RUNNING HEADER: 3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 1

3D Printing and Augmented Reality

Deborah Bishop, Rosalynn Locklear, Jeremy Sutter, and Kellie Woodson
EDUC 639
Liberty University
Dr. Jennifer Courduff
July 29, 2014



3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 2
Abstract
Augmented reality and 3D printing are emerging technologies that are already beginning
to have an impact in education. These tools help students visualize and interact with objects that
might otherwise be difficult to view. They also help students focus on important elements while
building spatial understanding. 3D printing allows students to have a tactile interaction with
their designs or teacher printed materials. Often used in problem based learning, students are
able to refine their products during the design stages of their project.
Keywords: augmented reality, 3D printing, desktop publishing, rapid prototyping,
problem-based learning, STEM, visual literacy


3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 3
3D Printing and Augmented Reality
One day while rehearsing for a performance, Maestro Arturo Toscanini found himself
struggling to find words to describe a particular musical effect to his orchestra. Remembering
that he had a silk handkerchief in his pocket, he quickly removed it and tossed it high in the air.
As the musicians watched the handkerchief float gracefully toward the ground, they immediately
understood what Toscanini was attempting to describe. Play it like that, Toscanini said
(Gangwer, 2009).
This is an excellent example of the role that visualization can and does play in the
classroom and learning in general. As we shift from a world that is dominated by the language
of production to one that revolves around ideas about information, we simultaneously witness the
world around us transform from one that is word-based to primarily image-based (Gangwer,
2009). This shift certainly affects children as their brains become accustomed to and develop to
function in this predominantly image-based environment. Closely examining this environment
and how it affects student behaviors reveals how deeply this paradigm shift has taken root. As a
result, teaching practices that ignore this shift and neglect to use visuals in instruction are quickly
becoming outdated as they fail to meet the changing needs of todays learners.
Augmented Reality
One visual tool now aiding users is called augmented reality (AR). AR can be defined as
superimposing a virtual object over a real-world object or environment (Azuma, as cited by
Thornton, 2012, p. 18). It has also been defined as a real-time direct or indirect view of a
physical real-world environment that has been enhanced/augmented by adding virtual computer
generated information to it (Carmigniani & Furht, as cited by Wasko, 2013, p17). AR uses a
camera to capture objects in the real world and, in real time, projects the visual and/or audio into
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 4
the environment. AR projects videos and other visual media on top of real world visuals via
computer, smartphones, or tablets. These visual additions may be three dimensional (3D) objects
or animation, photographs or videos, or text. Lin et al. (2013) says AR fulfills three functions: a
combination of real and virtual worlds, real time interaction, and accurate 3D representation of
virtual and real objects (p 314).
According to Dunleavy (2014), there are two main types of AR: location-based and
vision-based. Location-based AR is triggered by global positioning system (GPS) signals.
When users reach a certain location, it will trigger the media on their electronic device.
Educationally, this could be used for field trips or scavenger hunt type activities. Vision-based
AR is triggered by the recognition of an object or image through the devices camera. Uses may
include finding more information about a painting in a museum, viewing interior layers of an
object with solid walls, or viewing the composition of molecules.
One example of AR use would be a teacher explaining the parts of a plant by showing a
live video of the plant while the students see the plant in the background. The students would
see the plants parts named with 3D elements overlaying the video. Apps like Spacecraft 3D,
Star Chart, and Star & Planet Finder, found both on iTunes and Google Play, engage the
observer to find planets or constellations in the night sky, using a smartphone or iPad. These
apps are free, with additional in-app purchases. These applications also enable the ability to see
satellites and constellations. The smartphone is used as the point of observation and the objects
are the stars and is seen on these devices, even when those objects are not visible in the real sky.
Using GPS and the movement of the device, users can look through the screen to see names and
positions of celestial bodies that are found in that direction.
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 5
There is an AR application called Spacecraft 3D, which has a target that the application
supplies and one would use their iPad or iPhone to take record the spacecraft movements and gain
information about space, through one of the spacecrafts from several that one may choose in
iTunes.
A growing number of museums have begun to use AR so that visitors able to obtain
more information about exhibits, or even interact with them. Yoon and Wang (2014) cited
various studies showing gains in understanding when lessons were supplemented with AR. In
Yoons study, students interacted with physical magnets. An experimental group were
supplemented with AR materials that showed the invisible magnetic field. Yoon and Wang found
that the students using AR not only gained a better understanding, they also spent more time
interacting with the physical objects and collaborating with their peers. Yoon and Wang
hypothesized that being able to see complex aspects of the model that would normally be hidden
helped the learners develop deeper understandings. AR visualizations can also assist learners by
helping them focus on the important aspects of an object or model.

AR is used in museums to give visitors more information about in
interaction with exhibits (Kippelboy, 2013). Licensed under
Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 6
There are several educational uses associated with AR, such as:
Childrens work can be displayed on the boards, and the parents can use an iPad to hover
over their work. This allows parents to view the students detailed descriptions
undetectable by the naked eye. This process can also be used for professors in
universities.
Student vocabulary is vital in the classroom, on any grade or collegiate level. Using AR
technology, teachers can display a word and students can hover the iPad or iPhone over it
to see its definition, pictures that clarify the words definition, phonetic spelling of the
word, and hear the enunciation of the word. Similarly, AR can be used to translate
written text to a different language.
A school may show a faculty wall with pictures of faculty or administrators. If a device
views a specific image, parent can view information about their childs teacher and
coming events in the classroom.
AR is a tool that can be used by students or anyone that is deaf or hard of hearing. When
the words are detected by the iPad or iPhone, it can give the sign language of the word
and its definition.
While doing homework, students may use AR triggered by an image in the textbook. The
teacher can give a video mini lesson on how to do a math problem, show a science
experiment to students who were absent, or read a story for which the students can write
a synopsis.
History/Conceptual Framework of Augmented Reality. The concept of AR may have
begun as early as 1950 with Morton Helig and his Sensorama machine. Sung (2014) explained
that it was created as a way to engage all of the viewers senses. In appearance, it looked similar
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 7
to a 1980s arcade machine. In addition to audio and video, there was motion in the seat and
wind blown at the user. A 3D environment was created using stereoscopic effects (Beginnings,
para. 1. Line 2). The device was never sold because it was expensive and awkward.
Professor Ivan Sutherland designed a device in 1968. It was cumbersome and was placed
on the humans head, but hung from the ceiling. It never sold because of its weight. This device
reached AR possibilities. It was named The Sword of Damocles, (Sung, 2014, Beginnings,
para. 2, line 5), a term used to describe a situation permeated with undecided destiny.
Sung (2014) stated, While it might have been around for a few years in one shape or
other, the phrase Augmented Reality is supposed to have been coined by Professor Tom
Caudell. (AR is born, para. 1, line 1) Professor Caudell created the overlay effect of AR. This
concept showed his peers how to understand their specific jobs of engineering, with the AR
software that he created. Today, there are many affordable platforms for teachers to create AR
environments, such as ARIS and FreshAIR (Holden, 2014; Wasko, 2013). Also, mobile devices
are common and so AR is easily distributed to students. Google glasses are likely to make AR a
common experience for the public in the near future (Wasko, 2013).


Le Meur, L. (2013). Licensed under Creative Commons
Attribution 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 8
Benefits of AR. Today Augmented Reality is still in its infancy. With new technologies,
such as AR, Anderson (2014) stated, AR learning system for mathematics and geometry
education allows teachers and students to interact through various interactive scenarios in a
collaborative environment (Education with AR in a classroom setting, para 1, line 9). Using AR
to explain how the stars and constellations are found, with the use of a smartphone or tablet,
shows the student a 3D visual of a realistic view of how stars look in space.
Projects involving AR produce strong academic advantages in the classrooms. The
grouping of students for collaboration within projects helps students to learn to solve problems
through the use of their capabilities, which transforms to success. A study by Yoon and Wang
(2014) found that AR increases the amount of collaboration between students and time spent on
tasks.

AR helps students to visualize layers that may not be easily
visible without purchasing expensive models. (Image
Hagustin, 2013, Licensed under Creative Commons
Attribution 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons)

Another advantage to AR is in helping students to build visual models of things that
would otherwise be inaccessible, either because the objects are opaque, too small or large, too
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 9
costly, or too dangerous to handle Yi (2010). For some experiments, AR may be superior
because it will help students avoid limitations of apparatus and measurements (Yoon & Wang,
2013). Lin et al. (2013) discussed how AR can be used to help students in the development
stages of a design project to help them troubleshoot and detect errors in their design before
producing a physical object. AR also helps students develop spatial awareness.
Concerns and Challenges of AR
AR is not a fad and its use can be beneficial in the classroom. However some schools are
not equipped with enough iPads or computers for the classroom usage (Martin, Dikkers, Squire,
& Gagnon, 2014). There might also be a problem with overpowering the circuit or internet.
There should be more money invested in educational technology, but it is critical to employ the
updated uses of technology. Technology changes are rapid and the students are keeping up with
it in some home environments. The disadvantaged student is left behind and their educational
competencies in technology might not be equal to the advantaged student.
One of the key challenges to AR is the time and difficulty in creating resources. Faculty
will need to be given the time to collaborate and develop materials (Holden, 2014). To make AR
more accessible for teachers, user-friendly programs need to be developed. Martin et al. (2014)
suggest the development of Minimal Viable Products (MVP) that only includes the features that
teachers want. Starting with a very basic platform, users will not be overwhelmed trying to
navigate lengthy menus or features. As teachers use the platform, they can make suggestions to
the developers who can add features to meet needs of the educational population.
3D Printing
3D printing, or rapid prototyping, uses printers that turn a digitally created three-dimensional
object into physical reality (Bull, Chiu, Berry, Lipson, & Xie, 2014). They work by layering and
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 10
fusing print materials (Thornburg, Thornburg, & Armstrong, 2014), which may range from
plastics, metals, food, and even biological matter. Materials will be fused together differently
depending on material. There is a variation of materials, and plastics are generally used for the
less expensive printers that are reasonable for educational use.
Lower end printers have increasingly good resolution (Horowitz & Shultz, 2014), and rough
edges can be sanded (Kroll & Artzi, 2011) or minimized with acetone (Thornburg et al., 2014).
Objects can be created digitally using CAD (computer-aided design) programs. Because the
objects are created on a computer digitally, 3D printing may also be referred to as desktop
publishing (Bull et al., 2014).

One example of 3D printer, the ORDbot quantum (Dring, 2011).
The printer has a moving base and separately moving printing
nozzle. Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

There are many types of printers available (Horowitz & Shultz, 2014; Thornburg et al., 2014)
and educators should consider the various advantages and disadvantages of each, as well as their
intended use when purchasing a 3D printer. On the higher end, there are a variety of types of
and uses for 3D printers. One is for industrial prototypes, where it is more cost effective to
manufacture one or a few objects on a printer rather than creating casts. NASA and other private
companies have been designing a zero gravity printer for use in space, and there are plans to send
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 11
it to the international space station (Horejsi, 2014; Thornburg et al., 2014). Rather than a costly
launch to send spare parts, astronauts will be able to print needed parts on demand. Other
research has looked at its uses in medicine, attempting to print replacement organs using host
cells to avoid the potential for rejection (Thornburg et al., 2014). Because of its advantages and
practical uses, 3D printing is a technology likely to grow and likely to play a more prominent
role in our lives.
There are many different types of CAD software available, each with different design
emphases and purposes as well as strengths and weaknesses (Thornburg et al., 2014). With some
programs, users create polyhedral figures, generating flat surfaces. Others start with more
spherical shapes that the user manipulates and shapes much like clay. Finding the right CAD
programs for each school will depend on the task, the ease of the interface, and the cost.
Inexpensive printers used in schools usually one of two kinds of plastics: acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS) or polylactic acid (PLA) (Thornburg et al., 2014). These plastics are
heated and then squeezed through a nozzle onto the building surface, layering the plastics to
generate the figures. ABS is made from petroleum, while PLA is made from starch. ABS does
shrink a little when cooling, but it builds a stronger product than PLA, which can be brittle.
Desktop publishing does not need to be confined to the use of 3D printers. Other potential
forms of construction of 3D prototypes may also involve designing and printing two-dimensional
parts to construct three-dimensional figures. (Bull et al., 2014). This may be used in activities
such as designing a building, creating a polyhedron, or any other figure constructed from flat
surfaces. Besides printing, CNC (computer numerical control) milling can also be used to
produce two-dimensional parts.
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 12
History/Conceptual Framework of 3D Printing. 3D printers have been around for decades
(Nelson, 2012). Originally, they helped research and development departments lower the costs
and time of building prototypes. In 2007, the first open source printer became available. This
printer, RepRap, was first used at the University of Bath and was capable of printing most of the
parts needed to build another 3D printer. Open sourcing brought down the costs of producing
3D printers.
3D printers are now available for as low as $500. Many designs for printable objects can
be found online (Thornburg et al., 2014). These open source designs can be downloaded and
adapted for free at websites like Thingiverse (www.thingiverse.com) and Youmagine
(www.youmagine.com). One parent used a 3D printer to print a prosthetic hand for his child that
could pick up objects. Borrowing the printer from his sons elementary school and using open
source material, he printed the hand for a few dollars; thousands less than the cost of an
industrially produced prosthetic (Thornburg et al., 2014).

The NY Daily News (Kemp, 2014) and Huffington Post (Miller, 2013) report that there are parents
using 3D printers for prosthetics. View the articles at: http://nydn.us/1thIeZj and
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/04/dad-prints-prosthetic-hand-leon-mccarthy_n_4214217.html

In education, 3D printers are fairly new, and their use is still a novelty (Horejsi, 2014).
There are two primary ways that teachers are using 3D printers in classrooms. The first is for
demonstration purposes. Teachers can print visual aids as needed for their class, such as models
or devices for activities (Horejsi, 2014; Horowitz & Schultz, 2014; Segerman, 2012). These
activities allow students to interact with the objects to gain a greater tactile understanding. This
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 13
can be particularly useful for visually impaired students, allowing the teacher to print resources
when needed. The other use is by students for problem solving activities, especially in STEM
(science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) subjects (Bull et al., 2014; Kroll & Artzi,
2011; Thornburg et al., 2014). While working to design within constraints, students are expected
to develop critical thinking skills, engineering and design skills, and deepen their spatial
reasoning and visualization abilities.
Possible Educational Advantages of 3D Printing. 3D printing is a new technology, so
there is little research on how to best use it in the classroom (Bull et al., 2014). However, there
are connections with other areas that have been researched, such as visualization, modeling,
problem solving, problem-based learning, and tactile interaction.
There are many uses for addressing STEM standards, such as problem solving, precision
measurement, abstract reasoning, modeling, and making use of structure, and for science
connecting the real world with the classroom (Thornburg et al., 2014). For example, teachers
can print out skeletons or other models for use in activities (Horejsi, 2014). According to Bull et
al. (2014), there needs to be a greater connection in elementary and middle schools between
math and science curriculum with engineering, especially designing within given constraints and
optimizing to a goal (Bull et al., 2014). These connections help students understand how math
and science work in the real world, and (Bull et al.2014), suggest programs addressing these at a
younger age, noting that studies show participating in design related activities increase
performance on math assessments.
Often, 3D printing involves printing multiple parts and requires assembly of the finished
parts. The printer can precisely print interlocking pieces that can be assembled (Segerman,
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 14
2012). This assembly builds fine motor skills and provides a better sense of structure in the
learner (Thornburg et al., 2014).
Horowitz & Shultz (2014) discuss how 3D printing provides tactile interaction with printed
objects, allowing students to see, feel, and manipulate an object. Repeated exposure to shapes by
touch increases spatial intelligence and discrimination between shapes. This offers an advantage
over purely digital representations that can be viewed and manipulated, but also touched and felt.
Models can exaggerate certain features, to help give students an understanding of things like
geological features. This tactile interaction can be used as an aid for visually impaired students.
Other advantages include a fast turnaround time from the design to the production stage
(Segerman, 2012). Using rapid prototyping early in the design stage helps learners refine their
thinking as they progress toward a final product, allowing them to explore different possibilities
throughout the process (Bull et al., 2014). In university aerospace programs, 3D printing can
greatly decrease the cost of production of prototypes used for testing in wind tunnels (Kroll &
Artzi, 2011).
In terms of the software, there are many different CAD software packages available with
different advantages, some free (Segerman, 2012). Thornburg et al. (2014) describe several of
these, pointing out that they were designed for different purposes. Some are designed with more
mathematical structures in mind, others consist of polygonal faces, and others are more curved
with similarities to modeling clay.
Concerns and Challenges of 3D Printing. A primary concern is that there are few
educational resources for 3D printing available at this time (Thornburg et al., 2014). Also, there
has been little research into the effectiveness of 3D printing on learning (Bull et al., 2014).
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 15
Another concern is safety. Some parts of the printer are very hot and could burn students.
Often, sharp tools are needed to remove printed objects from the printing base. Students need to
be instructed on proper safety procedures or kept away during printing (Thornburg et al., 2014).
This is especially a concern with younger students.
Printing time can be long for larger projects, however the actual printing often doesnt need
supervision. A project could be left alone while it prints, even printing projects overnight
(Thornburg et al., 2014).
A disadvantage to 3D printing is the time spent on learning software to create printable
objects. Starting with clearly defined projects will help students learn the tools, but it will be in
open-ended design activities that students will get the most from 3D printing (Thornburg et al.,
2014). Also, because there are so many different CAD tools created for different types of
design, a teacher may need to learn and teach how to use several programs to meet different
objectives.
Teachers will also need to communicate the ethics of 3D printing. 3D printing makes it possible
to easily print copyrighted material (Massis, 2013). Teachers should direct students to design
their own objects or download open source designs.
Augmented Reality/Desktop Publishing in the Classroom in Education: Trends/Issues
Nearly a century ago, educators faced the same dilemma that they do today in the
struggle to make sense of, integrate, and adopt new instructional practices in their classrooms.
Today, however, visualization specifically, is highly regarded as an important method of
instruction. It relates to multisensory approaches to education which have been well-
documented to improve learning across subjects and for all ages. Research in the areas of
multisensory learning has revealed that the average classroom is made up of 65% visual learners,
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 16
30% auditory learners, and 5% kinesthetic learners (Mind Tools, 2009). For students with
special needs and learning disabilities, the numbers may be an even more dramatic shift to the
visual and kinesthetic arena. With that said, visualization has also been made popular through
the wealth of research that has proven its effectiveness for learners with disabilities of varying
types and degrees.
To truly understand the impact of visualization in the classroom, it must be understood
that it is a broad category that includes several different methods and practices. In short, it
describes a method of instruction that allows learners to add a visual component to the course
material or concept being taught. At its extreme, traditional instruction typically involves
learners receiving information solely through auditory channels, whereas multisensory
approaches such as visualization enable learners to involve the other senses either individually or
simultaneously. When this broad category is broken down, we see visualization take many
different forms. From the use of manipulatives in mathematics education, to movies, videos,
PowerPoint presentations, and puppets, visuals can be used in an almost infinite number of ways
across all subjects. These visuals aid in retention and comprehension of concepts being taught.
The digital revolution has certainly expanded this broad category of visualization. With
an immense amount of information now being accessed via technology, visualization has grown
in popularity. These changes have been so dramatic that they have redefined or added elements
of competency when it comes to what students are expected to know and understand. For
example, literacy is seen as one of the most basic, yet significant components of knowledge and
learning. Now, there is a focus on a new type of literacy, visual literacy, along with an emphasis
on critical visual thinking skills. Full spectrum visual literacy is defined as the ability to
understand non-linguistic communication facilitated by visuals and images and the ability to use
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 17
visual imagery to express oneself (Gangwer, 2009). Along with the digital, revolution has come
a mandate that students are not only able to understand and communicate through words, but
students are expected to demonstrate this same competency through images as well.
The economic changes that have happened as a result of the digital revolution have also
had a significant impact on visualization. Resource availability, cost, and variety have all been
favorably affected by expanding technological resources. Technologies relatively new to the
field of education like 3D printing and augmented reality have stretched the potential and cost
effectiveness of visualization to realms that were unimaginable just a few short years ago.
Furthermore, as the technologies become more advanced, we see the visuals increase in
complexity as well. Years ago, incorporating a video on a particular topic or teaching with the
visual support of a PowerPoint presentation were technological assets. Today, technologies such
as augmented reality and 3D printing give learners unparalleled access to learn and study in a
way that are newly possible. An advanced technology such as 3D printing is unique in that it not
only meets the needs of visual learners, but it also gives students the opportunity to use tactile
methods of learning.
Even with its obvious benefits, there are still many opponents to instructional practices
that heavily rely on visuals and images. According to Wise-Bauer (2009), the brain takes a
passive role in the learning process when looking at visuals. On the other hand, processing and
communicating with language forces the brain to work harder and facilitates brain development.
Proponents of classical instruction argue that learning should be centered around the written and
spoken word and this results in students who are competent in reading and writing complex
literature, able to reason intelligently, and make thoughtful and thorough arguments. Those who
align with this school of thought often point to the rigor of early schooling in America and the
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 18
competency of the students it produced. However, it is important to note that classical
educational models do not disagree with the use of visuals altogether. Instead, they argue the
visuals should be used in moderation and only as a supplement to what has already been taught
through written or spoken word. Today, the question is not whether or not to incorporate visuals
into the classroom, but how to incorporate visuals and technology into the classroom. If there is
any question to the effectiveness of visualization, it is the method and frequency of use as
opposed to whether or not to integrate at all.
Problem-Based Learning
Problem-based Learning (PBL) is a learning-centered pedagogy. It can be used for
individual learners or in a collaborative effort. It focuses on learners active and often
collaborative production of knowledge through engaging activities with real-world problems or
cases. In this method, problems are the starting point for the learning process, and learners build
their own experiences in those real-world situations. It emphasizes critical thinking, higher-order
thinking, research skills, and problem solving skills with learners. It also allows the development
of cross-curricular skills. PBL provides a greater understanding of a topic with deeper learning
and it increases motivation to learn.
During the 1950s, PBL was used mainly in medical education due to unsatisfactory
clinical performance (Hung, Jonassen, & Liu, 2008). The main idea was to create a method of
instruction that would provide a need to solve an authentic problem, leading to the identification
of a solution for that problem. Today, PBL has become a trend in the education world, and will
continue to dwell in learning environments due to its many benefits.
Characteristics of Problem-Based Learning. According to Hung, et al. (2008), the
main goal of PBL is to boost learning by requiring the learner to get to the bottom of a problem.
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 19
PBL is student centered and self-directed, in a way that the learner may individually or
collaboratively assume responsibility for generating learning issues. The learners are able to
access their own learning materials and assess themselves and others during the process (Hung,
et al., 2008). Students are responsible for monitoring their own understanding, while the main
role of the instructor is to facilitate learning. Research shows that PBL has many benefits in the
educational environment. Since PBL is a method that encourages learning through real-life
problems, there are multiple skills gained during this type of learning.
In education and in the job force, one of the most desired skills is the ability to be a
problem solver. This is one promise of PBL. In PBL, the learner quickly learns how to identify
problems in real world situations and then creates a solution or finds the answer. This leads to
life-long problem-solving skills that can be used in any domain of life.
In order for a learner to be able to solve problems, the learner must first possess higher-
order thinking skills (Hung, et al., 2008). Higher-order thinking skills allow the learner to take
basic information that is known about a problem and then analyze all aspects of the problem to
effectively discover a solution. A lot of practice is required to improve the overall ability to
utilize higher-order thinking skills.
Problem-based learning research has shown evidence that content is better retained in
terms of short-term and long-term retention (Hung, et al., 2008). This follows from John
Deweys learning theory, or the experiential theory, that suggests people learn by doing. In other
words, when the learner is immersed in his own learning, the learner is able to make real-life
connections and retaining the information is automatic.
Problem-Based Learning in Education. Hung et al. (2008), suggests that PBL is
probably the most original instructional method in education. It provides the learner with a sense
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 20
of need in terms of problem solving. PBL can be utilized at many levels of education including
K-12, all the way through higher education.
PBL was gradually introduced into the field of higher education during the 1990s (Hung
et al., 2008). It has been applied to a variety of professional programs within higher education,
such as the medical field, engineering, architecture, law schools, leadership education, and
nursing education (Hung et al., 2008). All of these fields require daily hands on activities and
tasks, which is why it makes PBL a perfect methodology for teaching prospective students of the
field.
PBL was also introduced to the K-12 education world around the 1990s (Hung, et al.,
2008). The advantage of PBL in the K-12 setting is that it can be utilized for all learners. Hung et
al. (2008) suggests that PBL works well with gifted students and the at-risk population.
Use of Technology in Problem-Based Learning. Usually when one speaks of PBL,
small group, face-to-face learning probably comes to mind. However, with the development of
technology and easy access to the internet, PBL is now available in different aspects of
education. Since PBL can be utilized independently, this method of teaching and learning is now
available online in distance education programs. The use of Learning Management Systems
simplifies online learning and collaboration.
PBL is finding expanded use enabled by technology. The use of multimedia components
for PBL environments is becoming more popular as technology advances (Hung et al., 2008). A
perfect example of this is through Desktop Publishing and Augmented Reality. Desktop
Publishing is the creation of printed materials that are created via Desktop Publishing software.
Once the printed materials have been created, Augmented Reality comes into play. Augmented
Reality (AR) allows users to gain an enhanced perception of reality through the use of a mobile
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 21
device or other AR capable devices. AR apps on mobile devices allow the user to point and scan
materials, such as those created via Desktop Publishing software, and interact with the materials
in such a way that problems can be solved. Some AR information that is scanned can be just for
informative reasons, however, it can provide real-life learning experiences similarly to PBL.
Future Research
Education systems, colleges and universities, are equipped with distance learning
technologies. However, they are interested in moving forward to advanced technology for the
distance learner. AR is part of the process of developing and improving teaching techniques for
the classroom environment and the distant learner. Future research with AR would have to focus
on students understanding complex learning. AR is the tool that can be used to layer the
concepts, plus the usage is fun. The research should also find a way to make it affordable and
accessible to all students, including university students.
3D printing is a new technology that is quickly finding its way into classrooms. Teachers
and students are finding creative ways to use it for educational purposes, but research into its
educational effectiveness is still in its early stages (Bull et al., 2014; Thornburg et al., 2014).
These technologies help students to view multiple representations help students move from
concrete examples to abstract reasoning. Future research into these emerging technologies
should focus on isolating specific variables and how they affect learning (de Jong, 2014).
Conclusion
Technology is rapidly progressing and the interfacing of AR with mobile, desktop
computers, 3D printers, and other sources of technology are becoming more advanced. One
would consider 3D learning at the very high spectrum of educational advances. It creates higher
order thinking skills, motivates collaborative education, and takes tactile learning to a new level.
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 22
Researchers are improving the applications of 3D tools and AR applications so that using
mobile devices will become less important and AR will be at the forefront of personal usage.
There are threats of invasion of privacy and more research needs to be done to block users from
those invasions. However, AR usage in the educational environment will make a significant
impact on students academic achievement.
PBL is needed throughout the academic arena in order to enhance student engagement.
Not only does PBL allow interactive instruction, but it allows the learner to design and develop
the outcome of their own learning experience, while gaining necessary skills that can be used in
the workplace and in real-world environments. Through continued research, PBL in education
will eventually become easier for the learner to use and will align with AR and Desktop
Publishing to develop the minds of the future.


3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 23

References
Bull, G., Chiu, J., Berry, R., Lipson, H., & Xie, C. (2014). Advancing childrens engineering
through desktop manufacturing. In J.M. Spector, M.D. Merrill, J. Elan, & M.J. Bishop
(eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology (4th
Ed.). New York, N.Y.: Routledge. [iBooks version]. Retrieved from iTunes.
Craig, A. (2013). Understanding augmented reality. Morgan Kaufmann Publisher.
Dring, B. (2011). ORDbot quantum. Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from:
http://www.buildlog.net/wiki/doku.php?id=ord_bot:the_ord_bot
Dunleavy, M. (2014). Design principles for augmented reality learning. TechTrends: Linking
Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 58(1), p. 28-34.
Hagustin (2013). App iSkull, an augmented human skull. Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:App_iSkull,_an_augmented_human_skull.jpg#m
ediaviewer/File:App_iSkull,_an_augmented_human_skull.jpg
Holden, C. (2014). The local games lab ABQ: Homegrown augmented reality. Techtrends:
Linking Research & Practice To Improve Learning, 58(1), 42-48. doi:10.1007/s11528-
013-0719-0
Horejsi, M. (2014). Teaching STEM with a 3D printer. The Science Teacher, 81(4), 10.
Horowitz, S. S., & Schultz, P. H. (2014). Printing space: Using 3D printing of digital terrain
models in geosciences education and research. Journal of Geoscience Education, 62(1),
138-145.
Hung, W., Jonassen, D., & Liu, R. (2008). Problem-based learning. Handbook of Research on
Educational communications and technology 3, 485-506.
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 24
Kemp, J. (2014). Florida boy, 6, gets prosthetic arm built with 3-D printer. New York Daily
News. Retrieved from: http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/health/florida-boy-6-
prosthetic-arm-built-3-d-printer-article-1.1882546
Kippelboy (2013). Augmented reality at Museu de Matar linking to Catalan Wikipedia (23).
Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Augmented_reality_at_Museu_de_Matar%C3%
B3_linking_to_Catalan_Wikipedia_(23).JPG#mediaviewer/Bestand:Augmented_reality_a
t_Museu_de_Matar%C3%B3_linking_to_Catalan_Wikipedia_(23).JPG
Kroll, E. & Artzi, D. (2011). Enhancing aerospace engineering students' learning with 3D
printing wind- tunnel models. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 17(5), pp.393 402.
Le Meur, L. (2013). "A Google Glass wearer" by Loic Le Meur - Flickr: Loic Le Meur on
Google Glass. Wikipedia Commons. Retrieved from:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_Google_Glass_wearer.jpg#mediaviewer/File:
A_Google_Glass_wearer.jpg
Lin, T., Duh, H., Li, N., Wang, H., & Tsai, C. (2013). An investigation of learners' collaborative
knowledge construction performances and behavior patterns in an augmented reality
simulation system. Computers & Education, 68314-321.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.05.011
Martin, J., Dikkers, S., Squire, K., & Gagnon, D. (2014). Participatory scaling through
augmented reality learning through local games. Techtrends: Linking Research &
Practice To Improve Learning, 58(1), 35-41. doi:10.1007/s11528-013-0718-1
Massis, B. E. (2013). 3D printing and the library. New Library World, 114(7), 351-354.
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 25
Miller, M. (2013). Dad uses 3D printer to make his son a prosthetic hand. Huffington Post.
Retrieved from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/04/dad-prints-prosthetic-hand-
leon-mccarthy_n_4214217.html
Nelson, D. (2012). Making it real with 3D printing. InfoWorld.Com. Retrieved from:
http://www.infoworld.com/d/computer-hardware/making-it-real-3d-printing-208721
OhmEye1 (2011). Timelapse of a hyperboloid object print (made of PLA) using a RepRap
Prusa Mendel 3D printer. Wikipedia Commons. Retrieved from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hyperboloid_Print.ogv
Segerman, H. (2012). 3D printing for mathematical visualization. The Mathematical
Intelligencer, 34(4), 56 62.
Thornburg, D., Thornburg, N., & Armstrong, S. (2014). The Invent to Learn Guide to 3D
Printing in the Classroom: Recipes for Success. Constructing Modern Knowledge Press.
[Kindle version]. Retrieved from Amazon.com.
Thornton, T., Ernst, J., & Clark, A. (2012). Augmented reality as a visual and spatial learning
tool in technology education. Technology & Engineering Teacher, 71(8), p. 18-21.
Wasko, C. (2013). What teachers need to know about augmented reality enhanced learning
environments. Techtrends: Linking Research & Practice To Improve Learning, 57(4), 17-
21. doi:10.1007/s11528-013-0672-y
Yi, L. (2010). Augmented reality for remote education. Advanced Computer Theory and
Engineering (ICACTE), 2010 3rd International Conference on, ISSN 2154-7491, 2010,
ISBN 9781424465392, Volume 3, pp. V3-187 - V3-191.
3D PRINTING AND AUGMENTED REALITY 26
Yoon, S. A., & Wang, J. (2014). Making the invisible visible in science museums through
augmented reality devices. Techtrends: Linking Research & Practice To Improve
Learning, 58(1), 49-55. doi:10.1007/s11528-013-0720-7.