IJETAE 0414 108a

International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 4, Issue 4, April 2014)
622

New Dynamic Battery Model for Hybrid Vehicles
S. Wijewardana
1
Member-IESL
School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK.

Abstract Battery storage (BS) systems are static energy
conversion units that convert the chemical energy directly into
electrical energy. They exist in our cars, laptops, electronic
appliances, micro electricity generation systems and in many
other mobile to stationary power supply systems. The
economic advantages, partial sustainability and the portability
of these units pose promising substitutes for backup power
systems for hybrid vehicles and hybrid electricity generation
systems. Dynamic behaviour of these systems can be analysed
by using mathematical modeling and simulation software
programs. Though, there have been many mathematical
models presented in the literature and proved to be successful,
dynamic simulation of these systems are still very exhaustive
and time consuming as they do not behave according to
specific mathematical models or functions. The charging and
discharging of battery functions are a combination of
exponential and non-linear nature. The aim of this research
paper is to present a suitable convenient, dynamic battery
model that can be used to model a general BS system.
Proposed model is a new modified dynamic Lead-Acid battery
model considering the effect of temperature and cyclic
charging and discharging effects. Simulink has been used to
study the characteristics of the system and the proposed
system has proved to be very successful as the simulation
results have been very good.
KeywordsSimulink Matlab, Battery Model, Simulation,
BS Lead-Acid, Dynamic modeling, Temperature effect,
Hybrid Vehicles.
I. INTRODUCTION
Development of high quality, durable energy storage
systems are complementary for the successful operation of
future Smart Grids and hybrid vehicles. Their ability to
store energy has changed the traditional power systems
definition. However, their benefits are hard to quantify
because of the complexity of different applications and
modeling difficulties. Dynamic modeling has become even
very involved task due to many parameters associated with
the BS systems [8]. Zhang et al [5] described that the
battery models can be classified according to their
modeling areas [5]. They are mainly classified as
Electrochemical, Mathematical, Electrical and Polynomial.
The Electrochemical models use the fundamental battery
chemistry while the Mathematical models use empirical
equations and polynomial models to study their responses
in terms of polynomial expressions.
The Electrical models employ the electrolyte, electrode,
polarization resistances, and capacitances along with a
controlled voltage source [5].
Tremblay et al [37] summarized that there are three
types of battery models: Experimental, Electrochemical and
Electric circuit-based. In their paper they further notified
that the experimental and the electrochemical models are
not well suited to represent cell dynamics for the purpose
of state-of-charge (SOC) estimations of battery packs.
However, the electric circuit-based models can be useful to
represent electrical characteristics of the batteries. The
simplest electric model consists of an ideal voltage source
in series with an internal resistance [37]. This model,
however, does not take into account the battery SOC. And
the other model is based on an open circuit voltage in series
with a resistance and parallel RC circuits with the so-called
Warburg impedance model [37]. The identication of all
the parameters of these models are based on a complicated
technique called impedance spectroscopy [37]. Another
very good overview of battery models were given by
Erdinc et al [2] along with the accuracy. Most
mathematical models use stochastic approaches or
empirical equations to predict the battery parameters and
therefore their accuracy is limited to the range of 5-20%
[2]. Excellent clarifications on the battery models were
published by Shafiei et al [40]. According to Shafiei,
battery models are classified into four main types similar to
[5]. They are namely: a) electrochemical b) stochastic c)
analytical d) electrical circuit models.
A. Electrochemical Models
The electrochemical models are based on chemical
reactions occurring inside the battery cells. Apparently they
have been identified as the most accurate, since they
simulate the cells at the microscopic scale. However,
drawback with these models is inevitable and that is the
involvement of many non-linear differential equations to
model the system. Hence, the simulations take very long
hours or perhaps many days to find the results. Therefore,
these models were not applied in hybrid electrical systems
while vehicular applications and their control systems
usually need real time data [40].

623

B. Stochastic or Mathematical Models
The stochastic models are less descriptive but more
intuitive compared to the electrochemical models. They are
based on discrete time Markov chains which are mainly
focussed on the probability [6, 40]. In addition, it was
found in the literature that the Mathematical based models
use mainly the Shepherd relation and modification to
Shepherds relation (addition or modification of certain
mathematical expressions to suit the phenomenal functions)
[4]. In Mathematical oriented models, the parameters are
extracted by curve fitting the manufacturers discharge
curves. The battery blockset in SimPowerSystems Toolbox
in Matlab can be used to extract the battery parameters [4].
C. Analytical Models
The analytical models use heuristic methods or empirical
formulas to model the battery cells. A good example is a
modified Peukerts equation to include integrating current
to improve the battery model. The other example is the
Kinetic Battery Model to illustrate the relaxation effect in
the batteries [40]. Though, many papers have categorised
Analytical Models, Stochastic Models and Mathematical
Models, authors conclusion to all these three groups will
fall under one group which can be called the Analytical
Model.
D. Electrical Circuit Model
Equivalent electrical circuit models have been used by
many researchers for dynamic modeling to arrive at better
results [6, 25]. When using the electrical circuit model
normally, the parasitic loop is ignored as it will hardly
make a significant change to the system output. The other
advantage of the electrical model is that it will simplify the
computing effect without getting into loops with an
extending facility to use the Kalmal Filter for accurate
results [25]. Instead of using two RC loops to model the
electrical equivalent circuit, Xiong et al [38] used a single
loop and a mathematical function with a parametric
evaluation method. Fuzzy-Control approach based on
polarization properties were given by Jiang et al [39]. In
general, the electrical circuit models can also be classified
into three main categories [5]: (a) Thevenin-based models
(b) Impedance- based models and (c) runtime-based models
[6, 13, 40].
The Thevenin model assumes the open circuit voltage as
a constant and uses a series resistor and an RC parallel
network to model the battery response to transient
loads [6].

The Thevenin-based models are constructed by curve-
fitting methodology with a set of experimental voltage and
current measurements over a range of battery operating
conditions whereas the impedance based models are
developed by fitting with the impedance spectra [4].These
type of circuit based models are real-time implementable
and can run on Hardware-in-Loop(HIL) platforms. Hence
they are very useful in vehicle level dynamic simulation
studies [4]. An increase in the number of parallel RC loops
can increase the accuracy of the battery model. However,
this could increase the complexity of simulation and the
models can get into loops when simulating. These types of
models can be used for temperature effect on SOC and
cyclic effect calculations [4, 6]. Impedance based models
are suitable when the SOC and the temperature are
assumed to be constants. Runtime-based models use
continuous or discrete-time implementations to simulate
battery runtime and dc voltage response in SPICE-
compatible simulations for constant current discharges. In
these models inaccuracy increases when the load current
varies [6]. Hence, the best possible model could be derived
from the combination of Thevenin and runtime-based
models [6].
This paper is organized as follows. Section II describes
the dynamic modeling of a Lithium-Ion battery and the
governing mathematical equations and parameters. The
new dynamic battery model is presented in section III along
with the solutions to the prevailing questions raised by
previous work. Simulation results, comparing with the
existing dynamic models have been presented and
discussed in section IV. Other salient features developed
into the new model have also been discussed in this section.
Temperature effect on the open circuit voltage, SOC and
the other battery parameters have been included with the
simulation results. The conclusion is given in section V.
II. DYNAMIC MODELING
Within the context of equivalent electrical circuit (EEC)
battery modeling, many papers used the modern modified
Shepherds equation-1965 (equation 1) to model the ohmic
resistance of batteries. This method is rather the
combination of the EEC and the Mathematical Model. In
general the internal resistance of batteries can be divided
into two main parts: ohmic resistance (electronic
resistance) and polarization resistance (ionic resistance)
[40]. The ohmic resistance mainly consists of electrode
resistance, metal covers and contact resistance.

624

On the other hand, polarization resistance is dependent
on chemical polarization and electrolyte concentration. The
polarization (ionic) resistance is the resistance to current
flow within the battery due to various electrochemical
factors such as, electrolyte conductivity, ion mobility and
electrode surface area film formation. These polarization
effects occur more slowly than electronic resistance with a
contribution to the total effective resistance typically
starting a few milliseconds or more after the battery is
placed under a load.

Fig. 1. Voltage response of Li-ion battery when discharged with a
pulse discharge current [40].
These two types of resistance can be illustrated as shown
in Fig.1. When a pulse discharge current is applied to the
battery, voltage profile could be obtained as shown in Fig.1
[40]. The immediate vertical voltage drop is due to the
ohmic resistance R
ohm
, while the exponential voltage
drop is due to the polarization resistance R
pol
which
happens slowly [40].
Generic battery model presented by MathWorks [7] and
Gallo et al [41] used the following parameters for
simulations.
V
batt
= Terminal battery voltage (V)
V
oc
= Constant voltage or open circuit voltage (V)
V
Exp
(t)

= Exponential zone voltage dynamics (V)
V
Exp
(t
0
) = Exponential zone voltage on its initial value (V)
u(t) = 1 when charging and u(t) =0 when discharge
mode.
K = Polarization constant (V/Ah) or Polarization
Resistance (Ohms)
i
l
= Low frequency current dynamics (current comes
Through a low pass filter) (A)
i = Battery current or sometimes symbolized as i(t) or as I
bat

is the same variable in (A).

it

= = Actual battery charge or Extracted capacity (Pl.
note that it some papers it is symbolised as C
usable
) (Ah)
Q = Maximum battery capacity (Ah)
A = Exponential zone amplitude or Exponential zone
voltage amplitude (V)
B = Exponential zone time constant inverse (Ah)
1

eq
Z = Battery equivalent internal impedance (Ohms)
E(T) = Temperature correction of the potential(V)
SOC = State of charge
SOC
init
= Initial state of charge
T = Temperature (
o
C)
t = Time (seconds)
For Lead-acid battery the governing equations for
charging and discharging are given below [3]. The equation
(1) is a modified Shepherds equation:
For Charging (i*<0):

(1)
The term
it
it Q
Q
K .
is defined as the Polarization

Voltage. The term
it Q
Q
K
is defined as the
Polarization Resistance.

For discharging (i *>0):

(2)
For Li-Ion battery model the governing equations as
given in [3] were presented here for reference:
For discharging (i *>0):

(3)
Charging (i*<0):

(4)

) ( . . . . ) ( .
exp
t V i
i Q
Q
K it
it Q
Q
K t i R V V
l
l
oc batt
+
=
) ( . . .
1 . 0
. ) ( .
exp
t V it
it Q
Q
K i
Q it
Q
K t i R V V
l oc batt
+
=
) . exp( . . . . ) ( . it B A i
i Q
Q
K it
it Q
Q
K t i R V V
l
l
oc batt
+
=
) . exp( . . . .
. 1 . 0
. ) ( it B A it
it Q
Q
K i
Q it
Q
K t Ri V V
l oc batt
+
=

625

Fig. 2 - Typical discharge curve [41]
For NiMH and NiCd batteries:
Discharging it > 0:

(5)
Charging it < 0:

(6)
Initially, due to convenience and simplicity, Li-Ion
battery model which was published by [7, 37, 41] was
modeled and simulated as shown by Figure 12.
Saiju et al [9] used the specific gravity of the battery
acid as a variable when charging/discharging to calculate
the open circuit voltage (Voc) of the battery (Pl. see Figure
13). Battery open circuit voltage is the voltage when the
charge current I is zero and then the cell voltage V equals
Voc. The Voc can be calculated by the equation [(7),9].

) log( / 00077765 . 0 ) log( * ) 2 / 1 ^ ( * 0027 . 169
) exp( * 4836919 . 1 * 1360 . 174 22968 . 168
SG SG SG
SG SG Voc

+ =

(7)

(8)

The SG is the specific gravity of the battery acid and
the SG
full
and the SG
empty
are the specific gravities when
the battery is fully charged and when the battery is fully
discharged respectively. AhD is the number of (ampere
hours) Ah that has to be discharged from a fully charged
battery to bring it to the current state. I is the normalised
charge current and I is negative when discharging. The
other parameters used in [9] are given below:

I
bat
: Battery current
I
gas
: Gassing effect
V
batt
: Battery terminal voltage
SOC : State of charge
AhD : Ampere.hour discharged
Ah
nom
: Nominal ampere hour of the battery.
DK : Fit parameter corresponding to the discharge
capacity of reference cell at an infinitesimal
discharge current
Ah : Ampere.hour
q : battery capacity at a time t(the symbol it)
Most models found in the literature have ignored the
temperature effect due to their specific applications. Tan et
al [16] presented a battery model which considered the
temperature effect on SOC, polarization voltage and the
battery internal resistance. The coefficients A & B (in
Equation-9) symbolises the exponential constants. The
polarization voltage represents the change of cell voltage
from its open-circuit voltage when charging and
discharging. In model [16], the thermal effect on A has
been ignored since A & B are highly related [2,16]. The
ratio Q/(Q-it) will be equal to 1 when the battery is fully
charged and when it is open circuit(no load). The
coefficient B takes significant difference on exponential
part of the characteristic curve as given in [2,14,16].
Detailed explanation and the mathematical relationships
can be found in [2,14]. The equation for the controlled
voltage (battery terminal voltage) is given by [(9),2]:

(9)
Where:
0 E
x ,
K
x ,
B
x are defined as given below [2,16]:
(10)

(11)

(12)

Combining equations (9),(10),(11) and (12) a
generalized equation is presented as given by Ryans et al
[2].
The parameter q=it is the ramp input (model Fig. 13)
and the slope of 0.001 was used for the simulations which
makes q increase by 1 mAh per time unit. Battery voltage
versus time curves indicate the discharge characteristics
(Fig. 6,7,8).

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
DK
SG SG
AhD SG SG
empty full
full
2 5 4
0
* 10 * 6 . 6 * 10 * 97 . 4 986 . 0 ) ( ) ( T T T f T x
E

+ = =
2 4
* 10 * 218 . 4 028 . 0 876 . 0 ) ( ) ( T T T f T x
k

+ = =
2 4
* 10 * 63 . 9 * 045 . 0 733 . 0 ) ( ) (

+ = = T T T f T x
B
it B x
K oc E batt
B
A
it Q
Q
K T x i R V T x T q V
* *
0
exp
* * ) ( . ). ( ) , (
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
) ( . . . . ) ( .
exp
t V i
i Q
Q
K it
it Q
Q
K t i R V V
l
l
oc batt
+
=
) ( . . .
1 . 0
. ) ( .
exp
t V it
it Q
Q
K i
Q it
Q
K t i R V V
l oc batt
+
=

626

}
- = dt
C
i
SOC SOC
usable
batt
initial
III. NEW DYNAMIC BATTERY MODEL
A new dynamic accurate battery model is presented here
in this paper. This new model differs from the existing
other models as it can show the dynamic
discharging/changing range into a bigger span. Existing
dynamic battery models found in the literature can only
show the voltage variation up to a limited range when
simulated. The new model presented here is an accurate,
improved dynamic battery model with taking into account
of temperature and cyclic charging and discharging effects.
The approach to the model building is different from the
other existing battery models as the battery terminal
voltage variation was calculated by taking into account of
transient and steady state behaviour of internal resistance of
the battery with respect to SOC. Some features presented in
Ryans et al [15], Erdincs et al [2] and the Chens et al [7]
models were combined to build this accurate model and it
can be applied to all types of Li-Ion, Lead-acid and Nickel
Metal Hydride (NiMH) batteries. As the terminal voltage is
a function of SOC and the battery temperature, battery
model given in Fig. 2. has included the effect of
temperature effect on the electrolyte due to battery current
and due to the ambient temperature change. To avoid the
complexity the model was limited only to two loops as
shown by Fig.3, and the hysteresis effect has been ignored.
The Model differs from the other models as the C
TS
and the

C
TL
effect that will create a transient effect on the internal
resistance of the battery which causes the capacitive
feedback effect. This causes the battery terminal voltage
discharge deceleration along with the SOC. All models
discussed above used the I
bat
along with the impedances to
model the Battery terminal voltage. In this model
Voc(SOC) which will vary according to the SOC has been
taken into account(more accurate than using current) to
calculate the feedback effect of the terminal battery
voltage. The governing equation used to calculate the
battery terminal voltage is given by equation (13):C
T
, C
G

and are constants to generalise the temperature effect
which causes the nonlinear behaviour of rate of reaction
and the ionization of electrolyte.

(13)

In the new model the battery open circuit voltage is
defined as the difference between the two electrical
potentials of the two battery terminals, when there is no
external load connected. As the value of battery open
circuit voltage is strongly dependent on battery SOC, it can
be calculated as given in [2].

V
oc
(SOC) = -1.031 x exp(-35 x SOC) + 3.685 +
0.2156 x SOC 0.1178 x SOC2 +
+ 0.321xSOC3 (14)

The battery SOC can be expressed as given in [2,19]:

(15)

Fig. 3 - Equivalent impedance electrical circuit of the battery cell
The battery capacity C
usable
changes depending on
capacity fading. The effect of the capacity fading and other
cyclic resistances were included in the model and the
constants were evaluated when tuning. The variable
equivalent internal impedance of the battery which is the
battery equivalent internal impedance consists of a series
resistors composed of R
intS
and R
cy
, and two RC networks
composed of R
TS
, C
TS
, R
TL
and C
TL
(Fig.3). The battery
equivalent internal impedance (R
intS
) is responsible for the
instantaneous voltage drop in the battery terminal voltage
as given in [2, 40, 41]. The components of RC networks are
responsible for the short and long-time transients in the
battery internal impedance. The values of R
intS
, R
TS
, C
TS
,
R
TL
and C
TL
due to battery SOC can be calculated as
given below [2]:

R
intS
(SOC)= 0.1562 x exp(-24.37 x SOC)
+ 0.07446 (16)

R
TS
(SOC) = 0.3208 x exp(-29.14 x SOC)
+ 0.04669 (17)

C
TS
(SOC) = 752.9 x exp(-13.51 x SOC) +
703.6 (18)
Fig.7 - Simulink model of the Li-Ion battery storage[19]
system
t
G T
SOC C SOC R
t
oc
SOC C SOC R
t
oc cyc S bat OC batt
C C T SOC V
SOC V SOC R SOC R I T SOC V V
TL TL
TS S T
+ +
+ + =
exp * ) ( exp * ) (
exp * ) ( )) ( ) ( ( * ) , (
) ( * ) (
) ( * ) (
int

627

R
TL
(SOC) = 6.603 x exp(-155.2 x SOC) +
0.04984 (19)

C
TL
(SOC) = -6056 x exp(-27.12 x SOC) +
4475 (20)

R
cy
= H x M^1/2 (21)

(where H and M are constants) Fig.3. represents the
equivalent impedance battery circuit as given in [2].

Gain
V
out

Iinput

Exp.Cons

Cyc.No.

Fig. 4 - New dynamic battery model block diagram
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS OF THE NEW DYNAMIC
BATTERY MODEL
The unknown parameters used in the new dynamic model
were selected carefully within the constraints of the
manufacturers parameters. One of the limitations is that
the battery internal resistance cannot increase beyond 0.1
Ohms. CGR18650A cylindrical Li-Ion battery
specifications were considered to study the input data
where necessary. Maximum value for SOC is 1 and the
minimum value can be zero or 0.1 [19]. The model can be
identified as a new model that can be used to model hybrid
vehicle battery systems of Li-Ion, Lead acid or NiMH
batteries. The simulation results were very satisfactory and
the proposed new model can be identified as an accurate
new model to apply for dynamic modeling.
C
T
, C
G
and are constants to generalise the temperature
effect which causes the nonlinear behaviour of rate of
reaction and the ionization of electrolyte.

V
oc

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

C
a
l
.

SO
C
R-SOC
& CTrans
Cal.

Cyclic
Num.
effect.
Temp
eff.
Cal
Vbatt

Fig.5- SOC variation with simulation
time(s)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Bat. Termeinal voltage comparison with existing models
Simulation time(s)
B
a
t
.

t
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
-
V
b
a
t
(
V
)
Saiju et al -Bat. model
Tan et al Bat. model
MathWorks et
al. Bat. model
Proposed New
Bat.model
Fig. 6 - Battery terminal voltage characteristic with
simulation time(s)-Discharging

628

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
5
Simulation time(s)
B
a
t
t
e
r
y

t
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
V
)
-
C
h
a
r
g
i
n
g
Temp effect on Battery ter. voltage when charging
38C
10C
5C
-10C
70C
25C
50C
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Simulation time(s)
B
a
t
t
e
r
y

T
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
V
)
Battery ter. voltage characteristics with varying temp.(discharging)
0C-Temp 20C-Temp
70C-Temp 40C-Temp
50C-Temp
-10C-Temp
38C-Temp
Fig. 7 - Battery terminal voltage characteristic with simulation
time(s)-Charging
Fig. 8 -Battery open circuit voltage vs simulation time(s)

Fig. 9 -Battery terminal voltage due to temperature change
(discharging)

Fig. 10 - Battery terminal voltage characteristics due to temperature
effect when charging.
The new model presented here is still at the initial stage
of the development process. The equivalent impedance
battery electrical circuit given by Figure-3 can usually be
included many RC loops to model parasitic effect,
hysteresis effect and the other chemical reactions near
cathode and anode. However, the tradeoff will be the
complexity and the accuracy. The temperature increase in
the electrolyte can be due to two situations. Battery internal
resistance can increase the battery temperature when
charging and discharging. Ambient temperature change can
also affect the battery performance. If the ambient
temperature increases more than 38
0
C it will have an
adverse effect on the battery as the electrolyte temperature
goes up inside the battery in addition to the battery current
effect due to the internal resistance. The simulation results
clearly show that when the temperature increases more than
38
0
C, the behavior is abnormal as expected.

Fig. 11- Hysteresis for exponential zone of Lead-Acid
battery.

629

Fig. 12 - Mathworks et al Battery model [7].

Fig. 13 - Battery model presented by Saiju et al [8]
V. CONCLUSION
Computer-based simulation models are well-established
means of testing new approaches to dynamic modeling
before they are implemented on real networks. In this
tradition, the new improved modified dynamic battery
model was discussed and presented in this paper have been
evaluated comprehensively on a detailed Matlab/Simulink
modeling environment. The simulation results illustrate the
effectiveness of the dynamic battery model under different
conditions.

In high power applications such as hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs), monitoring algorithms use current and
voltage measurements to estimate battery SOC and
available power. Open circuit potential and electrode
surface concentration nonlinearities, side reactions and
temperature effect cause the real time modeling difficulties.
Advanced warning system on SOC along with auto cooling
systems will prolong the life cycle of the BS systems and
avoid the breakdown risk at unexpected situations and in
traffic jams. Further research on battery systems suitable
for space crafts and operating temperatures between -
150
O
C to +150
O
C could be promising in the near future.
The new modified improved battery model presented here
could make satisfactory results for some of the questions
raised by the researchers in this context.
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AUTHORS PROFILE
S Wijewardana was born in Sri Lanka and
he obtained his first degree in
B.Sc.Eng.(Mech) in from University of
Moratuwa, Sri Lanka. He obtained his
M.Eng (EEE) Victoria, Australia (1992),
GradDip (Digital Control) Victoria, and
GradDip(Ed)(Sec.Ed) Victoria, Australia
(1993).
He has more than 25 years of industry experience internationally
as a Senior engineer/Manager plant operations and Maintenance,
Designs, and Constructions. He is currently pursuing his research
PhD degree at the School of Engineering and Materials Science,
Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK. He
authored and published a Text book on Feedback Control
Systems 2001, Vishvalekha Publishers, Colombo, Sri Lanka:
ISBN:955-599-243-6, which is suitable for electrical and
electronic engineering undergraduate and Masters degree
courses. His current research interests are in hybrid energy control
systems.
Mr Wijewardana is a chartered engineer, UK qualified
professional teacher (2006) and a corporate member of the
Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka. (M1748).

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