Volcanic Hazards and Greenhouse Effect

Volcanic Hazards
Volcanoes can be perceived as attractive and helpful, one reason is that volcanic ash
makes land fertile and good for farming, but they also bring danger. They are capable of making
destructive or fatal phenomena. Volcanic hazards are the risk or the danger, to an infrastructure,
to a property or to a life, which could possibly happen due to any volcanic activity. Volcanoes
can be the cause of rivers of mud or of debris, long after they have erupted. The following are
information of some of the common volcanic hazards.

Lava Flow
Lava flow are the streams of molten rock that pour or ooze from an erupting vent. Lava is
erupted during either non explosive activity or explosive lava fountains. Lava flows destroy
everything in their path, but moves slowly enough that people can move out of the way (USGS).
Lava flows do not cool instantly. It takes days to years for a lava flow to completely cool
(C.M.Riley). There are several factors that affect the speed of the lava flow across the ground
(USGS) wherein it includes:
Viscosity
Viscosity pertains to resistance of the magma to flow. A fluid with a low viscosity is
said to be "thin," while a high viscosity fluid is said to be "thick." It is easier to move through
a low viscosity fluid (like water) than a high viscosity fluid (like honey). High viscosity lavas
flow slowly and typically cover small areas. In contrast, low viscosity magmas flow more
rapidly and form lava flows that cover thousands of square kilometers. Low viscosity
magmas allow gases to escape easily whereas gas pressures can build up in high viscosity
magmas.
Type of Lava
Basalt Lava
Basalt is a hard, black volcanic rock with less than about 52% silica (SiO
2
) which
makes it low viscous. Therefore, basaltic lava can flow quickly and easily from a vent
(USGS). Basalt lava also has different types:
Pillow Lava
Pillow lava is typically found erupting from underwater volcano vents. It
often creates pillow lava on sea-bed. As lava comes into contact with the water,
it quickly forms a thick skin which allows the lava inside each pillow to cool
relatively slowly (e.Explore Earth).
Pahoehoe Lava
Pahoehoe is the most common in Hawaiian eruptions. This very fluid lava
erupts in thin sheets that flow rapidly over large areas. It forms a smooth, stretchy
skin that is drawn into rope-like folds and globules as the molten lava flows
beneath it (e.Explre Earth)
AA Lava
It is another common form of Hawaiian Lava. Cooler than pahoehoe, it is
also sticky and slower-flowing. A thick skin forms, which crumbles as it oozes
along (e.Explore Earth). Once it hardens, the sharp spiny surface of AA lava is
extremely difficult to walk across.


Andesitic Lava
Andesitic magma erupts explosively because it tends to have high gas content. It
is viscous and therefore traps gas, builds pressure and explosively erupts. High viscosity
is related to high silica content.
Rhyolitic Lava
Rhyolitic magma erupts catastrophically because Rhyolitic lava flow has high gas
content. It is viscous and therefore traps gas, builds pressure and explosively erupts. High
viscosity is related to high silica content an abundance of silica leads to the high
viscosity.
Slope
The inclination of the ground where the lava travels also affect the speed of its flow.
Obviously, the steeper the slope or the lower the viscosity the faster the flow rate.
Conversely, the less steep slope the slower the flow of lava.

Lava flows dont move very fast so people rarely get killed by them. However, lava flows
are very hot and can therefore cause injuries. Lava flows can also destroy property In some
countries, it buried cars and burnt homes, buildings, and vegetation. Electric power, water, and
communications were also cut off from the community. Another hazard associated with lava
flows (as well as other hot volcanic material) is they can melt snow and ice which can produce
flooding. Melting of ice beneath a glacier may produce very large floods called jokulhlaups or
glacier bursts (C.M. Riley) Lava flowing from a vent also creates enormous amounts of pressure,
which can crush or bury whatever survives being burned.


Pyroclastic Flow
Pyroclastic flow is a dense, destructive mass of very hot ash, lava fragments, and
gases ejected explosively from a volcano and typically flowing downslope at great speed.
It forms when an eruption column collapses. The flow is fluidized because it contains
water and gas from the eruption, water vapor from melted snow and ice, and air from the
flow overriding air as it moves downslope (C.M. Riley) Most pyroclastic flows consist of
two parts: a basal flow of coarse fragments that moves along the ground, and a turbulent
cloud of ash that rises above the basal flow (USGS). There are two types of pyroclastic
flow:
Nuee Ardente
Nuee Ardente means glowing cloud and was named for the pyroclastic
flows seen at Mount Pelee. Nuee Ardente also contains denser materials
compared to Ignimbrites (C.M. Riley)
Ignimbrites
Ignimbrites, carry lightweight materials which enables it to extend 200
kilometer from their source. An ignimbrite contains mostly vesiculated
material (rock with rounded cavity formed by expansion of gases during
solidification) (C.M. Riley)
Pyroclastic flow can incinerate and asphyxiate people. Gases within a pyroclastic flow
can explode and cause ash to rain down on nearby areas. Pyroclastic flows travel long distances
so their threat is far reaching. What is worse is they also can transform into lahars which travel
even farther distances from the volcano and can produce even greater hazards. Pyroclastic
material injected into the atmosphere may have global as well as local consequences. When the
volume of an eruption cloud is large enough, and the cloud is spread far enough by wind,
pyroclastic material may actually block sunlight and cause temporary cooling of the Earth's
surface. Some pyroclastic falls contain toxic chemicals that can be absorbed into plants and local
water supplies, which can be dangerous for both people and livestock.

Lahars
Lahars are similar to pyroclastic flows but it contain more water and volcanic
debris. Lahars may form when small slope collapses gather water on their way down a
volcano, through rapid melting of snow and ice during an eruption, and from heavy
rainfall on loose volcanic debris. Lahars flow like liquid, but since they contain
suspended material, they are quite similar to wet concrete. They flow downhill and
reaches distances from their source (C.M. Riley)
Lahars are not as fast or hot as other volcanic hazards, but they are also damaging.
They will either bulldoze or bury anything in their path, and sometimes it deposits dozens
of feet thick. Lahars have also been known to carry boulders. It can also lead to increased
deposition of sediments and blockage of tributary streams. And in worst cases, it can bury
valleys or communities with debris (USGS).

Tephra
These are rock fragments ejected into the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption
(C. M. Riley). Large-sized tephra typically falls back to the ground on or close to the
volcano and progressively smaller fragments are carried away from the vent by wind.
Volcanic ash, the smallest tephra fragments, can travel hundreds to thousands of
kilometers downwind from a volcano (USGS). The largest pieces of tephra are called
Blocks and bombs. Most particles greater than a millimeter in size will fall out within 30
minutes of the time they are erupted. The smallest particles which are less than .01 mm
can stay in the atmosphere for two or three years after a volcanic eruption. Scientists
believe that these particles may contribute to global warming (C.M. Riley)
Tephra produces a wide range of hazards. When the ejected material is in the
atmosphere it is electrically charged and often produces lightning. Several people have
been killed by lightning from volcanic eruption clouds. Large materials which are ejected
from the volcano are also a hazard to those unfortunate enough to be near the volcano.
Other hazards are produced when the ash is deposited on the ground. Ash can disrupt
electricity, television, radio, and telephone communication lines, bury roads and other
manmade structures, damage machinery, start fires, and clog drainage and sewage
systems. Ash can produce poor visibility and cause respiratory problems (C. M. Riley)

Volcanic Earthquake
Volcanically triggered earthquakes have the potential to cause cracks, ground
deformation, and damage to manmade structures. They typically are much smaller than
earthquakes caused by non-volcanic sources (PNSN). Volcanic earthquake is due to the
movement of the magma within the volcano. There are two general categories of volcanic
earthquake:



Volcano-tectonic Earthquake
This type of volcanic earthquake can cause land to collapse and
create ground cracks. It occurs when the rock moves to fill the spaces that
the magma left. Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don't indicate that the
volcano will be erupting but can occur at any time (C.M. Riley).
Long-Period Earthquake
The magma exerts pressure on the rock until it cracks. The magma
enters into the fissure created, it then starts building pressure again. Small
earthquake occurs in every fissure created. These earthquakes are usually
too weak to be felt but can be detected and recorded by sensitive
instruments. Once the plumbing system of the volcano is open and magma
is flowing through it, constant earthquake waves, called harmonic tremor
are recorded but not felt (Volcano World). This type of activity indicates
that a volcano is about to erupt (C.M. Riley)
Volcano-tectonic earthquakes can cause damage to manmade structures and land
sliding. To prevent damage from being done, structures should be built according to earthquake
standards, building foundations should be constructed on firm ground and not unconsolidated
material which may amplify earthquake intensity, and buildings should be constructed on stable
slopes in areas of low hazard potential (C.M. Riley)



Debris Avalanche & Tsunami
Many volcanic cones are steep sided and unstable due to rapid growth of the cone.
Rising magma, earthquakes, weakening due to hydrothermal alteration and heavy rain
can trigger a debris avalanche of this unstable material. Avalanched material follows
valleys as it moves down the side of the volcano under the force of gravity (GNS
Science). Avalanche can travel large distances and can wipe out everything in their paths.
They can dam rivers and lakes and produce flooding. It is also possible that an avalanche
can lead to a decrease in pressure and cause a volcanic explosion. The mixture of debris
from a landslide or avalanche with water may produce lahars which can affect people
living in valley areas far away from the volcano's summit (C.M. Riley)
Tsunamis are large sea waves that have long wave periods. When these waves
reach coastal areas, they can go far inland. Tsunamis aren't always produced by
collapsing land masses. They can also be produced by volcanic earthquakes and
explosions, atmospheric shock waves due to rapidly moving volcanic material, and lahars
or pyroclastic flows that have entered the sea (C.M. Riley).

Greenhouse Effect
The Earth would be a very cold place if greenhouse gases are not present. These gases
keep our planet warm by the process called greenhouse effect. Greenhouse Effect, according to
FreeDictionary, is defined as the phenomenon whereby the earths atmosphere traps solar
radiation, caused by the presence of the gases in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, water
vapor and methane that allow incoming sunlight to pass through but absorbs heat radiated back
from the Earths surface. The greenhouse effect, in turn, is one of the leading causes of global
warming (M. Lallanilla).
The Earth gets energy from the sun in the form of sunlight. The Earth's surface absorbs
some of this energy and heats up. The Earth cools down by giving off a different form of energy,
called infrared radiation. But before all this radiation can escape to outer space, greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere absorb some of it, which makes the atmosphere warmer. As the atmosphere
gets warmer, it makes the Earth's surface warmer, too (M. Lallanilla).

Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse Gases are any gaseous compound in the atmosphere that is capable of
absorbing infrared radiation, thereby trapping and holding heat in the atmosphere (M. Lallanilla).
Gas molecules in the Earths Atmosphere with three or more atoms are called greenhouse
gases because they can capture outgoing infrared energy from the Earth that warms the planet.
The most significant greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and nitrous
oxide. Fluorinated gases, including hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulfur
hexafluoride, are created during industrial processes and are also considered greenhouse gases.
Though they are present in very small concentrations, they trap heat very effectively, making
them high "global-warming potential" (GWP) gases. (EPA)
According to EPA, there are three factors affect the degree to which any greenhouse gas
will influence global warming where it includes: the abundance of the gas in the atmosphere,
how long it stays in the atmosphere, its global-warming potential.
In terms of the first factor, Carbon dioxide is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the
atmosphere. People produce large amount of carbon dioxide than any other greenhouse gas,
which is responsible for most of the warming. In 2011, carbon dioxide composed 84% of US
greenhouse emission (EPA).
Intensity of the impact of the greenhouse gases to global warming is also determined on
how long the gas remains in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, as an example, is a gas that can
stay for thousands of years in the atmosphere (EPA). On the other hand, methane stays in the
atmosphere for only 10 years (EPA).
Global-warming potential, as the last factor, pertains to how the gases trap heat very
effectively. Compared to carbon dioxide, methane is about 21 times more efficient at absorbing
radiation that gives it a high GWP (Global-Warming Potential)

Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is one of the major contributor to the greenhouse effect which largely
result from natural processes like respiration and from the burning of fossil fuels like
coal, oil and gas. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the early 1800s,
humans have been burning fossils fuels at an ever-increasing rate. From the time the
Industrial Revolution began to the year 2009, atmospheric CO
2
levels have increased
almost 38 percent and methane levels have increased a whopping 148 percent, according
to NASA and most of that increase has been in the past 50 years. Gas emissions in the
atmosphere are reduced by roughly 14% because of trees and other plants (M. Lallanilla).








Fig. 1 Increase in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
Source: Greenhouse Effect http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
Water Vapor
Water can take form of an invisible gas called water vapor. This gas is naturally
existing in the atmosphere and it has a strong influence on weather and climate (EPA). As the
planet gets warmer, more water evaporates from the Earths surface and becomes vapor in
the atmosphere. Water vapor is a greenhouse gas, since it has 3 atoms, therefore more water
vapor leads to even more warming. The occurrence exemplifies positive feedback loop,
which happens when warming causes changes that leads to even more warming.
Methane
Methane is the second most prevalent greenhouse gas and produced in several ways.
Some animals, specifically sheep and cows produce methane as they digest food. Their manure
releases methane when it decays. Methane is often found underground with coal and can be
released during mining (EPA). As trash in landfill breaks down over time, it releases methane.
Methane stays in the atmosphere for about 12 years. And it traps heat 20 times more than carbon
dioxide.
Fig. 2 U.S. Methane Emission, 1990-9012
Source: EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency)

Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide is a colorless and odorless gas also produces in different ways. Nitrous
oxide is emitted when people add nitrogen to the soil through the use of synthetic
fertilizers. Nitrous oxide is also emitted during the breakdown of nitrogen in livestock
manure and urine. It is also emitted when transportation fuels are burned and when generated
as a byproduct during the production of nitric acid that is used to make synthetic fertilizer.
Nitrous oxide emission occurs naturally associated with the nitrogen cycle. Natural
emissions of N
2
O are mainly from bacteria breaking down nitrogen in soils and the oceans.
Nitrous oxide is removed from the atmosphere when it is absorbed by certain types of
bacteria or destroyed by ultraviolet radiation or chemical reactions (EPA).

F-gases
Unlike many other greenhouse gases, fluorinated gases only come from human-
related activities, such as some industrial and manufacturing processes. Slight atmospheric
absorptions can have huge effects on global temperatures for they have high GWP.
Fluorinated gases lasts in the atmosphere for thousands of years. Fluorinated gases are
detached from the atmosphere only when they are destroyed by sunlight in the upper
atmosphere. In general, fluorinated gases are the most potent and longest lasting type of
greenhouse gases emitted by human activities (EPA).

Climate Change
The Earth's climate is getting warmer, and the signs can be observed already. Change in
rain pattern and rise in sea level are some of the observable signs. Further changes will be
witnessed not only in the climate, but also in the environment as the global temperature increases
over time. Animals, ecosystem and people will all experience negative effect in several ways.
According to Oxford Dictionaries, Climate Change pertains to a change in global or
regional climate patterns, in particular a change apparent from the mid to late 20th century
onwards and attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by
the use of fossil fuels.
A fewer amount of rain may determine less water to some places, while excessive rain
may lead to flooding. Hot days can wither plants and make people and animals sick. In some
places, people may be able to prepare for these changes. The negative effect of climate change
may not be severe if people learn to reduce activity that contributes to the greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere. Effects will be worse if we do not make a move about it and continue producing
greenhouse gases.

Reducing Greenhouse Gases
We can be a part of the solution in saving our planet. Reducing greenhouse gases that we
emit during some activities is an act that we can do. Because more people are getting techie,
there are also some ways that the technology shares in reducing greenhouse gases. People will
have to switch from getting most of their energy from burning fossil fuels to getting most of their
energy from a wide variety of clean energy sources (EPA). These technologies are already
existing today, and some are still being developed and tested.
When we retain electricity from renewable energy sources like wind and solar power, we
avoid the carbon dioxide emissions that would have come from burning fossil fuels. Solar energy
is simply the light and the heat that comes from the sun. A photovoltaic cell absorbs light and
converts it directly into electricity. A group of photovoltaic cells is known as a solar panel.
Through this, we can generate our own power and we also helped in reducing greenhouse gas
emission. Today, modern machines called wind turbines, to gather wind energy are also used to
make electricity.
We may also use less energy, since energy also comes from burning fossil fuels. By
simply unplugging appliances into an outlet when turned off will be a big help in using less
energy. We could also practice using energy-efficient appliances and electronics that uses less
energy than regular models.
The energy from moving water can also be used to create electricity. A hydroelectric
dam captures energy from the movement of a river. Dam operators control the flow of water
and the amount of electricity is produced through a generator attached to the turbine (EPA).
We might probably heard of the term 3Rs which means reduce, reuse, and recycle..
Trash usually ends up in landfill and as mentioned earlier, as they decay they produce methane
which is a very powerful greenhouse gas. Though it is truly uncontrollable to throw trash, it
would still benefit us if we try to do it. Methane is also the main ingredient in natural gas.
Because methane can be captured from landfills, it can be burned to produce electricity, heat
buildings, or power garbage trucks. Capturing methane before it gets into the atmosphere also
helps reduce the effects of climate change (EPA).
Vehicles are always used because we always go different places. Due to many
innovation, vehicles are now available that use less energy and are better for the environment.
Electric vehicles are powered by an electric motor instead of a gasoline engine. Large batteries
supplies energy to power the car, and is plugged to refuel. Electric vehicles emit no direct
pollution, and if sources like wind and solar are used to generate the electricity, their total
carbon dioxide emissions can be very small.
Tree-planting is also one of what some people usually do nowadays to help our planet.
Trees help to slow climate change because they absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.
Trees also provide shade, which helps keep streets and houses cooler in the summertime and
reduces the need for air conditioning.
Since global climate change is happening now, we are already experiencing its impact.
And it is a must, for all of us to take part in lessening greenhouse gas and taking care of our
planet. Making actions now will greatly help everyone by being able to adjust to the changes
that awaits us.