#uial forms:
a couple of hundreds of thousands of etc.


(ome quantifiers can #e used only with uncount nouns:
a little (not) much a #it of

'nd, particularly with abstract nouns such as time, money, trouble, etc:, we often use:
a $reat deal of a $ood deal of

/embers of groups
*ou can put a noun after a quantifier when you are talkin$ a#out members of a group in
$eneral9
6ew snakes are dan$erous.
7oth #rothers work with their father.
! never have enough money.
9#ut if you are talkin$ a#out a specific $roup of people or thin$s, use of the as well
6ew of the snakes are dan$erous.
5ll of the children live at home.
He has spent all of his money.
8ote that, if we are talkin$ a#out two people or thin$s we use the
quantifiers both, either and neither:
One supermar&et Two supermar&ets8
/ore than two
supermar&ets
The supermarket
was closed
The supermarket
wasn@t open
! don&t think the
supermarket was
<oth the supermarkets were
closed.
8either of the supermarkets
was open.
! don&t think either of the
supermarkets was open.
'll the supermarkets were
closed
8one of the supermarkets
were open
! don@t think any of the
supermarkets were open
One supermar&et Two supermar&ets8
/ore than two
supermar&ets
open.

!"ouns with either and neither have a singular verb.
(in$ular quantifiers:
"e use every or each with a sin$ular noun to mean all:

There was a party in every
street.
= There were parties in all the streets.
1very shop was decorated with
flowers.
=
'll the shops were decorated with
flowers.
1ach child was $iven a priPe. = 'll the children were $iven a priPe.
There was a priPe in each
competition.
=
There were priPes in all the
competitions.

"e often use every to talk a#out times like days, weeks and years:
"hen we were children we had holidays at our $randmother&s every year.
"hen we stayed at my $randmother&s house we went to the #each every day.
"e visit our dau$hter every 0hristmas.
<OT: "e do not use a determiner with every and each. "e do not say:
The every shop was decorated with flowers.
The each child was $iven a priPe.
possessives, nouns
"e use a noun with !s with a singular noun to show possession:
"e are havin$ a party at 9ohn$s house.
6ichael drove his friend$s car.
"e use s! with a plural noun endin$ in -s:
This is my parents$ house.
Those are ladies$ shoes.
<ut we use !s with other plural nouns:
These are men$s shoes.
0hildren$s clothes are very expensive.
"e can use a possessive instead of a noun phrase to avoid repeatin$ words:
!s that %ohn&s car) 8o, it&s 6ary&s 5car7. / 8o, it&s 6ary&s.
"hose coat is this) !t&s my wife&s 5coat7. / !t&s my wife&s.

possessives, adjectives
1an you match these possessive ad+ectives to the ri$ht personal pronouns)
its, your, my, their, our, her, his

Subject Object Possessive
! me
*ou you
He him
(he her
!t it
"e us
They them

"e use possessive ad+ectives:
0 to show something belongs to some#ody:
That&s our house.
/y car is very old.
0 for relations and friends:
/y mother is a doctor.
How old is your sister)
0 for parts of the #ody:
He&s #roken his arm.
(he&s washin$ her hair.
! need to clean my teeth.
possessives, pronouns
0an you match these possessive pronouns to the right personal pronouns and possessive
adjectives*
yours) mine) theirs) ours) hers) his, its
Subject Object Possessive adjectives
Possessive pronouns
! me my
*ou you your
He him his
(he her her
!t it its
"e us our
They them their

"e can use a possessive pronoun instead of a noun phrase:
!s that %ohn&s car) 8o, it&s 5my car7 / 8o, it&s mine.
"hose coat is this) !s it 5your coat7) / !s it yours)
Her coat is $rey, 5my coat7is
#rown
Her coat is $rey, mine is #rown.

"e can use possessive pronouns after of.
"e can say:
(usan is one of my friends.
or
(usan is a friend of mine.
#ut not
(usan is a friend of me
or
! am one of Susan:s friends.
or
! am a friend of Susan:s.
#ut not
! am a friend of (usan
possessives, #uestions
"e use whose to ask questions:
Pattern 5 Pattern 7
"hose coat is this) or "hose is this coat)
"hose #ook is that) or "hose is that #ook)
"hose #a$s are those) or "hose are those #a$s)
5djectives
"e use ad+ectives to describe nouns.
6ost ad+ectives can #e used in front of a noun9:
They have a beautiful house.
"e saw a very e-citing film last ni$ht.
or after a lin& verb like be, look or feel:
Their house is beautiful.
That film loo&s interesting.
adjectives, %ed and %ing
' lot of ad+ectives are made from ver#s #y addin$ %ing or %ed:
%ing adjectives,
The commonest #ing ad+ectives are:
amusin$ shockin$ surprisin$ fri$htenin$
interestin$ disappointin$ excitin$ tirin$
worryin$ #orin$ terrifyin$ annoyin$
!f you call somethin$ interesting you mean it interests you.
!f you call somethin$ frightening you mean it frightens you.
! read a very interesting article in the newspaper today.
That 3racula film was a#solutely terrifying.
%ed adjectives,
The commonest :ed ad+ectives are:
annoyed #ored fri$htened worried
tired closed excited deli$hted
disappointed
!f somethin$ annoys you, you can say you feel annoyed. !f somethin$ interests you, you can say
you are interested.
The children had nothin$ to do. They were bored.
order of adjectives
(ometimes we use more than one ad+ective in front of a noun:
He was a nice intelli$ent youn$ man.
(he had a small round #lack wooden #ox.
Opinion adjectives,
(ome ad+ectives $ive a general opinion. "e can use these ad+ectives to descri#e almost any
noun:
$ood #ad lovely stran$e
#eautiful nice #rilliant excellent
awful important wonderful nasty

(ome ad+ectives $ive a specific opinion. "e only use these ad+ectives to descri#e particular
kinds of noun:
6ood: tastyD delicious
6urniture) buildings: comforta#leD uncomforta#le
People) animals: cleverD intelli$entD friendly
"e usually put a general opinion in front of a specific opinion:
8ice tasty soup.
' nasty uncomforta#le armchair
' lovely intelli$ent animal
Osually we put an ad+ective that $ives an opinion in front of an ad+ective that is descriptive:
a nice red dressD a silly old manD those horri#le yellow curtains
"e often have two ad+ectives in front of a noun:
a handsome youn$ manD a #i$ #lack carD that horri#le #i$ do$
(ometimes we have three ad+ectives, #ut this is unusual:
a nice handsome youn$ manD
a #i$ #lack 'merican carD
that horri#le #i$ fierce do$
!t is very unusual to have more than three ad+ectives.
'd+ectives usually come in this order:
; < = > ? @ A B
2eneral
opinion
(pecific
opinion
(iPe (hape '$e 1olour 8ationality 6aterial
"e use some ad+ectives only after a lin& verb:
afraid alive alone asleep
content $lad ill ready
sorry sure una#le well
(ome of the commonest -ed ad+ectives are normally used only after a lin& verb:
annoyed; finished; bored; pleased; thrilled
"e say:
Aur teacher was ill.
6y uncle was very $lad when he heard the news.
The policeman seemed to #e very annoyed
#ut we do not say:
"e had an ill teacher.
"hen he heard the news he was a very $lad uncle
He seemed to #e a very annoyed policeman
' few ad+ectives are used only in front of a noun:
north
south
east
west
northern
southern
eastern
western
countless
occasional
lone
eventful
indoor
outdoor
"e say:
He lives in the eastern district.
There were countless pro#lems with the new machinery.
#ut we do not say:
The district he lives in is eastern
The pro#lems with the new machinery were countless.
Try these tasks to improve your ad+ective orderin$.
0omparative and superlative adjectives
"e use comparative adjectives to descri#e people and thin$s:
This car is certainly better #ut it&s much more e-pensive.
!&m feelin$ happier now.
"e need a bigger $arden
"e use than when we want to compare one thin$ with another:
(he is two years older than me.
8ew *ork is much #i$$er than <oston.
He is a #etter player than .onaldo.
Hrance is a #i$$er country than <ritain.
"hen we want to descri#e how somethin$ or someone changes we can use two
comparatives with and:
The #alloon $ot bigger and bigger.
,verythin$ is $ettin$ more and more e-pensive.
2randfather is lookin$ older and older.
"e often use the with comparative ad+ectives to show that one thin$ depends on another:
"hen you drive faster it is more dan$erous
/ The faster you drive, the more dan$erous it is.
"hen they clim#ed hi$her it $ot colder
/ The hi$her they clim#ed, the colder it $ot.
Superlative adjectives,
"e use the with a superlative:
!t was the happiest day of my life.
,verest is the highest mountain in the world.
That&s the best film ! have seen this year.
! have three sisters, %an is the oldest and 'n$ela is the youngest .
Intensifiers
Intensifiers,
Intermediate!
"e use words like very, really and e$tremely to make ad+ectives stron$er:
It%s a very interesting story
veryone was very e$cited.
It%s a really interesting story.
veryone was e"tremely e$cited
"e call these words intensifiers. Ather intensifiers are:
ama&ingly e$ceptionally incredibly
remarkably particularly unusually
"e also use enough to say more a#out an ad+ective, #ut enough comes after its ad+ective:
If you are seventeen you are old enough to drive a car.
I can%t wear those shoes. They%re not big enough.
Intensifiers with strong adjectives,
(tron$ ad+ectives are words like:
enormous' huge = very #i$
tiny = very small
brilliant = very clever
awful( terrible( disgusting( dreadful = very #ad
certain = very sure
e$cellent( perfect( ideal( wonderful( splendid = very $ood
delicious = very tasty
"e do not normally use very with these ad+ectives. "e do not say somethin$ is >very enormous>
or someone is >very #rilliant>.
"ith stron$ ad+ectives, we normally use intensifiers like:
absolutely completely totally utterly
really e$ceptionally particularly )uite
The film was absolutely awful.
He was an e"ceptionally brilliant child.
The food smelled really disgusting.
/itigators
6iti$ators are the opposite of intensifiers. "hen we want to make an ad+ective less strong we
use these words:
fairly - rather - #uite
<y the end of the day we were rather tired.
The film wasn&t $reat #ut it was #uite excitin$.
and in informal ,n$lish: pretty
"e had a pretty $ood time at the party.
"e call these words mitigators.
Warning
#uite
"hen we use #uite with a strong adjective it means the same as absolutely:
The food was #uite awful. = The food was a#solutely awful.
's a child he was #uite #rilliant. = 's a child he was a#solutely
#rilliant.
/itigators with comparatives,
"e use these words and phrases as miti$ators:
a bit - $ust a bit - a little - a little bit - $ust a little bit - rather - slightly
(he&s a bit youn$er than ! am.
!t takes two hours on the train #ut it is a little bit lon$er #y road
This one is rather #i$$er.
"e use slightly and rather as miti$ators with comparative adjectives in front of a noun,
This is a slightly more e-pensive model than that.
This is rather bigger one than that.
5djectives as intensifiers,
"e use some ad+ectives as intensifiers:
absolute
total - complete
utter - perfect
real
"e say:
He&s a complete idiot.
They were talkin$ utter nonsense.
9 #ut we do not say:
The idiot was complete.
The nonsense they were talkin$ was utter.
noun modifiers
"e often use two nouns together to show that one thing is a part of something else:
the village churchD the car doorD the &itchen windowD the chair legD
my coat poc&etD Condon residents
Warning
"e do not use a possessive form for these thin$s. "e do not talk a#out:
The car&s doorD the kitchen&s windowD the chair&s le$
"e can use noun modifiers to show what something is made of:
a gold watchD a leather purseD a metal #ox
"e often use noun modifiers with nouns endin$ in -er and -ing:
an office workerD a +ewellery makerD a potato peelerD a shoppin$ listD a swimmin$ lessonD a
walkin$ holiday.
"e use measurements, age or value as noun modifiers:
a thirty &ilogram suitcaseD a two minute restD a five thousand euro platinum watchD
a fifty &ilometre +ourneyD
"e often put two nouns to$ether and readers4listeners have wor& out what they mean. (o:
an ice #ucket = a #ucket to keep ice in
an ice cu#e = a cu#e made of ice
an ice #reaker = a ship which #reaks ice
the ice a$e = the time when much of the ,arth was covered in ice.
(ometimes we find more than two nouns to$ether:
-ondon office workersD $rammar practice exercises
Position of noun modifiers
2oun modifiers come after adjectives,
The old newspaper seller
' tirin$ fifty kilometre +ourney

5dverbials
Why do we use adverbials?
"e use adverbs to $ive more information a#out the ver#.
"e use adverbials of manner to say how somethin$ happens or how somethin$ is done:
The children were playin$ happily.
He was drivin$ as fast as possible.
"e use adverbials of place to say where somethin$ happens:
! saw him there.
"e met in Condon.
"e use adverbials of time to say when or how often somethin$ happens:
They start work at si- thirty.
They usually $o to work #y #us.
"e use adverbials of probability to show how certain we are a#out somethin$.
Perhaps the weather will #e fine.
He is certainly comin$ to the party.
Try these tasks to practice your use of adver#ials.
How we ma&e adverbials
An adverbial can be an adverb:
He spoke angrily.
They live here.
"e will #e #ack soon.
or an adverb with an intensifier:
He spoke really angrily.
They live just here.
"e will $o #uite soon.
"e will $o as soon as possible.
or a phrase with a preposition:
He spoke in an angry voice.
They live in Condon.
"e will $o in a few minutes.
where they go in a sentence
Where do adverbials go in a sentence?
"e normally put adver#ials after the verb:
He spoke angrily.
They live just here.
"e will $o in a few minutes.
or after the object or complement:
He opened the door #uietly.
(he left the money on the table.
"e saw our friends last night.
*ou are lookin$ tired tonight.
<ut adver#ials of fre#uency (how often) usually come in front of the main ver#:
"e usually spent our holidays with our $randparents.
! have never seen "illiam at work.
<ut if we want to emphasise an adver#ial we can put it at the beginning of a clause:
Cast night we saw our friends.
In a few minutes we will $o.
Dery #uietly he opened the door.
!f we want to emphasise an adverb of manner we can put it in front of the main ver#:
He #uietly opened the door.
(he had carefully put the $lass on the shelf.
Try these tas adverbs of manner adv de mod !
Adverbs of manner are usually formed from adjectives by adding ly:
#ad / badlyD quiet / #uietlyD recent / recentlyD sudden / suddenly
#ut there are sometimes chan$es in spelling:
easy / easilyD $entle / gently
!f an ad+ective ends in %ly we use the phrase in a . way to express manner:
(illy / He #ehaved in a silly way.
Hriendly / (he spoke in a friendly way.
' few adver#s of manner have the same form as the adjective:
They all worked hard.
(he usually arrives late.
! hate drivin$ fast.
&ote* hardly and lately have different meanings:
He could hardly walk = !t was difficult for him to walk.
! haven&t seen %ohn lately = ! haven&t seen %ohn recently.
"e often use phrases with like as adver#ials of manner:
(he slept li&e a #a#y.
He ran li&e a ra##it.
5dverbs of manner and lin& verbs
"e very often use adverbials with like after link ver#s:
Her hands felt li&e ice.
!t smells li&e fresh #read.
<ut we do not use other adver#ials of manner after link ver#s. "e use adjectives instead:
They looked happily happy.
That #read smells deliciously delicious.
Try these exercises to practice your use of adver#ials of manner.
Try these tasks to practice your use of placement of adver#ials.
ks to practice your use of placement of adver#ials.
adverbials of place
We use adverbials of place to describe,
Cocation
"e use prepositions to talk a#out where someone or somethin$ is.
$amples:
He was standin$ by the table.
*ou&ll find it in the cupboard.
(i$n your name here : at the bottom of the page.
3irection
"e use adver#ials to to talk a#out the direction where someone or somethin$ is moving.
$amples:
"alk past the ban& and keep $oin$ to the end of the street.
The car door is very small so it&s difficult to $et into.
3istance
"e use adver#ials to show how far thin$s are:
$amples*
<irmin$ham is EMI kilometres from -ondon.
"e were in -ondon. <irmin$ham was EMI kilometres away.
adverbials of location
Location
"e use prepositions to talk a#out where someone or somethin$ is:
a#ove amon$ at #ehind #elow #eneath
#eside #etween #y in in #etween inside
near next to on opposite outside over
round throu$h under underneath
He was standin$ by the table.
(he lives in a villa$e near "lasgow.
*ou&ll find it in the cupboard.

"e use phrases with of as prepositions:
at the #ack of at the top of at the #ottom of at the end of
on top of at the front of in front of in the middle of
There were some flowers in the middle of the table.
(i$n your name here : at the bottom of the page.
! can&t see. *ou&re standin$ in front of me.
"e can use right as an intensifier with some of these prepositions:
He was standin$ right next to the ta#le.
There were some flowers right in the middle of the ta#le.
There&s a wood right #ehind our house.
adverbials of direction
Direction
"e also use prepositional phrases to talk a#out direction:
across alon$ #ack #ack to down into
onto out of past throu$h to towards
(he ran out of the house.
"alk past the ban& and keep $oin$ to the end of the street.
"e also use adver#s and adver# phrases for place and direction:
a#road away anywhere downstairs downwards
everywhere here indoors inside nowhere
outdoors outside somewhere there upstairs
! would love to see aris. !&ve never #een there.
The #edroom is upstairs.
!t was so cold that we stayed indoors.
"e often have a preposition at the end of a clause:
This is the room we have our meals in.
The car door is very small so it&s difficult to $et into.
! lifted the carpet and looked underneath
adverbials of distance
Distance
"e use adver#ials to show how far thin$s are:
<irmin$ham is EMI kilometres from -ondon.
<irmin$ham is EMI kilometres away from -ondon.
!t is EMI kilometres from <irmin$ham to -ondon.
(ometimes we use a preposition at the end of a clause:
"e were in -ondon. <irmin$ham was EMI kilometres away.
<irmin$ham was EMI kilometres off.
adverbials of time
5dverbials of time
"e use adver#ials of time to say:
0 when somethin$ happened:
! saw 6ary yesterday.
(he was #orn in ;EAB.
! will see you later.
There was a storm during the night.
0 for how long :
"e waited all day.
They have lived here since <FF>.
"e will #e on holiday from 9uly ;st until 5ugust =rd.
0 how often (frequency):
They usually watched television in the evenin$.
"e sometimes went to work #y car.
"e often use a noun phrase as a time adver#ial:
yesterday last week?month?year one day?week?month last (aturday
tomorrow
next
week?month?year
the day after
tomorrow
next Hriday
today this week?month?year
the day #efore
yesterday
the other
day?week?month
time and dates
We use phrases with prepositions as time adverbials:
0 "e use at with:
cloc& times: at seven o&clock - at nine thirty - at fifteen hundred hours
mealtimes: at #reakfast - at lunchtime - at teatime
9 and in these phrases:
at night % at the wee&end % at 0hristmas % at 1aster
0 "e use in with:
seasons of the year: in sprin$?summer?autumn?winter - in the sprin$
?summer?autumn?winter
years and centuries: in EIIL -in FLLJ - in the twentieth century
months: in %anuary?He#ruary?6arch etc.
parts of the day: in the mornin$ - in the afternoon - in the evenin$.
0 "e use on with:
days: on 6onday?Tuesday?"ednesday etc - on 1hristmas day - on my #irthday.
dates: on the thirty first of %uly - on %une FMth
8ote: "e say at night when we are talkin$ a#out all of the night:
"hen there is no moon it is very dark at night.
He sleeps durin$ the day and works at night.
#ut we say in the night when we are talkin$ a#out a short time durin$ the ni$ht:
He woke up twice in the night.
! heard a funny noise in the night.
"e use the adver# ago with the past simple to say how long before the time of speakin$
somethin$ happened:
! saw %im a#out three wee&s ago.
"e arrived a few minutes ago.
"e can put time phrases to$ether:
"e will meet ne-t wee& at si- o$cloc& on /onday.
! heard a funny noise at about eleven o$cloc& last night.
!t happened last wee& at seven o$cloc& on /onday night.
how long
"e use for to say how long:
"e have #een waitin$ for twenty minutes.
They lived in 6anchester for fifteen years.
"e use since with the present perfect or the past perfect to say when something started:
! have worked here since 3ecember.
They had #een watchin$ since seven o$cloc& in the morning.
"e use from to/until to say when somethin$ starts and finishes:
They stayed with us from /onday to 6riday.
"e will #e on holiday from the si-teenth until the twentieth.
how often
The commonest adver#ials of frequency are:
always never normally occasionally often
rarely seldom sometimes usually
"e usually put adver#ials of frequency in front of the main ver#:
"e often spend 1hristmas with friends.
! have never en+oyed myself so much.
#ut they usually come after the ver# be:
He was always tired in the evenin$.
"e are never late for work.
"e use the adver#ial a lot to mean often or fre#uently. !t comes at the end of the clause:
"e $o to the cinema a lot.
#ut before another time adver#ial:
"e $o to the cinema a lot at the wee&end.
"e use much with a negative to mean not often:
"e don$t $o out much. (= "e don&t $o out often)
"e use how often or ever to ask questions a#out fre#uency. 'ow often comes at
the beginning of the clause:
How often do you $o to the cinema)
How often have you #een here)
ever comes before the main ver#:
3o you ever $o to the cinema at the weekend)
Have you ever #een there)
-on$er frequency phrases, like every year or three times a day usually come at the end of the
clause:
! have an ,n$lish lesson twice a wee&.
(he $oes to see her mother every day.
already) still) yet and no longer
"e use still to show that somethin$ continues up to a time in the past present or future. !t $oes
in front of the main ver#:
The children still en+oyed playin$ $ames.
They are still livin$ next door.
"e will still #e on holiday.
9 or after the present simple or the past simple of be:
Her $randfather is still alive.
They were still unhappy.
"e use already to show that somethin$ has happened sooner than it was expected to happen.
-ike still, it comes #efore the main ver#:
The car is AN. !&ve already fixed it.
!t was early #ut they were already sleepin$.
9 or after the present simple or past simple of the ver# be:
!t was early #ut we were already tired.
"e are already late.
"e use yet in a ne$ative or interro$ative clause, usually with perfective aspect (especially in
<ritish ,n$lish), to show that somethin$ has not happened #y a particular time. yet comes at the
end of the sentence:
It was late) but they hadn$t arrived yetG
Have you fi-ed the car yet*
She won$t adverbials of probability
'dver#ials of pro#a#ility
"e use adver#ials of pro#a#ility to show how certain we are a#out somethin$. The most
frequent adver#ials of pro#a#ility are:
certainly % definitely % maybe % possibly
clearly % obviously % perhaps % probably
maybe and perhaps usually come at the beginning of the clause:
Perhaps the weather will #e fine.
/aybe it won&t rain.
Other adver#s of possi#ility usually come in front of the main verb:
He is certainly comin$ to the party.
"ill they definitely #e there)
"e will possibly come to ,n$land next year.
#ut in after am, is, are, was, were:
They are definitely at home.
(he was obviously very surprised.
have sent the email yet.
comparative adverbs
We can use comparative adverbs to show change or to make comparisons:
! for$et thin$s more often nowadays.
(he #e$an to speak more #uic&ly.
They are workin$ harder now.
"e often use than with comparative adver#s
! for$et thin$s more often than ! used to.
2irls usually work harder than #oys.
Intensifiers,
"e use these words and phrases as intensifiers with these patterns:
much - far - a lot - #uite a lot - a great deal - a good deal - a good bit - a fair bit
! for$et thin$s much more often nowadays.
/itigators,
"e use these words and phrases as miti$ators:
a bit - $ust a bit - a little - a little bit - $ust a little bit - slightly
(he #e$an to speak a bit more quickly
uncount nouns
(ome nouns in ,n$lish are uncount nouns.
"e do not use uncount nouns in the plural and we do not use them with the indefinite article,
a?an.
"e ate a lot of foods / "e ate a lot of food
"e #ou$ht some new furnitures / "e #ou$ht some new furniture
That&s a useful information / That&s useful information
"e can use some #uantifiers with uncount nouns:
He $ave me some useful advice.
They $ave us a lot of information.
Oncount nouns often refer to:
Substances: foodD waterD wineD saltD #readD iron
Human feelings or #ualities: an$erD crueltyD happinessD honestyD prideD
5ctivities: helpD sleepD travelD work
5bstract ideas: #eautyD deathD funD life
0ommon uncount nouns
There are some common nouns in ,n$lish, like accommodation, which are uncount nouns even
thou$h they haveplurals in other languages:
advice #a$$a$e equipment furniture homework information
knowled$e lu$$a$e machinery money news traffic
-et me $ive you some advice.
How much luggage have you $ot)
!f we want to make these thin$s counta#le, we use e-pressions like:
a piece of... pieces of... a #it of... #its of... an item of... items of...
-et me $ive you a piece of advice.
That&s a useful piece of equipment.
"e #ou$ht a few bits of furniture for the new apartment.
(he had six separate items of lu$$a$e.
#ut we do not use accommodation, money and traffic in this way.
common problems with count4uncount nouns
;, 'ncount nouns used as count nouns
'lthou$h substances are usually uncount nouns...
"ould you like some cheese)
0offee keeps me awake at ni$ht.
Wine makes me sleep.
... they can #e also used as count nouns:
!&d like a coffee please. = !&d like a 5cup of7 coffee.
6ay ! have a white wine. = 6ay ! have a 5$lass of7 white wine.
They sell a lot of coffees. = They sell a lot of 5different kinds of7 coffee.
! prefer white wines to red. = ! prefer 5different kinds of7 white wine to red.
They had over twenty cheeses on sale. = They had over twenty 5types of7 cheese on sale.
This is an excellent soft cheese. = This 5kind of7 soft cheese is excellent.
<, Some nouns have #oth a count and an uncount form,
"e should always have hope.
2eor$e had hopes of promotion.
Travel is a $reat teacher.
"here did you $o on your travels)
=, 2ouns with two meanings
(ome nouns have two meanings, one count and the other non count:
His life was in danger.
There is a serious danger of fire.
-in$uistics is the study of language.
!s ,n$lish a difficult language)
!t&s made of paper.
The Times is an excellent paper.
Ather words like this are:
#usiness death industry marria$e power property
tax time victory use work
>, 'ncount nouns that end in #s
(ome uncount nouns end in -s so they look like plurals even thou$h they are sin$ular nouns.
These nouns $enerally refer to:
Subjects of study, mathematics) physics) economics) etcG
'ctivities: $ymnastics, athletics, etc.
2ames: cards, darts, #illiards, etc.
3iseases: mumps, measles, ra#ies, etc.
,conomics is a very difficult su#+ect.
<illiards is easier than pool or snooker.

?, "roup nouns
(ome nouns, like army, refer to $roups of people, animals or thin$s, and we can use
them either as sin$ular nouns oras plural nouns.
army audience committee company crew enemy
family flock $an$ $overnment $roup herd
media pu#lic re$iment staff team
"e can use these $roup nouns either as sin$ular nouns or as plural nouns:
6y family is very dear to me.
! have a lar$e family. They are very dear to me. (= The mem#ers of my family9)
The $overnment is very unpopular.
The $overnment are always chan$in$ their minds.
(ometimes we think of the $roup as a sin$le thin$:
The audience always enjoys the show.
The $roup consists of two men and three women.
(ometimes we think of the $roup as several individualsD
The audience clapped their hands.
The lar$est $roup are the #oys.
The names of many organisations and teams are also $roup nouns, #ut they are usually
plural in spoken ,n$lish:
<arcelona are winnin$ E-I.
The Onited Ail 1ompany are puttin$ prices up #y FEU.
@, Two%part nouns
' few plural nouns, like binoculars, refer to thin$s that have two parts.
$lasses +eans knickers pincers pants pliers
py+amas scissors shorts spectacles ti$hts trainers
trousers tweePers
These binoculars were very expensive
Those trousers are too lon$.
To make it clear we are talkin$ a#out one of these items, we use a pair of
! need a new pair of spectacles.
!&ve #ou$ht a pair of #lue +eans.
!f we want to talk a#out more than one, we use pairs of :
We$ve got three pairs of scissors) but they are all bluntG
I always carry two pairs of binocularsG
proper nouns
2ames of people) places and organisations are called proper nounsG We spell proper nouns
with a capital letter,
6ohammed 'liD <irmin$hamD 1hinaD Axford Oniversity, the Onited 8ations
"e use capital letters for festivals:
1hristmasD 3eepawaliD ,asterD .amadanD Thanks$ivin$
"e use a capital letter for someone&s title:
! was talkin$ to 3octor "ilson recently.
,verythin$ depends on President A#ama.
"hen we $ive the names of #ooks, films, plays and paintin$s we use capital letters for
the nouns) adjectives and verbs in the name:
! have #een readin$ VThe Ald 6an and the (ea&.
<eatrix otter wrote VThe Tale of eter .a##it&
*ou can see the 6ona -isa in the -ouvre.
(ometimes we use a person&s name to refer to somethin$ they have created:
.ecently a Dan "ogh was sold for fifteen million dollars.
"e were listenin$ to /oHart.
!&m readin$ an 5gatha 0hristie.
present tense
There are two tenses in ,n$lish : past and present.
The present tenses in ,n$lish are used:
to talk a#out the present
to talk a#out the future
to talk a#out the past when we are tellin$ a story in spo&en ,n$lish or when we are
summarisin$ a #ook, film, play etc.
There are four present tense forms in English:
Present simple, I wor&
resent continuous: ! am workin$
resent perfect: ! have worked
resent perfect continuous: ! have #een workin$
"e use these forms:
to talk a#out the present:
He wor&s at 6c3onald&s. He has wor&ed there for three months now.
He is wor&ing at 6c3onald&s. He has been wor&ing there for three months now.
-ondon is the capital of <ritain.
to talk a#out the future:
The next train leaves this evenin$ at FBII hours.
!&ll phone you when ! get home.
He$s meeting eter in town this afternoon.
!&ll come home as soon as ! have finished work.
*ou will #e tired out after you have been wor&ing all ni$ht.
"e can use the present tenses to talk a#out the past...
present simple
The present tense is the base form of the ver#: ! wor& in -ondon.
<ut the third person (she?he?it) adds an -s: (he wor&s in -ondon.
'se
"e use the present tense to talk a#out:
somethin$ that is true in the present:
!$m nineteen years old.
He lives in -ondon.
!$m a student.
somethin$ that happens a$ain and a$ain in the present:
! play foot#all every weekend.
We use words like sometimes' often. always' and never +adverbs of fre)uency, with the
present tense:
! sometimes $o to the cinema.
(he never plays foot#all.
somethin$ that is always true:
The adult human #ody contains EIC #ones.
-i$ht travels at almost KII,III kilometres per second.
somethin$ that is fixed in the future.
The school term starts next week.
The train leaves at FLGM this evenin$.
"e fly to aris next week.
present continuous
The present continuous tense is formed from the present tense of the ver# be and the present
participle (-ing form) of a ver#:
'se
F. "e use the present continuous tense to talk a#out the present:
for somethin$ that is happenin$ at the moment of spea&ing:
!$m just leaving work. !&ll #e home in an hour.
lease #e quiet. The children are sleeping.
for somethin$ which is happenin$ #efore and after a $iven time:
't ei$ht o&clock we are usually having #reakfast.
"hen ! $et home the children are doing their homework.
for somethin$ which we thin& is temporary:
6ichael is at university. He$s studying history.
!$m wor&ing in -ondon for the next two weeks.
for somethin$ which is new and contrasts with a previous state:
These days most people are using email instead of writin$ letters.
"hat sort of clothes are teenagers wearing nowadays) "hat sort of music are they
listening to)
to show that somethin$ is chan$in$, $rowin$ or developing:
The children are growing quickly.
The climate is changing rapidly.
*our ,n$lish is improving.
for somethin$ which happens again and again:
!t$s always raining in -ondon.
They are always arguing.
2eor$e is $reat. He$s always laughing.
2ote: "e normally use always with this use.
E. "e use the present continuous tense to talk a#out the future:
for somethin$ which has #een arranged or planned:
6ary is going to a new school next term.
"hat are you doing next week)
K. "e can use the present continuous to talk a#out the past:
"hen we are tellin$ a story:
"hen we are summarisin$ the story from a #ook, film or play etc.:
present perfect
The present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb have and
the past participle of a verb:
The present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the ver#:
'se
"e use the present perfect tense:
for somethin$ that started in the past and continues in the present:
They$ve been married for nearly fifty years.
(he has lived in -iverpool all her life.
2ote, "e normally use the present perfect continuous for this:
(he has been living in -iverpool all her life.
!t$s been raining for hours.
for somethin$ we have done several times in the past and continue to do:
!$ve played the $uitar ever since ! was a teena$er.
He has written three #ooks and he is workin$ on another one.
!$ve been watching that pro$ramme every week.
"e often use a clause with since to show when somethin$ started in the past:
They$ve been staying with us since last week.
! have wor&ed here since ! left school.
!$ve been watching that pro$ramme every week since it started.
when we are talkin$ a#out our e-perience up to the present:
Note: We often use the adverb ever to talk about eperience up to the present:
6y last #irthday was the worst day ! have ever had.
2ote: and we use never for the ne$ative form:
Have you ever met 2eor$e)
*es, #ut I$ve never met his wife.
for somethin$ that happened in the past #ut is important at the time of speakin$:
! can&t $et in the house. !$ve lost my keys.
Teresa isn&t at home. ! think she has gone shoppin$.
!&m tired out. !$ve been wor&ing all day.

"e use the present perfect of be when someone has gone to a place and returned:
': "here have you been)
<: !&ve just been out to the supermar&et.
': Have you ever been to (an Hrancisco)
<: 8o, #ut I$ve been to -os 'n$eles.
<ut when someone has not returned we use have/has gone:
': "here is 6aria) ! haven&t seen her for weeks.
<: She:s gone to aris for a week. (he&ll #e #ack tomorrow.
"e often use the present perfect with time adverbials which refer to the recent past:
$ust; only $ust; recentlyD
(cientists have recently discovered a new #reed of monkey.
"e have just got #ack from our holidays.
or adver#ials which include the present:
ever (in questions)D so farD until nowD up to nowD yet (in questions and ne$atives)
Have you ever seen a $host)
Where have you been up to now)
Have you finished your homework yet)
8o, so far !$ve only done my history.
W5I2I2",
"e do not use the present perfect with an adverbial which refers to past time which is finished:
! have seen that film yesterday.
"e have +ust #ou$ht a new car last week.
"hen we were children we have #een to 1alifornia.
<ut we can use it to refer to a time which is not yet finished:
Have you seen Helen today)
"e have #ou$ht a new car this week.
past tense
There are two tenses in ,n$lish : past and present.
The past tense in ,n$lish is used:
to talk a#out the past
to talk a#out hypotheses : thin$s that are ima$ined rather than true.
for politeness.
There are four past tense forms in ,n$lish:
Past simple, I wor&ed
ast continuous: ! was workin$
ast perfect: ! had worked
ast perfect continuous: ! had #een workin$
"e use these forms:
to talk a#out the past:
He wor&ed at 6c3onald&s. He had wor&ed there since %uly..
He was wor&ing at 6c3onald&s. He had been wor&ing since %uly.
to refer to the present or future in conditions:
He could $et a new +o# if he really tried.
!f %ack was playing they would pro#a#ly win.
and hypotheses:
!t mi$ht #e dan$erous. (uppose they got lost.
! would always help someone who really needed help.
and wishes:
! wish it wasn$t so cold.
!n conditions, hypotheses and wishes, if we want to talk a#out the past, we always use
the past perfect:
! would have helped him if he had as&ed.
!t was very dan$erous, "hat if you had got lost)
! wish ! hadn$t spent so much money last month.
"e can use the past forms to talk a#out the present in a few polite e-pressions:
,xcuse me, ! was wondering if this was the train for *ork.
! +ust hoped you would #e a#le to help me.
ast (imple
'se
"e use the past tense to talk a#out:
somethin$ that happened once in the past:
! met my wife in FLJK.
"e went to (pain for our holidays.
They got home very late last ni$ht.
somethin$ that happened again and again in the past:
"hen ! was a #oy ! wal&ed a mile to school every day.
"e swam a lot while we were on holiday.
They always enjoyed visitin$ their friends.
somethin$ that was true for some time in the past:
! lived a#road for ten years.
He enjoyed #ein$ a student.
(he played a lot of tennis when she was youn$er.
we often use phrases with ago with the past tense:
! met my wife a lon$ time ago.
past continuous
The past continuous is formed from the past tense of be with the -ing form of the
verb:
"e use the past continuous to talk a#out the past:
for somethin$ which continued before and after another action:
The children were doing their homewor& when ! $ot home.
1ompare:
! $ot home. The children did their homework.
and
The children did their homework when ! $ot home.
's ! was watchin$ television the telephone ran$.
This use of the past continuous is very common at the #e$innin$ of a story:
The other day I was waiting for a #us when 9
-ast week as I was driving to work 9
for somethin$ that happened before and after a particular time:
!t was ei$ht o&clock. ! was writin$ a letter.
1ompare:
't ei$ht o&clock ! wrote some letters.
!n %uly she was workin$ in 6c3onald&s.
.to show that somethin$ continued for some time:
6y head was aching.
,veryone was shouting.
for somethin$ that was happenin$ again and again:
! was practising every day, three times a day.
They were meeting secretly after school.
They were always #uarrelling.
with ver#s which show change or growth:
The children were growing up quickly.
Her ,n$lish was improving.
6y hair was going $rey.
The town was changing quickly.
past perfect
"e use the ver# had and the past participle for the past perfect:
! had finished the work.
(he had gone .
The past perfect continuous is formed with had been and the %ing form of the ver#:
! had been finishing the work
She had been $oing.
The past perfect is used in the same way as the present perfect, #ut it refers to a time in the past,
not the present.
"e use the past perfect tense:
for somethin$ that started in the past and continued up to a $iven time in the past:
"hen 2eor$e died he and 'nne had been married for nearly fifty years.
(he didn&t want to move. (he had lived in -iverpool all her life.
"e normally use the past perfect continuous for this:
(he didn&t want to move. (he had been living in -iverpool all her life.
,verythin$ was wet. !t had been raining for hours.
for somethin$ we had done several times up to a point in the past and continued to
do after that point:
He was a wonderful $uitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teena$er.
He had written three #ooks and he was workin$ on another one.
! had been watching the pro$ramme every week, #ut ! missed the last episode.
"e often use a clause with since to show when somethin$ started in the past:
They had #een stayin$ with us since the previous week.
! was sorry when the factory closed. ! had worked there since ! left school.
! had #een watchin$ that pro$ramme every week since it started, #ut ! missed the last
episode.
when we are reportin$ our experience and includin$ up to the (then) present:
6y ei$hteenth #irthday was the worst day ! had ever had.
! was pleased to meet 2eor$e. ! hadn&t met him #efore, even thou$h ! had met his wife
several times.
for somethin$ that happened in the past #ut is important at the time of reportin$:
! couldn&t $et into the house. I had lost my keys.
Teresa wasn&t at home. She had gone shoppin$.
"e use the past perfect to talk a#out the past in conditions, hypotheses and wishes:
! would have helped him if he had as&ed.
!t was very dan$erous. "hat if you had got lost)
! wish I hadn$t spent so much money last month.
perfective aspect
"e use the present perfect to show that somethin$ has continued up to the present
They$ve been married for nearly fifty years.
(he has lived in -iverpool all her life.
9 or is important in the present:
!$ve lost my keys. ! can&t $et into the house.
Teresa isn&t at home. ! think she has gone shoppin$.
"e use the present perfect continuous to show that somethin$ has #een continuin$ up to the
present:
!t$s been raining for hours.
"e$ve been waiting here since six o&clock this mornin$.
"e use the past perfect to show that somethin$ continued up to a time in the past:
"hen 2eor$e died he and 'nne had been married for nearly fifty years.
... or was important at that time in the past:
! couldn&t $et into the house. ! had lost my keys.
Teresa wasn&t at home. (he had gone shoppin$.
"e use the past perfect continuous to show that somethin$ had #een continuin$ up to a time in
the past or was important at that time in the past:
,verythin$ was wet. !t had been raining for hours.
He was a wonderful $uitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teena$er.
"e use will with the perfect to show that somethin$ will #e complete at some time in the future:
!n a few years they will have discovered a cure for the common cold.
! can come out toni$ht. !:ll have finished my homework #y then.
"e use would with the perfect to refer to somethin$ that did not happen in the past #ut would
have happened if the conditions had been right:
!f you had asked me ! would have helped you.
! would have helped you, #ut you didn&t ask me.
*ou didn&t ask me or ! would have helped you.
"e use other modals with perfective aspect when we are loo&ing bac& from a point in time
when somethin$ mi$ht have happened, should have happened or would have happened.
The point of time may #e in the future:
"e&ll meet a$ain next week. "e might have finished the work #y then.
! will phone at six o&clock. He should have got home #y then.
the present:
!t&s $ettin$ late. They should have arrived #y now.
He&s still not here. He must have missed his train.
or the past:
! wasn&t feelin$ well. ! must have eaten somethin$ #ad.
! checked my cell phone. (he could have left a messa$e.
continuous aspect
<oth tenses have a continuous form. These continuous tenses are formed with the ver# be and
the Jing form of the ver#:
"e use continuous aspect:
for somethin$ happenin$ before and after a $iven time.
He$s getting on the train. -before and after the moment of speaking.
!t was quarter past ten. "e were watching the news on television.
for somethin$ continuin$ before and after another action:
6other will be coo&ing the dinner when we $et home.
"e were waiting for the #us when it started to rain.
for somethin$ continuin$ for some time:
,very#ody will be waiting for us.
They had been wor&ing hard all day.
for somethin$ happenin$ again and again:
They$ve been doing that every day this week.
The children were always shouting.
He will be practising the piano every ni$ht.
for somethin$ temporary:
"e are renting an apartment until our house is ready..
He was wor&ing in a $ara$e durin$ the vacation.
for somethin$ new:
"e have moved from <irmin$ham. "e$re living in 6anchester now.
He had left university and was wor&ing in his father&s #usiness.
to descri#e somethin$ changing or developing:
,verythin$ has been getting more difficult.
He was growing more #ad-tempered every day.
active and passive voice
Transitive verbs have #oth active and passive forms:
active passive
The hunter killed the lion. // The lion was killed #y the hunter.
(omeone has cleaned the
windows
// The windows have #een cleaned
The passive forms are made up of the ver# be with a past participle:
be past participle
,n$lish is spoken all over the world
The windows have #een cleaned
-unch was #ein$ served
The work will #e finished soon
They mi$ht have #een invited to the party
"e sometimes use the ver# get to form the passive:
<e careful with the $lass. !t mi$ht get #roken.
eter got hurt in a crash.
!f we want to show the person or thin$ doin$ the action we use by:
(he was attacked by a dan$erous do$.
The money was stolen by her hus#and.
"e can use the indirect object as the su#+ect of a passive ver#:
active passive
! $ave him a #ook for his #irthday //
He was $iven a #ook for his
#irthday.
(omeone sent her a cheque for a
thousand euros
//
(he was sent a cheque for a
thousand euros.
"e can use phrasal verbs in the passive:
active passive
They called off the meetin$. // The meetin$ was called off.
His $randmother loo&ed
after him.
//
He was loo&ed after #y his
$randmother.
They will send him away to
school.
// He will be sent away to school.
(ome ver#s very fre#uently used in the passive are followed #y the to%infinitive:
#e supposed to #e expected to #e asked to
#e scheduled to #e allowed to #e told to
%ohn has been as&ed to make a speech at the meetin$.
*ou are supposed to wear a uniform.
The meetin$ is scheduled to start at seven.
to K infinitive
"e use the to-infinitive:
0 to express purpose (to answer >"hy...)>):
He #ou$ht some flowers to give to his wife.
He locked the door to &eep everyone out.
"e sometimes say in order to or in order not to:
"e set off early in order to avoid the traffic.
They spoke quietly in order not to wake the children
9 or we can say so as to or so as not to:
"e set off early so as to avoid the traffic.
They spoke quietly so as not to wake the children.
0 after certain verbs (see ver#s followed #y infinitive), particularly ver#s
of thin&ing and feeling:
choose, decide, e"pect, forget, hate, hope, intend, learn, like,
love, mean, plan, prefer, remember, want, would like, would love
9 and ver#s of saying:
agree, promise, refuse
They decided to start a #usiness to$ether.
Iemember to turn the li$hts out.
(ome ver#s are followed #y a direct object and the infinitive(see ver#s followed #y infinitive):
advise, ask, encourage, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell, warn,
e"pect, intend, would prefer, want, would like
(he reminded me to turn the li$hts out.
He encouraged his friends to vote for him.
0 after certain adjectives.
(ometimes the to-infinitive $ives a reason for the ad+ective:
disappointed
$lad
sad
happy
anxious
pleased
surprised
proud
unhappy
"e were happy to come to the end of our +ourney
= "e were happy #ecause we had come to the end of our +ourney
%ohn was surprised to see me
= He was surprised #ecause he saw me
Other adjectives with the to-infinitive are:
a#le
una#le
due
ea$er
keen
likely
unlikely
ready
prepared
unwillin$
willin$
Onfortunately ! was unable to wor& for over a week.
! am really tired. !&m ready to go to #ed.
"e often use the to-infinitive with these ad+ectives after it to give opinions:
difficult
easy
possi#le
impossi#le
hard
ri$ht
wron$
kind
nice
clever
silly
foolish
!t&s easy to play the piano, #ut it&s very difficult to play well.
He spoke so quickly it was impossible to understand him.
"e use the preposition for to show who these ad+ectives refer to:
difficult
easy
possi#le
impossi#le
hard
!t was difficult for us to hear what she was sayin$.
!t is easy for you to criticise other people.
"e use the preposition of with other ad+ectives:
!t&s &ind of you to help.
!t would #e silly of him to spend all his money.
0 's a postmodifier (see noun phrases) after a#stract nouns like:
a#ility
desire
need
wish
attempt
failure
opportunity
chance
intention
! have no desire to be rich.
They $ave him an opportunity to escape.
(he was annoyed #y her failure to answer the #uestion correctly.
0 "e often use a to-infinitive as a postmodifier after an indefinite pronoun ((ee indefinite
pronouns):
"hen ! am travellin$ ! always take something to read.
! was all alone. ! had no one to talk to.
There is hardly anything to do in most of these small towns.
ing forms
We can use the -ing form of the verb:
0 as a noun:
! love swimming.
Swimming is very $ood for your health.
*ou can $et fit #y swimming re$ularly.
-ing nouns are nearly always uncount nouns
as an adjective:
The main pro#lem today is rising prices.
That pro$ramme was really boring.
He saw a woman lying on the floor.
<ecause the -ing noun or ad+ective is formed from a verb it can have any of the patterns which
follow a ver#, for example:
... an object:
! like playing tennis.
! saw a do$ chasing a cat.
... or an adverbial:
*ou can earn a lot of money by wor&ing hard.
There were several people waiting for the bus.
... or a clause:
! heard someone saying that.
The -ing noun can #e used:
as the su#+ect of a ver#:
Cearning 1nglish is not easy.
as the o#+ect of a ver#:
"e en+oy learning 1nglish.
1ommon ver#s followed #y an -ing o#+ect are:

admit like hate start avoid
su$$est en+oy dislike #e$in finish
as the o#+ect of a preposition
(ome people are not interested in learning ,n$lish.
The -ing ad+ective can come:
in front of a noun:
! read an interesting article in the newspaper today.
"e saw a really e-citing match on (unday.
The commonest :in$ ad+ectives used in front of the noun are

amusin$ interestin$ worryin$ shockin$ disappointin$
#orin$ surprisin$ excitin$ terrifyin$ fri$htenin$
tirin$ annoyin$

after a noun:
"ho is that man standing over there)
The boy tal&ing to 'n$ela is her youn$er #rother.
and especially after ver#s like see, watch, hear, smell etc.
! heard someone playing the piano.
! can smell somethin$ burning.
tal&ing about the present
;G We use the present simple,
to talk a#out somethin$ happenin$ regularly in the present:
The children come home from school at a#out four.
"e often see your #rother at work.
to talk a#out somethin$ happenin$ continually in the present:
They live next door to us.
He wor&s for the ost Affice.
to talk a#out thin$s which are generally true:
"ater boils at FII de$rees 1elsius.
The 8ile is the lon$est river in 'frica.
<G We use the present continuous,
to show that somethin$ in the present is temporary:
"e are living in a rented flat at present.
6y wife usually $oes in to the office, #ut she is wor&ing at home today.
for somethin$ happenin$ regularly in the present before and after a given time:
!$m usually getting ready for work at ei$ht o&clock.
"hen ! see 2eor$e he$s always reading his newspaper.
for somethin$ happenin$ before and after the moment of spea&ing:
! can&t hear you. !$m listening to my iod.
<e quiet. The children are sleeping.
=G We use modal verbs
to talk a#out the present when we are not sure of somethin$:
! don&t know where Henry is. He might be playing tennis.
"ho&s knockin$ at the door) ! don&t know. It could be the police.
tal&ing about the past
; Tal&ing about past events and situations,
"e use the past simple:
when we are talkin$ a#out an event that happened at a particular time in the past
"e arrived home #efore dark
The film started at seven thirty.
when we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ that continued for some time in the past
,very#ody wor&ed hard throu$h the winter.
"e stayed with our friends in -ondon.
"hen we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ that happened several times in the past we use
the past simple:
6ost evenin$s we stayed at home and watched 3T3s.
(ometimes they went out for a meal.
9 or used to
6ost evenin$s we used to stay at home and watch 3T3s.
"e used to $o for a swim every mornin$.
... or would
6ost evenin$s he would ta&e the do$ for a walk.
They would often visit friends in ,urope.
"'.8!82: "e do not normally use would with stative verbs.
"e use the past continuous:
when we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ which happened before and after a $iven time in
the past
!t was +ust after ten. ! was watching the news on TT.
't half-time we were losing F-I.
when we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ happenin$ before and after another action in the
past:
He #roke his le$ when he was playing ru$#y.
(he saw %im as he was driving away.
< The past in the past
"hen we are loo&ing bac& from a point in the past to somethin$ earlier in the past we use
the past perfect:
Helen suddenly remem#ered she had left her keys in the car.
"hen we had done all our shoppin$ we cau$ht the #us home.
They wanted to #uy a new computer, #ut they hadn$t saved enou$h money.
They would have #ou$ht a new computer if they had saved enou$h money.
= The past and the present,
"e use the present perfect:
when we are talkin$ a#out the effects in the present of somethin$ that happened in the
past:
! can&t open the door. !$ve left my keys in the car.
%enny has found a new +o#. (he works in a supermarket now.
"hen we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ that started in the past and still $oes on:
"e have lived here since EIIB. (and we still live here)
! have been wor&ing at the university for over ten years.
> The future in the past
"hen we talk a#out the future from a time in the past we use:
would as the past tense of will
He thou$ht he would buy one the next day.
,veryone was excited. The party would be fun.
was4were going to
%ohn was going to drive and 6ary was going to follow on her #icycle.
!t was Hriday. "e were going to set off the next day.
the past continuous:
!t was (eptem#er. 6ary was starting school the next week.
"e were very #usy. The shop was opening in two weeks time.

tal&ing about the future
F. "hen we &now a#out the future we normally use the present tense.
"e use the present simple for somethin$ scheduled or arran$ed:
We have a lesson next 6onday.
The train arrives at C.KI in the mornin$.
The holidays start next week.
!t is my birthday tomorrow.
"e can use the present continuous for plans or arran$ements:
I$m playing football tomorrow.
They are coming to see us tomorrow.
We$re having a party at 1hristmas.
E. "e use will to talk a#out the future:
"hen we make predictions:
It will be a nice day tomorrow.
! think 7raHil will win the "orld 1up.
!&m sure you will enjoy the film.
To mean want to or be willing to:
! hope you will come to my party.
2eor$e says he will help us.
To make offers and promises:
I:ll see you tomorrow.
We:ll send you an email.
To talk a#out offers and promises:
Tim will be at the meetin$.
/ary will help with the cookin$.
K. "e use (be) going to:
To talk a#out plans and intentions:
I$m going to drive to work today.
They are going to move to 6anchester.
"hen we can see that somethin$ is li&ely to happen:
<e careful4 You are going to fall.
-ook at those #lack clouds. ! think it$s going to rain.
G. "e often use ver#s like would like, plan, want, mean, hope, e"pect to talk a#out the future:
"hat are you $oin$ to do next year) I$d li&e to go to Oniversity.
We plan to go to Hrance for our holidays.
2eor$e wants to buy a new car.
M. "e use modals may, might, and could when we are not sure a#out the future:
I might stay at home toni$ht, or I might go to the cinema.
We could see 6ary at the meetin$. (he sometimes $oes.
C. "e can use should if we think somethin$ is li&ely to happen:
We should be home in time for tea.
The game should be over #y ei$ht o&clock.
B. 1lauses with time words:
!n clauses with time words like when, after, and until we often use a present tense form to talk
a#out the future:
!&ll come home when I finish work.
*ou must wait here until your father comes.
They are comin$ after they have had dinner.
J. 1lauses with if:
!n clauses with if we often use a present tense form to talk a#out the future:
"e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it rains.
If 7arcelona win tomorrow they will #e champions.
W5I2I2": "e do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:
!&ll come home when I will finish wor&.
"e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it will rain rains.
7ut we can use will if it means a promise or offer:
! will #e very happy if you will come to my party.
"e should finish the +o# early if "eorge will help us.
L. "e can use the future continuous instead of the present continuous or $oin$ to for
emphasis when we are talkin$ a#out plans, arran$ements and intentions:
They$ll be coming to see us next week.
I will be driving to work tomorrow.
verbs in time clauses and if clauses
Ter#s in time clauses and conditionals follow the same patterns as in other clauses e-cept:
!n clauses with time words like when, after, until we often use the present tense forms
to talk a#out the future:
!&ll come home when I finish work.
*ou must wait here until your father comes.
They are comin$ after they have had dinner.
in conditional clauses with if or unless we often use the present tense forms to talk
a#out the future:
"e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it is raining.
If 7arcelona win tomorrow they will #e champions.
! will come tomorrow unless I have to loo& after the children.
"e do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:
!&ll come home when ! will finish work.
"e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it will rain. rains.
!t will #e nice to see eter when he will $et home gets home.
*ou must wait here until you father will come comes.
#ut we can use will if it means a promise or offer:
! will #e very happy if you will come to my party.
"e should finish the +o# early if 2eor$e will help us.
(if( clauses and hypotheses
(ome clauses with if are like hypotheses so we use past tense forms to talk a#out the present and
future.
"e use the past tense forms to talk a#out the present in clauses with if :
for somethin$ that has not happened or is not happening:
He could $et a new +o# if he
really tried
=
He cannot $et a +o# #ecause he has
not tried.
!f %ack was playin$ they would
pro#a#ly win
=
%ack is not playin$ so they will
pro#a#ly not win.
!f ! had his address ! could write
to him
=
! do not have his address so ! cannot
write to him.
"e use the past tense forms to talk a#out the future in clauses with if:
for somethin$ that we #elieve or know will not happen:
"e would $o #y train if it wasn$t so = "e won&t $o #y train #ecause it is
expensive too expensive.
! would look after the children for
you at the weekend if !was at home
=
! can&t look after the children
#ecause ! will not #e at home.
to make su$$estions a#out what might happen:
!f he came tomorrow we could #orrow his car.
!f we invited %ohn, 6ary would #rin$ 'n$ela.
"hen we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ which did not happen in the past we use the past
perfect in the if clause and amodal ver# in the main clause:
!f you had seen him you could
have spoken to him
=
*ou did not see him so you could not
speak to him
*ou could have stayed with us if
you had come to -ondon
=
*ou couldn&t stay with us #ecause you
didn&t come to -ondon.
!f we hadn&t spent all our money
we could take a holiday.
=
"e have spent all our money so we
can&t take a holiday
!f ! had $ot the +o# we would #e
livin$ in aris
=
! did not $et the +o# so we are not
livin$ in aris.
!f the main clause is a#out the past we use a modal with have:
!f you had seen him you
could have spoken to him.
=
*ou did not see him so you could
not speak to him.
*ou could have stayed with us if
you had come to -ondon.
=
*ou couldn&t stay with us #ecause
you didn&t come to -ondon.
!f you had invited me !
mi$ht have come.
=
*ou didn&t invite me so ! didn&t
come.
!f the main clause is a#out the present we use a present tense form or a modal without have:
!f ! had $ot the +o# we would be
living in aris now.
=
! did not $et the +o# so we are not
livin$ in aris now.
!f you had done your homework
you would &now the answer.
=
*ou did not do your homework so
you do not know the answer.

wishes and hypotheses
Wishes
"e use past tense forms to talk a#out wishes:
"e use past tense modals would and could to talk a#out wishes for the future:
! don&t like my work. I wish I could $et a #etter +o#.
That&s a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.
! always have to $et home early. I wish my parents would let me stay out later.
"e use past tense forms to talk a#out wishes for the present:
! don&t like this place. I wish I lived in somewhere more interestin$.
These seats are very uncomforta#le. I wish we were travelling first class.
1veryone wishes they had more free time.
9ohn wishes he wasn$t so #usy.
I wish it wasn$t so cold.
"e use the past perfect to talk a#out wishes for the past:
I wish I had wor&ed harder when ! was at school.
/ary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.
I wish I hadn$t spent so much money last month.
Hypotheses things that we imagine!
"hen we are talkin$ a#out hypotheses:
"e use present tense forms after phrases like what if, in case and suppose to talk a#out
the future if we think it is li&ely to happen:
Those steps are dan$erous. Suppose someone has an accident.
"e should leave home early in case we are late.
"e use a past tense form to talk a#out the future after suppose and what if to su$$est
somethin$ is not li&ely to happen:
!t mi$ht #e dan$erous. Suppose they got lost.
What if he lost his +o#. "hat would happen then)
"e use modals would, could for a hypothesis a#out the future:
"e can&t all stay in a hotel. It would be very expensive.
3rive carefully. You could have an accident.
"e use would in the main clause and the past in a su#ordinate clause to talk a#out
the imagined future:
I would always help someone who really needed help.
I would always help someone if they really needed it.
"e use modals with have to talk a#out somethin$ that did not happen in the past:
! did not see 6ary, or I might have spo&en to her.
!t&s a pity %ack wasn&t at the party. He would have enjoyed this party.
"hy didn&t you ask me. I could have told you the answer.
lin& verbs
(ome ver#s are followed #y either a noun or an ad+ective:
(he was a $ood friend. = 8 W T W 8
(he was very happy. = 8 W T W 'd+.
He #ecame headmaster. = 8 W T W 8
He #ecame an$ry. = 8 W T W 'd+.
These ver#s are called lin& verbs. 1ommon ver#s like this are:
#e
#ecome
appear
feel
look
remain
seem
sound
(he seemed an intelli$ent woman.
(he seemed intelli$ent.
He loo&ed hun$ry.
He loo&ed a $ood player.
'fter appear and seem we often use to be:
(he appeared to be an intelli$ent woman.
He seemed to be an$ry.
(ome link ver#s are followed #y an adjective. 1ommon ver#s like this are:
$et
$o
$row
taste
smell
He got hun$ry in the evenin$.
She grew stron$er every day.
dele-ical verbs li&e have) ta&e) ma&e and give
3ele-ical verbs,
have, take, make, give, go and do
"e often use common ver#s like have and ta&e with nouns like a shower, a drink:
I took a shower. = ! showered.
She had a drink. = (he drank somethin$.
"e call these dele-ical verbs #ecause the important part of the meanin$ is taken out of
the verb and put into the noun.
"e often put adjectives in front of the noun:
I took a cold shower.
She had a nice' refreshing drink.
The ver#s used most frequently in this way are:
have take make give
have
"e use have with:
6ood and drin&: a meal, #reakfast, lunch, dinner, a snack, a cup of tea
Tal&ing: a chat, a conversation, a discussion, a talk
Washing: a #ath, a shower, a wash, a scru#
Iesting: a #reak, a holiday, a rest
3isagreeing: an ar$ument, a dispute, a fi$ht, a quarrel
I had a good breakfast before I left home.
We had a long talk about the problem.
The kids should have a bath before they go to bed.
She generally had a short holiday in July or /ugust.
They had a serious #uarrel about their father%s will.
"e also use have with nouns formed from verbs:
I thin& you should have a loo& at thisG
She had a bite of the ca&eG
I$m thirstyG I$m going to have a drin& of waterG
I had a listen to that new 03 in the carG
They are going to have a swimG

/odal verbs
The modal ver#s are:
can could
may might
shall should
will would
"e use modal ver#s to show if we #elieve somethin$ is certain, pro#a#le or possi#le (or not). "e
also use modals to do thin$s like talkin$ a#out a#ility, askin$ permission makin$ requests and
offers, and so on.

certain, pro#a#le or possi#le
a#ility, permission, requests and advice
modals W have
can, could and could have
may, mi$ht, may have and mi$ht have
can or could
will or would
will have or would have
certain) probable or possible
The modal ver#s are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would.
The modals are used to show that we #elieve somethin$ is certain, pro#a#le or possi#le:
Possibility,
"e use the modals could, might and may to show that somethin$ is possi#le in the future, #ut
not certain:
They might come later. +0 1erhaps2Maybe they will come later.,
They may come #y car. +0 1erhaps2Maybe they will come by car.,
!f we don&t hurry we could be late. +0 1erhaps2Maybe we will be late,
"e use could have, might have and may have to show that somethin$ was possi#le now or at
some time in the past:
!t&s ten o&clock. They might have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours a$o.
"e use the modal can to make general statements a#out what is possi#le:
!t can be very cold in winter. +0 It is sometimes very cold in winter,
*ou can easily lose your way in the dark. +0 1eople often lose their way in the dark,
"e use the modal could as the past tense of can:
!t could be very cold in winter. +0 Sometimes it was very cold in winter.,
*ou could lose your way in the dark. +0 1eople often lost their way in the dark,
Impossibility,
"e use the ne$ative can!t or cannot to show that somethin$ is impossi#le:
That can$t be true.
*ou cannot be serious.
"e use couldn!t?could not to talk a#out the past:
"e knew it could not #e true.
He was o#viously +okin$. He could not #e serious.
Probability,
"e use the modal must to show we are sure somethin$ to #e true and we have reasons for our
#elief:
!t&s $ettin$ dark. !t must be quite late.
*ou haven&t eaten all day. *ou must be hun$ry.
"e use must have for the past:
They hadn&t eaten all day. They must have been hun$ry.
*ou look happy. *ou must have heard the $ood news.
"e use the modal should to suggest that somethin$ is true or will #e true in the future, and to
show you have reasons for your su$$estion:
'sk 6iranda. (he should &now.
!t@s nearly six o@clock. They should arrive soon.
"e use should have to talk a#out the past:
!t@s nearly eleven o@clock. They should have arrived #y now
ability) permission) re#uests and advice
The modal ver#s are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would.
The modals are used to do thin$s like talkin$ a#out a#ility, askin$ permission makin$ requests,
and so on.
5bility,
"e use can to talk a#out someone&s skill or $eneral a#ilities:
(he can spea& several lan$ua$es.
He can swim like a fish.
They can$t dance very well.
"e use can to talk a#out the a#ility to do somethin$ at a $iven time in the present or future:
*ou can ma&e a lot of money if you are lucky.
Help. ! can$t breathe.
They can run #ut they can$t hide.
"e use could to talk a#out past time:
(he could spea& several lan$ua$es.
They couldn$t dance very well.
"e use could have to say that someone had the a#ility?opportunity to do somethin$, #ut
did not do it:
(he could have learned (wahili, #ut she didn&t have time.
! could have danced all ni$ht 5#ut didn@t7.
Permission,
"e use can to ask for permission to do somethin$:
0an I as& a question, please)
0an we go home now.
could is more formal and polite than can:
0ould I as& a question please)
0ould we go home now)
may is another more formal and polite way of askin$ for permission:
/ay I as& a question please)
/ay we go home now)
"e use can to give permission:
You can go home now if you like.
You can borrow my pen if you like.
may is a more formal and polite way of giving permission:
You may go home now, if you like.
"e use can to say that someone has permission to do somethin$:
We can go out whenever we want.
(tudents can travel free.
may is a more formal and polite way of sayin$ that someone has permission:
(tudents may travel free.
Instructions and re#uests,
"e use could you and would you as polite ways of tellin$ or askin$ someone to do something:
0ould you ta&e a messa$e please)
Would you carry this for me please)
0ould I have my #ill please)
can and will are less polite:
0an you ta&e a messa$e please)
Will you carry this for me please)
Suggestions and advice,
"e use should to make su$$estions and $ive advice:
*ou should send an email.
"e should go #y train.
"e use could to make su$$estions:
"e could meet at the weekend.
*ou could eat out toni$ht.
"e use conditionals to $ive advice:
3an will help you if you ask him.
Past tenses are more polite:
3an would help you if you as&ed him.
Offers and invitations,
"e use can I and to make offers:
0an I help you)
0an I do that for you)
"e can also use shall I
Shall I help you with that)
Shall I call you on your mo#ile)
"e sometime say I can ... or I could ... or I!ll (I will) ... to make an offer:
I can do that for you if you like.
I can give you a lift to the station.
I$ll do that for you if you like.
I$ll give you a lift to the station.
"e use would you like (to) ... for invitations:
Would you li&e to come round to morrow)
Would you li&e another drink)
"e use you must or we must for a very polite invitation:
You must come round and see us.
We must meet a$ain soon.
Obligation and necessity
"e use must to say that it is necessary to do somethin$:
*ou must stop at a red li$ht.
,veryone must bring somethin$ to eat.
*ou can wear what you like, #ut you must loo& neat and tidy.
!&m sorry, #ut you mustn$t ma&e a noise in here.
"e use had to for this if we are talkin$ a#out the past:
,veryone had to bring somethin$ to eat.
"e could wear what we liked, #ut we had to loo& neat and tidy.

modals K have
"e use a modal ver# with have and the past participle:
Subject /odal Have Past Participle
They will have arrived #y now
*ou mi$ht have seen the film
%ack and %ill would have #een late
"e use a modal verb with have to refer #ack:
9 from a point of time in the past:
"e were very worried. (omeone might have ta&en the car.
9 from the present
!t is nearly ei$ht o&clock. They will have arrived #y now.
9or from the future:
"e won&t eat until they arrive. They might not have had supper.
or to refer to past time:
*ou should have helped her when she asked.
They might have got lost. 8o#ody knows where they are.
can) could and could have
+uestions and negatives,
"e make #uestions #y puttin$ the su#+ect after can?could:
*an I + *an you + *ould I *ould you + and so on.
The negative form is can!t in spoken ,n$lish and cannot in written ,n$lish.
"e sometimes say cannot, #ut it is very emphatic.
The ne$ative form of could is couldn!t in spoken ,n$lish and could not in written ,n$lish.
"e sometimes say could not.
"e use can and can!t :
To talk a#out ability:
6aria can spea& four lan$ua$es.
! can$t swim, #ut my sister can.
To say that somethin$ is possible or impossible:
-earnin$ ,n$lish can be difficult 50 3earning nglish is sometimes difficult.7
1hildren can be very nau$hty 50 4hildren are sometimes very naughty.7
!t&s still li$ht. It can$t be #edtime.

Hor re#uests and refusals of requests
0an I go home now)
You can go whenever you like.
*ou can borrow the car today, #ut you can$t have it tomorrow.
To offer to help someone:
0an I help you)
0an I carry that #a$ for you)
"e use could and couldn!t as the past tense of can?can!t:
To talk a#out ability:
! could run very fast when ! was youn$er.
(he couldn&t $et a +o# anywhere.
To say that somethin$ was possible or impossible:
Aur teacher could be very strict when we were at school. -0 Some teachers were very
strict..
eople could starve in those days. -0 1eople sometimes starved..
*ou couldn$t use computers in the nineteenth century.
To make a polite re#uest:
0ould I go now please)
0ould you lend me a dictionary please)
To make a polite offer:
0ould I give you a lift)
I could carry that for you.
"e use could have:
to show that somethin$ is possi#le now or was possi#le at some time in the past:
!t&s ten o&clock. They could have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours a$o.
may) might) may have and might have
;uestions and ne$atives:
"e make #uestions #y puttin$ the su#+ect after may?mi$ht:
,ay I + *ould I ,ight I + ,tc.
The negative forms are may not and might not..
"e use may:
when we are not sure a#out somethin$:
%ack may be coming to see us tomorrow.
Ah dear4 !t&s half past ten. "e may be late for the meetin$.
There may not be very many people there.
to make polite re#uests:
/ay I borrow the car tomorrow)
/ay we come a #it later)
"hen we use may not for a refusal it is emphatic:
*ou may not4
*ou may not #orrow the car until you can #e more careful with it.
"e use might:
0 when we are not sure a#out somethin$:
! might see you tomorrow.
!t looks nice, #ut it might be very expensive.
!t&s quite #ri$ht. !t might not rain today.
0 's the past tense of may for requests:
He asked if he might borrow the car.
They wanted to know if they might come later.
0 Hor very polite re#uests:
/ight I as& you a question)
/ight we just interrupt for a moment)
"e use may have and might have to show that somethin$ has possi#ly happened now or
happened at some time in the past:
!t&s ten o&clock. They might have arrived now.-0 1erhaps they have arrived.
They may have arrived hours a$o. -0 1erhaps they arrived hours ago..
can or could
Possibility
"e use the modal can to make $eneral statements a#out what is possi#le:
!t can be very cold in winter. +0 It is sometimes very cold in winter,
*ou can easily lose your way in the dark. +0 1eople often lose their way in the dark,
"e use could as the past tense of can:
!t could be very cold in winter. +0Sometimes it was very cold in winter.,
*ou could lose your way in the dark. +01eople often lost their way in the dark,
"e use could to show that somethin$ is possi#le in the future, #ut not certain:
!f we don&t hurry we could be late. +01erhaps2Maybe we will be late,
"e use could have to show that somethin$ is?was possi#le now or at some time in the past:
!t&s ten o&clock. They could have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours a$o.
Impossibility,
"e use the ne$ative can!t or cannot to show that somethin$ is impossi#le:
That can$t be true.
*ou cannot be serious.
"e use couldn!t?could not to talk a#out the past:
"e knew it could not be true.
He was o#viously +okin$. He could not be serious.
5bility,
"e use can to talk a#out someone&s skill or $eneral a#ilities:
(he can spea& several lan$ua$es.
He can swim like a fish.
They can$t dance very well.
"e use can to talk a#out the a#ility to do somethin$ at a $iven time in the present or future:
*ou can make a lot of money if you are lucky.
Help. ! can$t breathe.
They can run #ut they can$t hide.
"e use could to talk a#out past time:
(he could spea& several lan$ua$es.
They couldn$t dance very well.

Permission,
"e use can to ask for permission to do somethin$:
0an I as& a question, please)
0an we go home now)
could is more formal and polite than can:
0ould I as& a question please)
0ould we go home now)
"e use can to give permission:
You can go home now if you like.
You can borrow my pen if you like.
"e use can to say that someone has permission to do somethin$:
We can go out whenever we want.
Students can travel free.
Instructions and re#uests,
"e use could you and as a polite way of tellin$ or askin$ someone to do somethin$:
0ould you ta&e a messa$e please)
0ould I have my #ill please)
can is less polite:
0an you ta&e a messa$e please)
Offers and invitations,
"e use can I to make offers:
0an I help you)
0an I do that for you)
"e sometimes say I can ... or I could ... to make an offer:
I can do that for you if you like.
I can give you a lift to the station.
will or would
"e use will:
to talk a#out the future : to say what we #elieve will happen
to talk a#out what people want to do or are willin$ to do
to make promises and offers
would is the past tense form of will. <ecause it is a past tense it is used:
to talk a#out the past.
to talk a#out hypotheses : thin$s that are ima$ined rather than true.
for politeness.
7eliefs
"e use will
to say what we #elieve will happen in the future:
"e:ll be late.
"e will have to take the train.
"e use would as the past tense of will:
to say what we #elieved would happen:
! thou$ht ! would be late 99 so ! would have to take the train.
Offers and promises
"e use I will or We will to make offers and promises:
I$ll give you a lift home after the party.
We will come and see you next week.
Willingness
to talk a#out what people want to do or are willin$ to do:
"e$ll see you tomorrow.
erhaps dad will lend me the car.
"e use would as the past tense of will:
to talk a#out what people wanted to do or were willin$ to do:
"e had a terri#le ni$ht. The #a#y wouldn$t go to sleep. He kept wakin$ up and cryin$.
3ad wouldn$t lend me the car, so we had to take the train.
to talk a#out somethin$ that we did often in the past #ecause we wanted to do it:
"hen they were children they used to spend their holidays at their $randmother&s at the
seaside. They would get up early every mornin$ and they$d have a quick #reakfast then
they would run across the road to the #each.
0onditionals
"e use will in conditionals with if and unless to say what we think will happen in the future or
present:
!$ll give her a call if ! can find her num#er.
*ou won$t get in unless you have a ticket.
"e use would to talk a#out hypotheses, a#out somethin$ which is possi#le #ut not real:
to talk a#out the result or effect of a possi#le situation:
!t would be very expensive to stay in a hotel.
in conditionals with words like if and what if. !n these sentences the main ver# is usually
in the past tense:
! would give her a call if ! could find her num#er.
!f ! had the money !:d buy a new car.
*ou would lose wei$ht if you took more exercise.
!f he $ot a new +o# he would probably ma&e more money.
"hat if he lost his +o#. "hat would happen then)
"e use conditionals to $ive advice:
3an will help you if you ask him.
Past tenses are more polite:
3an would help you if you as&ed him.
Phrases with would,
would you, would you mind (not) -ing, for requests:
"ould you carry this for me please)
"ould you mind carryin$ this)
"ould you mind not tellin$ him that)
would you like ...D would you like to ..., for offers and invitations:
"ould you like to come round to morrow)
"ould you like another drink)
I would like D I!d like (you)(to) ..., to say what we want or what we want to do:
!&d like that one please.
!&d like to $o home now.
I!d rather (! would rather) to say what we prefer:
!&d rather have that one.
!&d rather $o home now.
I would think, I would imagine, I'd guess, to $ive an opinion when we are not sure or
when we want to #e polite:
!t&s very difficult ! would ima$ine.
! would think that&s the ri$ht answer.
will have or would have
"e use the perfective will have when we are lookin$ #ack from a point in time when somethin$
will have happened.
<y the end of the decade scientists will have discovered a cure for influenPa.
! will phone at six o&clock. He will have got home #y then.
or lookin$ >#ack> from the present:
-ook at the time. The match will have started.
!t&s half past five. 3ad will have finished work.
"e use would have as the past tense form of will have:
! phoned at six o&clock. ! knew he would have got home #y then.
!t was half past five. 3ad would have finished work.
"e use would have in past conditionals to talk a#out somethin$ that did not happen:
!f it had #een a little warmer we would have gone for a swim.
He would have been very an$ry if he had seen you.
double object verbs
F. (ome ver#s have two objects :an indirect o#+ect and a direct o#+ect:
Subject Derb Indirect object 3irect object
6y wife sent me an email
He #rou$ht his mother some flowers
He cooked all his friends a delicious meal
These clauses have the structure: T W 8 (indirect o#+ect) W 8 (direct o#+ect)
E. "e can use a prepositional phrase with to or for with an indirect o#+ect:
(u#+ect Ter# 3irect object Prepositional phrase
6y wife sent an email to me
He #rou$ht some flowers for his mother
He cooked a delicious meal for all his friends.
These clauses have the structure : T W 8 (direct o#+ect) W repositional phrase (indirect o#+ect)
K. 0ommon ver#s with for and an indirect object are:
#ook
#uy
$et
cook
keep
#rin$
make
pour
save
find
They #ooked a ta#le for me at the restaurant.
"e made toys for all the children.
G. 0ommon ver#s with to and an indirect object are:
$ive
lend
offer
pass
post
read
sell
send
show
promise
tell
He $ave his pro$ramme to the man sittin$ next to him.
They sent 1hristmas cards to all their customers.
M. !f the indirect o#+ect is a long phrase we normally use to or for:
He showed his ticket to the policeman standing by the door.
"e kept somethin$ to eat and drink for all the people who arrived late.
C. !f the indirect object is a pronoun we normally use the 8 W T W 8 W 8 pattern:
! poured him another drink.
Their mother read them another story.
phrasal verbs
(ome ver#s are two part ver#s (see 1lauses, (entences and hrases). They consist of a verb and
a particle:
$row W up
// The children are $rowin$ up.
Aften this $ives the ver# a new meaning:
take W after
// (he takes after her mother
= (he looks like her mother, or (he #ehaves like her mother.
count W on
// ! know ! can count on you
= ! know ! can trust you, or ! know ! can #elieve you.
(ome transitive two part ver#s (see 1lauses, (entences and hrases) have only one pattern:
2 subject! K D K p K 2 object!
-"ote* " 0 noun( 5 0 verb( p 0 particle.
8 ((u#+ect) Ter# article 8 (A#+ect)
(he
!
6y father
takes
can count
comes
after
on
from
her mother
you
6adrid
(ome transitive two part ver#s (see 1lauses, (entences and hrases) are phrasal verbs. hrasal
ver#s have two different patterns:
0 The usual pattern is: 2 K D K 2 K p
8 ((u#+ect) Ter# (8) A#+ect article
(he
He
"e
$ave
knocked
will #e leavin$
the money
the $lass
our friends and nei$h#ours
#ack
over
#ehind

0 <ut sometimes these ver#s have the pattern: 2 subject! K D K p K 2 object!
8 ((u#+ect) Ter# article 8 (A#+ect)
(he
He
"e
$ave
knocked
will #e leavin$
#ack
over
#ehind
the money
the $lass
our friends and nei$h#ours
"hen the o#+ect is a personal pronoun,these ver#s always have the pattern:
2 K D K2 K p,
(he $ave #ack it
// (he $ave it #ack
He knocked over it
// knocked it over
"e will #e leavin$ #ehind them
// "e will #e leavin$ them #ehind
0 hrasal ver#s are nearly always made up of a transitive verb and a particle. 0ommon
verbs with their most frequent particles are:
#rin$: a#out, alon$, #ack, forward, in, off, out, round, up
#uy: out, up
call: off, up
carry: off, out
cut: #ack, down, off, out, up
$ive: away, #ack, off
hand: #ack, down, in, on out, over, round
knock: down, out, over
leave: #ehind, out
let: down, in, off, out
pass: down, over, round
point: out
push: a#out, around, over
put: across, away, down, forward, off, on, out, throu$h, to$ether, up
read: out
set: apart, aside, #ack, down
shut: away, in, off, out
take: apart, away, #ack, down, in, on, up, over
think: over, throu$h, up

refle-ive and ergative verbs
Iefle-ive verbs
F The reflexive pronouns (see pronouns) are:
(in$ular: myselfD yourselfD himselfD herselfD itself
lural: ourselvesD yourselvesD themselves
"e use a refle-ive pronoun after a transitive verb (see 1lauses, (entences and hrases) when
the direct object is the same as the subject of the verb:
I am teachin$ myself to play the piano.
<e careful with that knife. You mi$ht cut yourself.
These are the ver#s most often found with reflexive pronouns:

cut
dry
en+oy
hurt
introduce
kill
prepare
teach
(ome ver#s change their meaning sli$htly when they have a reflexive pronoun as direct o#+ect:
amuse
apply
#usy
content
#ehave
#lame
distance
express
find
help
see
"ould you like to help
yourself to another drink)
= "ould you like to take another drink)
! wish the children would
#ehave themselves.
= ! wish the children would #ehave well.
He found himself lyin$ #y the
side of the road.
=
He was surprised when he realised that
he was at the side of the road.
! saw myself as a famous
actor.
= ! ima$ined that ! was a famous actor.
(he applied herself to the +o#
of mendin$ the li$hts.
= (he worked very hard to mend the li$hts.
He #usied himself in the
kitchen.
= He worked #usily in the kitchen.
! had to content myself with a
few ,uros.
= ! had to #e satisfied with a few ,uros.

The ver# en$oy always has an object:
"e all enjoyed the party.
! really enjoyed my lunch.
!f en$oy has no other o#+ect, we use a reflexive pronoun:
They all en+oyed They all enjoyed themselves.
! really en+oyed ! really enjoyed myself.
2OT1: "e do not use a reflexive pronoun after ver#s which descri#e thin$s people usually do
for themselves:
He washed in cold water.
He always shaved #efore $oin$ out in the evenin$.
6ichael dressed and $ot ready for the party.
"e only use refle-ives with these ver#s for emphasis:
He dressed himself in spite of his in+uries.
(he&s old enou$h to wash herself.
1rgative verbs
F. 1rgative ver#s are both transitive and intransitive:

eter closed the door Transitive: 8 W T W 8
The door closed !ntransitive: 8 W T
! #oiled a pan of water Transitive: 8 W T W 8
The pan #oiled !ntransitive: 8 W T
E. 0ommon er$ative ver#s are:
#e$in
#reak
chan$e
close
drop
crack
dry
end
finish
$row
improve
increase
move
open
shake
start
stop
tear
turn
I bro&e the $lass.
! dropped the $lass and it bro&e.
The referee #lew his whistle and started the match.
The match started at E.KI.
We grew some tasty potatoes.
The potatoes were growing well.
The wind shoo& the trees.
The trees shoo& in the wind.
K. 6any ver#s to do with coo&ing are er$ative ver#s:
#ake
#oil
cook
defrost
freePe
melt
roast
You should roast the meat at EII de$rees centi$rade.
The meat was roasting in a hot oven.
I always defrost meat #efore ! cook it.
! am waitin$ for the meat to defrost.
/elt the chocolate and pour it over the ice cream.
The chocolate was melting in a pan.
G. Ter#s to do with vehicles are often er$ative:
#ack
crash
drive
fly
reverse
run
sail
start
stop
!&m learnin$ to fly a plane.
The plane flew at twice the speed of sound.
He crashed his car into a tree.
His car crashed into a tree.

M. "e use some er$ative ver#s with only a few nouns:
catch: dress, coat, clothes, trousers etc.
fire : 2un, pistol, rifle, rocket.
play: $uitar, music, piano, violin, 13, 3T3 etc.
ring: #ell, alarm
She caught her dress on a nail.
Her dress caught on a nail.
He fired a pistol to start the race.
5 pistol fired to start the race.
verbs followed by to K infinitive
; Some verbs are followed by the to-infinitive,
! decided to $o home as soon as possi#le.
"e all wanted to have more ,n$lish classes.
1ommon ver#s followed #y the to-infinitive are:
Derbs of thin&ing and feeling,
choose
decide
expect
for$et
hate
hope
intend
learn
like
love
mean
plan
prefer
remem#er
would like
would love
Derbs of saying,
a$ree
promise
refuse
Other common verbs are,
arran$e
attempt
fail
help
mana$e
tend
try
want
< Some verbs are followed by a noun and the to-infinitive,
(he as&ed him to send her a text messa$e.
He wanted all his friends to come to his party.
1ommon ver#s with this pattern are:
Derbs of saying,
advise
ask
encoura$e
invite
order
persuade
remind
tell
warn Q
Q8ote: The ver# warn is normally used with not
The police warned everyone not to drive too fast.
Derbs of wanting or li&ing,
expect
intend
would
prefer
want
would like
Other verbs with this pattern are,
allow
ena#le
force
$et
teach
=G Passive infinitive
/any of these verbs are sometimes followed by a passive infinitive
to be K past participle!,
! e-pected to be met when ! arrived at the station.
They wanted to be told if anythin$ happened.
! don&t like drivin$ myself. ! prefer to be driven.

verbs followed by %ing clauses
1ommon ver#s followed #y :in$ nouns are:
Derbs of li&ing and disli&ing,
detest
dislike
en+oy
hate
fancy
like
love
I love swimming #ut I hate jogging.
They always enjoyed visiting their friends.
': 3o you fancy going for a walk)
<: ! wouldn&t mind
Phrases with mind,
wouldn&t mind (= would like)
don&t mind (= ! am willin$ to)
would you mind (= will you please9))
! wouldn$t mind having some fish and chips.
! don$t mind waiting for a few minutes.
Would you mind holding this for me)
Derbs of saying and thin&ing,
admit
consider
deny
ima$ine
remem#er
su$$est
Aur guide suggested waiting until the storm was over.
1veryone denied seeing the accident.
Other common verbs are,
avoid
#e$in
finish
keep
miss
practise
risk
start
stop
I haven$t finished writing this letter.
Cet$s practise spea&ing ,n$lish.
Passive form of %ing
6any of these ver#s are sometimes followed #y the passive form of %ing, being W past participle
! don&t like being interrupted.
Aur do$ loves being stro&ed under the chin.
2oun K %ing clause
(ome ver#s are followed #y a noun and an -ing clause:
Derbs to do with the senses,
see
watch
hear
smell
listen to
etc.
"e saw everybody running away.
! could hear someone singing.

Other common verbs,
catch
find
ima$ine
leave
prevent
stop
! caught someone trying to #reak into my house.
"e couldn&t prevent them getting away
verbs followed by that clause
With (that(
"e can use clauses with that:
0 after ver#s of thinkin$:
think
#elieve
expect
decide
hope
know
understand
suppose
$uess
ima$ine
feel
remem#er
for$et
! hope that you will en+oy your holiday.
(he didn&t really think that it would happen.
! knew that ! had seen her somewhere #efore.
0 after ver#s of sayin$:
say
admit
ar$ue
reply
a$ree
claim
deny
mention
answer
complain
explain
promise
su$$est
They admitted that they had made a mistake.
(he ar$ued that they should invest more in the #usiness.
The children complained that they had nothin$ to do.
2ote: tell and some other ver#s of sayin$ must always have a direct object (see clauses,
sentences and phrases):
tell
convince
persuade
inform
remind
"e tried to tell them that they should stop what they were doin$.
The police informed every#ody that the dan$er was over.
0 as postmodifiers after nouns to do with thinkin$ or sayin$:
advice
#elief
claim
feelin$
ar$ument
hope
promise
report
$uess
opinion
idea
He made a promise that he would do all he could to help.
! had a funny feelin$ that somethin$ was wron$.
0 after some nouns to say more a#out the noun:
fact
advanta$e
effect
possi#ility
chance
dan$er
evidence
pro#lem
difficulty
(he pointed out the dan$er that they mi$ht #e left #ehind.
There was a chance that we would succeed
2ote: "e often use a that clause to define one of these nouns after the ver# be :
dan$er
pro#lem
chance
possi#ility
fact
The danger is that we will #e left #ehind.
The fact is that it is $ettin$ very late.
0 after some ad+ectives which descri#e feelin$s to $ive a reason for our feelin$s:
pleased
sorry
happy
unhappy
sad
excited
$lad
disappointed
afraid
! am sorry that you can&t come.
,very#ody was pleased that the dan$er was past.
!t is lucky that you were a#le to drive us home.
2o (that(
8AT,: "e can always use a clause without the word that:
They admitted 5that7 they had made a mistake.
The police informed every#ody 5that7 the dan$er was over.
! am sorry 5that7 you can&t come.
There was chance 5that7 we would succeed.
clause structure
'll clauses in ,n$lish have at least two parts: a noun phrase and a verb phrase:
2oun phrase subject! Derb phrase
The children
'll the people in the #us
lau$hed
were watchin$
<ut most clauses have more than two parts:
2oun phrase subject! Derb phrase
The children
%ohn
'll of the $irls
This soup
6ary and the family
(he
lau$hed
wanted
are learnin$
tastes
were drivin$
put
a new #icycle
,n$lish
awful
to 6adrid
the flowers

in a vase
The first noun phrase is the subject of the sentence:
The children lau$hed.
9ohn wanted a new #icycle.
5ll the girls are learnin$ ,n$lish.
She put the flowers in the vase.
,n$lish clauses always have a su#+ect:
His father has +ust retired. "as a teacher. He was a teacher.
!&m waitin$ for my wife. !s late. She is late.
9 except for the imperative which is used to $ive orders:
StopL
"o awayG
9 and for >soft imperatives> like invitations and requests:
lease come to dinner tomorrow.
Play it a$ain please.
!f we have no other su#+ect we use >there> or >it> as su#+ect. "e call this a Vdummy subject&:
There were twenty people at the meetin$..
There will #e an eclipse of the moon toni$ht.
It&s a lovely day.
It&s nearly one o&clock.
! have toothache. It hurts a lot.
verb patterns
The structure of the clause depends on the ver#. Hor example:
'n intransitive verb has the structure: 8(=noun) W T(=ver#): (John) W (smiled).
' transitive v er# has the structure: 8 W T W 8: (We) W (had been playing) W (football)
' lin& verb has the structure: 8 W T W 'd+ : (She) W (looked) W (happy)
' phrasal verb has the structure: 8 W T W p W 8 (She) W (gave) W(back) W (the money)
or
8 W T W 8 W p (She) W (gave) W (the money) W (back)

intransitive verbs
!ntransitive ver#s have the pattern 8 W T (noun W ver#). The clause is complete without anythin$
else:
8oun hrase (Subject) Ter# hrase
%ohn
8othin$
The #a#y
smiled
happened
was sleepin$
+John, +smiled,.
+"othing, +has happened,.
+The baby, +was sleeping,.
transitive verbs
Transitive ver#s have a noun phrase as o#+ect:
8oun phrase (Subject) Ter# phrase 8oun phrase (Object)
%ohn
"e
(ome of the children
wanted
had #een playin$
are learnin$
a new #icycle.
foot#all.
,n$lish.
This pattern is 8 W T W 8 (noun W ver# W noun).
lin& verbs
(ome ver#s are followed #y an adjective phrase. The ad+ective phrase is called the
complement:
8oun phrase ((u#+ect) Ter# phrase 'd+ective phrase (complement)
!
,veryone
This soup
The milk
am feelin$
looked
tastes
has $one
hun$ry
very happy
awful
sour
This pattern is 8 W T W 'd+ (noun W ver# W ad+ective phrase).
These ver#s are called lin& verbs.
(ome link ver#s (for example #eD #ecomeD seem) can have a noun phrase as a complement:
8oun phrase ((u#+ect) Ter# phrase 8oun phrase (complement)
Aur nei$h#our
He
(he
was
#ecame
seems
a stran$e man
a $eolo$ist
a nice $irl
This pattern is 8 W T W 8 (noun W ver# W noun).
verbs with %ing forms
(ome transitive ver#s can have a noun phrase as an o#+ect:
,very#ody likes $ood food.
2eor$e considered the pro#lem.
or the :in$ form of the ver#:
,very#ody likes eating.
2eor$e considered starting again.
2ote: we su$$est that you read a#out Ter#s with to W infinitive #efore doin$ this activity.
verbs with to K infinitive
(ome ver#s have the pattern 8 W T W toWinfinitive:
They a$reed to help.
"e decided to $o.
(ome ver#s have the pattern 8 W T W 8 W toWinfinitive:
(he told him to $o home.
They advised us to wait.
2ote: we su$$est that you read a#out Ter#s with -in$ forms #efore doin$ this activity.
reporting verbs with that) wh% and if clauses
Ieporting verbs with that clauses,
(ome ver#s introduce a report, an idea or a summary. These ver#s have the pattern:
8 W T W (that) W clause
"hen we want to say what someone says or thinks we can use a clause with thatD
He said that I had to see a doctor.
! thou$ht that he was being silly.
"e can leave out the word that:
He said ! had to see a doctor.
! thou$ht he was #ein$ silly.
"ith some ver#s we can mention the hearer as the o#+ect of the ver#:
(he reminded him that it was time to $o.
He told me he was a friend of yours.
These ver#s have the patternD
8 W T W 8 W (that) W clause.
Ieporting verbs with wh% and if clauses
(ome ver#s introduce summaries, reports, questions or pro#lems:
(he e-plained what we had to do.
He as&ed if ! was ready
! didn&t &now what to do.
These ver#s have the pattern:
8 W T W wh- W clause:
(he wondered where she was.
Ar
8 W T W if W clause:
Nen asked if we wanted to go.
"ith some ver#s we can mention the hearer as the o#+ect of the ver#:
(he asked me if ! was ready.
He told me what ! had to do.
These ver#s have the pattern:
8 W T W 8 W wh- W clause:
! told them what he was doin$.
Ar
8 W T W 8 W if W clause:
Nen asked us if we wanted to $o.
clauses, short forms
5, Short forms as answers
F. "e often use short forms to answer #uestions. Osually we repeat the first word of the verb
phrase:
': 0an you come round tomorrow)
<: *es, ! can? 8o ! can$t.
': Have you seen %ack lately)
<: *es, ! have?8o ! haven$t.
': 3o you like livin$ here)
<: *es, ! do? 8o ! don$t.
(ometimes we change the modal verb: (see Ter# hrase)
': Will you come)
<: *es, we might.
': 3o you think they might come)
<: *es, ! think they will.
E. "e often use ver#s like think, suppose, e"pect and hope, to answer questions.
when the answer is yes we add so (I e$pect so, ! hope so' etc.).
if the answer is no we say I don!t think so, I don!t suppose so, etc..
but with hope we say I hope not.
': 1an you come tomorrow)
<: ! hope so.
': "ill they #e at home)
<: ! e-pect so.
': !s 'msterdam the capital of The 8etherlands)
<: ! don$t thin& so.
': 3o you think it&s $oin$ to rain)
<: ! hope not.
K. "e often use adverbials of
probability like perhaps, probably, possibly, maybe, definitely and certainly as short answers:
': 3o you think it&s $oin$ to rain)
<: *es, possibly.
': 1an you come round tomorrow)
<: 3efinitely4
"hen the answer is negative we put not after the adver#ial:
': 3o you think it&s $oin$ to rain)
<: ro#a#ly not.
': 1an you come round tomorrow)
<: 6ay#e not.
G. "e can use short forms to agree or disagree with what someone says. Osually we use the first
word in the verb phrase:
': It$s a lovely day.
<: *es, it is.
': ! think they might have missed their train.
<: *es, ! think they might.
': The children will #e comin$ to see us next week.
<: 8o they won$t. They are $oin$ to their $randparents.
(ometimes we change the modal:
': The children will #e comin$ to see us next week.
<: *es, they might.
': The children might #e comin$ to see us next week.
<: 8o they won$t. They are $oin$ to their $randparents.
"e use do/does//don!t/doesn!t to a$ree or disa$ree with a statement in the present simple form:
': Your grandmother looks very well.
<: *es, she does.
': ! think 9ac& lives here.
<: 8o he doesn$t
9and we use did/didn!t for past simple:
': 1verybody really en+oyed the trip.
<: *es, they did.
': The children went to 6alaysia last year.
<: 8o they didn$t. They went to (in$apore.
M. "e sometimes put a short tag at the end of a comment. "e use a *es?8o question form for the
ta$. !f the comment is affirmative we normally use a negative tag:
': !t&s a lovely day.
<: Yes, it is, isn$t it.
': *our $randmother looks very well.
<: Yes, she does, doesn$t she.
': ,very#ody really en+oyed the trip.
<: Yes, they did, didn$t they.
!f the comment is negative we normally use an affirmative tag:
': They didn&t seem to en+oy the trip very much.
<: They didn$t, did they.
': !t&s not a very nice day.
<: 2o, it isn&t, is itG
': They haven&t done much.
<: 2o, they haven&t, have they.
C. (ometimes we put a tag on the end of a statement:
!t&s a lovely day, isn$t it)
*our $randmother looks very well, doesn$t she)
They haven&t done much, have they)
They all seemed to en+oy the trip, didn$t they)
B "e use affirmative ta$s with so and neither or nor to add to what someone has said.
"e use so to add to an affirmative:
': %ohn is workin$ in <arcelona.
<: 'nd so is /aria 5= 6aria is workin$ in <arcelona, too.7
': ! love !ndian food.
<: So do I = 5! love !ndian food, too.7
': They&ve +ust #ou$ht a new computer.
<: .eally) So have we. 5= "e have also #ou$ht a new computer.7
"e use neither or nor to add to a ne$ative:
': ! don&t smoke any more.
<: 2either do I. 5= ! also don&t smoke7
': They haven&t written to us for a$es.
<: 2or has Peter. 5= eter hasn&t written to us for a$es, too.7
': "e won&t #e takin$ a holiday this year.
<: 2either will we. 5= "e also won&t #e takin$ a holiday this year.7
': ! never have time for #reakfast.
<: 2or have I. 5= ! am as #usy as you7
relative clauses
;G The relative pronouns,
The relative pronouns are:

Subject Object Possessive
who whom, who whose
which which whose
that that
"e use who and whom for people, and which for thin$s.
"e use that for people or thin$s.
"e use relative pronouns to introduce relative clauses, which tell us more a#out people and
thin$s.
<G Ielative clauses to postmodify a noun
"e use relative clauses to postmodify a noun - to ma&e clear which person or thin$ we are
talkin$ a#out. !n these clauses we can have the relative pronoun who, which, whose or that
as subject (see 1lauses (entences and hrases)
!sn&t that the woman who lives across the road from you)
The police said the accident that happened last ni$ht was unavoida#le
The newspaper reported that the tiger which &illed its keeper has #een put down.
W5I2I2":
The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.
"e do not repeat the su#+ect:
QThe woman who MsheN lives across the road9
QThe ti$er which MitN &illed its keeper 9
as object of a clause (see 1lauses, (entences and hrases)
Have you seen those people who we met on holiday)
*ou shouldn&t #elieve everything that you read in the newspaper.
The house that we rented in -ondon was fully furnished.
The food was definitely the thin$ which I enjoyed most a#out our holiday.
- (ometimes we use whom instead of who when the relative pronoun is the object:
Have you seen those people whom we met on holiday)
- "hen the relative pronoun is object of its clause we sometimes leave it out:
Have you seen those people we met on holiday)
*ou shouldn&t #elieve everything you read in the newspaper.
The house we rented in -ondon was fully furnished.
The food was definitely the thing I en+oyed most a#out our holiday.
W5I2I2":
The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.
"e do not repeat the o#+ect:
Have you seen those people who we met MthemN on holiday)
The house that we rented MitN in -ondon was fully furnished.
The food was definitely the thin$ ! en+oyed MitN most a#out our holiday.
as o#+ect of a preposition. "hen the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition we
usually put the preposition after the ver#.:
*ou were talkin$ to a woman /// "ho was the woman who you were tal&ing to)
6y parents live in that house /// That&s the house that my parents live in.
*ou were talkin$ a#out a #ook. ! haven&t read it. /// ! haven&t read the #ook which you
were tal&ing about.
- "hen the relative pronoun is the o#+ect of a preposition we usually leave it out:
"ho was the woman you were talkin$ to)
That&s the house my parents live in.
- (ometimes we use whom instead of who:
"ho was that woman whom you were talkin$ a#out.
- "hen we use whom or which the preposition sometimes comes at the #e$innin$ of the
clause:
! haven&t read the #ook about which you were talkin$.
- "e can use the possessive form, whose, in a relative clause:
! always for$et that woman&s name /// That&s the woman whose name ! always for$et.
! met a man whose brother works in 6oscow.
=G Times and places
"e also use when with times and where with places to make it clear which time or place we are
talkin$ a#out:
,n$land won the world cup in FLLC. !t was the year when we $ot married.
! remem#er my twentieth #irthday. !t was the day when the tsunami happened.
3o you remem#er the place where we cau$ht the train)
(tratford-upon-'von is the town where (hakespeare was #orn.
... #ut we can leave out the word when:
,n$land won the world cup in FLLC. !t was the year we $ot married.
! remem#er my twentieth #irthday. !t was the day the tsunami happened.
>G "iving additional information
"e use who, whom, whose, and which (#ut not that) in relative clauses to tell us more a#out a
person or thin$.
as subject (see 1lauses, (entences and hrases)
6y uncle, who was born in Hong .ong, lived most of his life overseas.
! have +ust read Arwell&s FLJG, which is one of the most frightening boo&s ever written.
W5I2I2":
The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.
"e do not repeat the su#+ect:
6y uncle, who MheN was #orn in Hon$ Non$, lived most of his life overseas.
! have +ust read Arwell&s FLJG, which MitN is one of the most fri$htenin$ #ooks ever
written.
as object (see 1lauses, (entences and hrases)
"e saw the latest Harry otter film, which we really enjoyed.
6y favourite actor is 6arlon <rando, who I saw in OOn the WaterfrontP.
- we can use whom instead of who as o#+ect:
6y favourite actor was 6arlon <rando, whom ! saw in XAn the "aterfrontY.
"'.8!82:
The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.
"e do not repeat the o#+ect:
"e saw the latest Harry otter film, which we really en+oyed MitN.
6y favourite actor is 6arlon <rando, who ! saw MhimN in XAn the "aterfrontY.
as object of a clause :
He finally met aul 6c1artney, whom he had always admired.
"e are $oin$ #ack to Tenice, which we first visited thirty years ago.
"e can also use who as the o#+ect.
He finally met aul 6c1artney, who he had always admired.
"'.8!82:
The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.
"e do not repeat the o#+ect:
He finally met aul 6c1artney, whom he had always admired MhimN.
"e are $oin$ #ack to Tenice, which we first visited MitN thirty years a$o.
as object of a preposition:
He decided to telephone 6rs. %ackson, who he had read about in the newspaper.
That&s the pro$ramme which we listened to last ni$ht.
- "e sometimes use whom instead of who:
He decided to telephone 6rs. %ackson, whom he had read a#out in the newspaper.
- The preposition sometimes comes in front of the relative pronoun whom or which:
He decided to telephone 6rs. %ackson, about whom he had read in the newspaper.
That&s the pro$ramme to which we listened last ni$ht.
?G +uantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns
"e often use quantifiers and num#ers with relative pronouns:
many of whom - most of whom - one of which - none of whom
some of which - lots of whom - two of which - etc.
"e can use them as subject, object or object of a preposition.
(he has three #rothers two of whom are in the army.
! read three #ooks last week, one of which ! really en+oyed.
There were some $ood pro$rammes on the radio, none of which ! listened to.
@G 'sing (which( to give more information
"e often use the relative pronoun which to say somethin$ a#out a clause:
He was usually late, which always annoyed his father.
"e&ve missed our train, which means we may #e late.
reporting, reports and summaries
6any teachers and learners think that tense forms in reported speech are complex.
!n fact, >reported speech> follows exactly the same rules as the rest of the lan$ua$e.
F. "hen we report what people say or thin& we use:
clauses with that:
,very#ody knew that it was Henry&s #irthday tomorrow.
(he explained that she would do as much as she could to help.
but we can leave out the word that:
,very#ody knew it was Henry&s #irthday tomorrow.
(he explained she would do as much as she could to help.
wh%clauses (see "h-clauses) and clauses with if (see note in "h-1lauses)
He was asked what he had #een doin$ the previous ni$ht.
(he explained why she went #y train rather than #y car.
to%infinitives:
"e all a$reed to do as much as we could.
"ho told you to come)
E. "e very rarely try to report e-actly what someone has said. "e usually $ive a summary:
6ary: Ah dear, we&ve #een walkin$ for hours. ! am exhausted. ! don&t think ! can $o any
further. ! really need to stop for a rest.
eter: 3on&t worry. !&m not surprised that you&re tired. !&m tired too. !&ll tell you what. !&ll
see if ! can find a place to sit down, and then we can stop and have our picnic.
///
"hen 6ary complained that she was tired out after walkin$ so far, eter said they could
stop for a picnic.
K. Tense forms in reports and summaries.
"hen we are reportin$ what people say or think in ,n$lish we need to remem#er:
that the tense forms in reports and summaries are the same as in the rest of the lan$ua$e:
This is a letter that 'ndrew <rown wrote ten years a$o:
I am twenty#two years old and I am at 6niversity studying engineering.
I take my final e$ams ne$t month and I will finish university in July.
I want to take a year off and travel round the world. I will need to make
some money while I am travelling so Iwould like to learn to teach nglish as
a second language so that I can make some money while I am abroad. /
friend of mine has recommended your course very highly. She also gave me
some details' but I would like to ask a few more )uestions.
What courses do you have in the summer and when do they start7 How
much do the courses cost7 Is there an e$amination at the end7
I look forward to hearing from you.
8egards'
/ndrew 9rown.
!f you were tellin$ a story a#out 'ndrew mi$ht write somethin$ like this.:
When /ndrew was :: he was an engineering student in his last month at the
university. He wanted to travel abroad after he had finished his course at
the university' but he would need to earn some money while he wasabroad
so he wanted to learn to teach nglish as a foreign language. / friend had
recommended a course but /ndrew needed more information. So he
wrote to the school and asked them when their courses started and how
much they were. He also wanted to know if there was an e$amination at the
end of the course.
*ou would use past tense forms to talk a#out somethin$ that happened ten
years a$o.
!f you were reportin$ or summarisin$ what 'ndrew wrote you mi$ht start off
#y sayin$:
/ndrew told me that when he was :: he was an engineering student in his
last month;
... and you could $o on in the same way. *ou would use past tense forms to
talk a#out somethin$ which happened ten years a$o. (o tense forms in
reports and summaries in ,n$lish are the same as in the rest of the lan$ua$e.
(ometimes you have to choose #etween a past tense form and a present tense form.
!f you are talkin$ a#out the past #ut you mention somethin$ that is still true you could use
a present tense form to show you a$ree that it is true:
%ohn said he had stayed at the (han$ri-la #ecause it is the most comfortable hotel in
town.
6ary said she en+oyed the film #ecause Iobert de 2iro is her favourite actor.
Helen said she loves visiting 2ew Yor&.
... or a past tense form:
%ohn said he had stayed at the (han$ri-la #ecause it was the most comforta#le hotel in
town.
6ary said she en+oyed the film #ecause .o#ert de 8iro was her favourite actor.
Helen said she loved visitin$ 8ew *ork,
!f we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ that everybody &nows is true we normally use
a present tense:
6ichael said he had always wanted to clim# ,verest #ecause it is the highest mountain
in the world.
6ary said she loved visitin$ 8ew *ork #ecause it is such an e-citing city.
G. to%infinitives in reports and summaries:
"e often use the to-infinitive after ver#s of thin&ing and feeling to report or summarise actions:
decide - hope - intend
X! think ! will start all over a$ainY ///
He decided to start all over a$ain.
X! am $oin$ to write to the newspaper a#out itY ///
(he intended to write to the newspaper a#out it.
9 and ver#s of sayin$:
agree - promise - refuse
X! can do the shoppin$ for you if you likeY ///
He agreed to do the shoppin$ for me.
!&m sorry. ! would love to help you #ut !&m afraid ! can&t ///
(he refused to help me.
'fter some ver#s we use a direct object and the infinitive (see ver#s followed #y infinitive):
advise - ask - encourage - invite - order - remind - tell - warn -
e"pect - intend - want - would like - would prefer
X! think you should turn the li$hts out nowY ///
(he reminded me to turn the li$hts out.
X<e very careful, children. The sea can #e very dan$erous so please don&t $o in the
water.Y ///
(he warned the children not to go in the water.
sentence structure
Simple sentences,
' simple sentence has only one clause:
The children were lau$hin$.
%ohn wanted a new #icycle.
'll the $irls are learnin$ ,n$lish.
0ompound sentences,
' compound sentence has two or more clauses:
("e stayed #ehind) and (finished the +o#)
("e stayed #ehind) and (finished the +o#), then (we went home)
The clauses in a compound sentence are +oined #y co%ordinating conjunctions:
%ohn shouted and every#ody waved.
"e looked everywhere but we couldn&t find him.
They are comin$ #y car so they should #e here soon.
The common coordinatin$ con+unctions are:
and % but % or % nor % so % then % yet
0omple- sentences,
' complex sentence has a main clause and one or more adverbial clauses. 'dver#ial clauses
usually come after the main clause:
Her father died when she was very youn$
///
Her father died (main clause)
when (su#ordinatin$ con+unction)
she was very young (adver#ial clause)
(he had a difficult childhood #ecause her father died when she was very youn$.
///
She had a difficult childhood (main clause)
because (su#ordinatin$ con+unction)
her father died (adver#ial clause)
when (su#ordinatin$ con+unction)
she was very young (adver#ial clause).
(ome su#ordinate clauses can come in front of the main clause:
'lthou$h a few snakes are dan$erous most of them are quite harmless
///
5lthough (su#ordinatin$ con+unction)
some sna&es are dangerous (adver#ial clause)
most of them are harmless (main clause).
' sentence can contain both su#ordinate and coordinate clauses:
'lthou$h she has always lived in Hrance, she speaks fluent ,n$lish #ecause her mother
was 'merican and her father was 8i$erian
///
5lthough (su#ordinatin$ con+unction)
she has always lived in 6rance (adver#ial clause),
she spea&s fluent 1nglish (main clause)
because (su#ordinatin$ con+unction)
her mother was 5merican (adver#ial clause)
and (coordinatin$ con+unction)
her father was 2igerian (adver#ial clause).
There are seven types of adver#ial clauses:
0ommon conjunctions
1ontrast clauses althou$hD thou$hD even thou$hD whileD
.eason clauses #ecauseD sinceD as
lace clauses whereD whereverD everywhere
urpose clauses so thatD soD #ecause W want
.esult clauses so thatD so 9 thatD such 9 that
Time clauses
whenD #eforeD afterD sinceD whileD asD as soon asD #y the
timeD until
1onditional
clauses
ifD unlessD provided (that)D as lon$ as

The modal ver#s are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would.
The modals are used to do thin$s like talkin$ a#out a#ility, askin$ permission makin$ requests,
and so on.
5bility,
"e use can to talk a#out someone&s skill or $eneral a#ilities:
(he can spea& several lan$ua$es.
He can swim like a fish.
They can$t dance very well.
"e use can to talk a#out the a#ility to do somethin$ at a $iven time in the present or future:
*ou can ma&e a lot of money if you are lucky.
Help. ! can$t breathe.
They can run #ut they can$t hide.
"e use could to talk a#out past time:
(he could spea& several lan$ua$es.
They couldn$t dance very well.
"e use could have to say that someone had the a#ility?opportunity to do somethin$, #ut
did not do it:
(he could have learned (wahili, #ut she didn&t have time.
! could have danced all ni$ht 5#ut didn@t7.
Permission,
"e use can to ask for permission to do somethin$:
0an I as& a question, please)
0an we go home now.
could is more formal and polite than can:
0ould I as& a question please)
0ould we go home now)
may is another more formal and polite way of askin$ for permission:
/ay I as& a question please)
/ay we go home now)
"e use can to give permission:
You can go home now if you like.
You can borrow my pen if you like.
may is a more formal and polite way of giving permission:
You may go home now, if you like.
"e use can to say that someone has permission to do somethin$:
We can go out whenever we want.
(tudents can travel free.
may is a more formal and polite way of sayin$ that someone has permission:
(tudents may travel free.
Instructions and re#uests,
"e use could you and would you as polite ways of tellin$ or askin$ someone to do something:
0ould you ta&e a messa$e please)
Would you carry this for me please)
0ould I have my #ill please)
can and will are less polite:
0an you ta&e a messa$e please)
Will you carry this for me please)
Suggestions and advice,
"e use should to make su$$estions and $ive advice:
*ou should send an email.
"e should go #y train.
"e use could to make su$$estions:
"e could meet at the weekend.
*ou could eat out toni$ht.
"e use conditionals to $ive advice:
3an will help you if you ask him.
Past tenses are more polite:
3an would help you if you as&ed him.
Offers and invitations,
"e use can I and to make offers:
0an I help you)
0an I do that for you)
"e can also use shall I
Shall I help you with that)
Shall I call you on your mo#ile)
"e sometime say I can ... or I could ... or I!ll (I will) ... to make an offer:
I can do that for you if you like.
I can give you a lift to the station.
I$ll do that for you if you like.
I$ll give you a lift to the station.
"e use would you like (to) ... for invitations:
Would you li&e to come round to morrow)
Would you li&e another drink)
"e use you must or we must for a very polite invitation:
You must come round and see us.
We must meet a$ain soon.
Obligation and necessity
"e use must to say that it is necessary to do somethin$:
*ou must stop at a red li$ht.
,veryone must bring somethin$ to eat.
*ou can wear what you like, #ut you must loo& neat and tidy.
!&m sorry, #ut you mustn$t ma&e a noise in here.
"e use had to for this if we are talkin$ a#out the past:
,veryone had to bring somethin$ to eat.
"e could wear what we liked, #ut we had to loo& neat and tidy.