Chapter 6 Electrochemistry

The three basic components to learn electrochemistry for SPM Form 4 Chemistry students
consist of electrolyte, non-electrolyte and also conductors. While it is clear to students the
difference between an electrolyte and non-electrolyte, students typically confuse electrolyte
with conductors. So this introductory post, Part 1 on SPM Form 4 Chemistry series of notes
on Electrochemistry by Berry Berry Easy attempts to provide basic information for student
to kick start their understanding of this chapter.
[Tips: For those who still cannot understand the difference between an electrolyte and
conductor, think in terms of chemical changes and ion/electron flows. This will definitely
allow you to understand this topic.]
Electrolyte
Electrolytes are substances that can conduct electricity in molten or aqueous state and
undergo chemical changes.
It can conduct electricity due to the presence of free moving ions.
Example for electrolytes (alkalis, acids, salt solution or molten salt):
molten lead(II) chloride
copper(II) sulphate solution
solution containing ions such as hydrochloride acid
Non-electrolyte
Non-electrolytes are molecules that cannot conduct electricity and will not undergo
any chemical changes.
It cannot conduct electricity due to the absent of free moving ions.
Example of non-electrolytes (covalent substances):
molten acetone
molten naphthalene
glucose solution
Conductor
Conductors are substances that can conduct electricity in solid or molten state but do
not undergo any chemical changes.
It can conduct electricity due to the flow of electrons.
Example of conductor:
iron
graphite
mercury
Ionic Compounds
Solid state Molten state or aqueous
state (dissolved in water)
Do not conduct electricity Can conduct electricity
Ions are held in a lattice -
Ions do not move freely Ions are free to move
Covalent Compounds
Solid state Molten state or aqueous
state (dissolved in water)
Do not conduct electricity Do not conduct electricity
Exist in molecules Exist in molecules
Molecules do not have free
moving ions
Exception: HCl and NH
3

exist as free moving ions in
water
This is the end of the introductory post on Electrochemistry for SPM Form 4 Chemistry
students by Berry Berry Easy. Stay tuned to the next part, Part 2 of the series which focuses
on electrolysis in molten compounds.
Electrolysis is a very important process in chemistry which has not only academic importance
but also industrial applications. Without going to far into that, electrolysis is simply a method
of utilising electric current (direct current) to force a chemical reaction which would not
have happened normally (non-spontaneous). This is one of the most asked question in SPM
Chemistry, so Berry Berry Easy would like to provide notes, Part 2 of SPM Chemistry
Form 4 short notes on Electrochemistry. In this part, youll be exposed to the electrolysis of
molten compounds and some relevant examples such as molten magnesium oxide, molten
lead(II) bromide and molten naphthalene. So read the following post to understand
electrolysis of molten compounds.
[Tips: For those who fail to see the underlying concept of electrolysis, then understanding the
origin of the Greek word would give obvious hints about the process. Electrolysis comes from
two words, from the Greek words "Elektron" and "Lysis" which mean "amer" and "to
separate", respectively. The key point here is 'separation'. So do remember the origin if you
forget what electrolysis is all about.]
Electrolysis of Molten Compounds
Electrolysis (with battery / electricity current) is a process of decomposition / breaking
down / separation of a compound (electrolyte) into its constituent elements when
electric current passes through it.
Important definition
Anode Electrode connected to the
positive terminal (+) of a battery
Cathode Electrode connected to the
negative terminal (-) of a battery
Anion Negatively-charged ion.
Example: Cl
-
, SO
4
2-
and O
2-

Cation Positively-charged ion. Example:
Na
+
, Zn
2+
and Al
3+

Classification of electrodes
Inert
electrodes
Electrodes that do not take part
in chemical reactions during
electrolysis
Carbon or
platinum
Active
electrodes
Electrodes that take part in
chemical reactions during
electrolysis
Copper or
zinc
Example 1:
Molten magnesium oxide, MgO
Ions: Magnesium ions (Mg
2+
) & oxide ions (O
2-
)
Cathode (Negative electrode): Mg
2+
move to the cathode
Anode (Positive electrode): O
2-
move to the anode
Electrons flow from anode to the cathode through the wire
Can conduct electricity
Example 2:
Molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr
2

Ions: Lead(II) ions (Pb
2+
) & bromide ions (Br
-
)
Cathode (Negative electrode): Pb
2+
move to the cathode
Anode (Positive electrode): Br
-
move to the anode
Electrons flow from anode to the cathode through the wire
Can conduct electricity
Example 3:
Molten naphthalene
Ions: No ions present (naphthalene is covalent compound which consists of molecules
= uncharged particles)
No electrons flows
Cannot conduct electricity
This is end of Part 2, the next part of short notes from Berry Berry Easy on SPM Form 4
Chemistry Electrochemistry will be on the main title of Electrolysis of Aqueous
compounds focusing on the smaller subtopic of positions of ions in the electrochemical
series.
The underlying principle of electrolysis requires ions movement. As such, electrolysis will
not work when an object is solid as there will not be any movement of ions, hence electricity
cannot flow. In the previous part, the ions are allowed to move by making molten compound
of the electrolyte (by melting it). In the next few part, Berry Readers will be looking at
dissolving the electrolytes in water in the next few parts. So this post from Berry Berry Easy
on SPM Form 4 Chemistry for Electrochemistry Part 3 is focused on the electrolysis of
aqueous solutions with first important factor of positions of ions in the electrochemical
series.
[Tips: It's always good to be memorising the electrochemical series for easy retrieval during
exams. Try to use mnemonic methods to recall the sequence.]
Electrolysis of Aqueous Compounds (dissolved in water, H
2
O)
There are three important factors to determine the types of ions to be discharged at the
electrodes.
1. Positions of ions in the electrochemical series
2. Concentration of ions in the solution
3. Types of electrodes used
1. Positions of ions in the electrochemical series
The lower the position of the ion in the electrochemical series, the easier the ion is selectively
discharged.
Electrochemical series:
Cation Anion
K
+
F
-

Na
+
SO
4
2-

Ca
2+
NO
3
-

Mg
2+
Cl
-

Al
3+
Br
-

Zn
2+
I
-

Fe
2+
OH
-

Sn
2+

Pb
2+

H
+

Cu
2+

Hg
+

Ag
+

Au
+

Example 1:
0.5 mol dm
3
of potassium chloride, KCl solution
Positive ions (cations): potassium ions (K
+
) and hydrogen ions (H
+
),
Negative ions (anions): chloride ions (Cl
-
) and hydroxide ions (OH
-
)
Cathode (negative electrode): H
+
move to the cathode (ions are selectively discharge)
Anode (positive electrode): OH
-
move to the anode (ions are selectively discharge)
Example 2:
0.1 mol dm
3
of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO
4
solution
Positive ions (cations): copper ions (Cu
2+
) and hydrogen ions (H
+
),
Negative ions (anions): sulphate ions (SO
4
2-
) and hydroxide ions (OH
-
)
Cathode (negative electrode): Cu
2+
move to the cathode (ions are selectively
discharge)
Anode (positive electrode): OH
-
move to the anode (ions are selectively discharge)
The next part, Part 4 of short notes from Berry Berry Easy on SPM Form 4 Chemistry
Electrochemistry will be on the main title of Electrolysis of aqueous compounds while
focusing on the subtopic of effects of concentration of ions in the solution.
This Part 4 of Berry Berry Easy notes for SPM Form 4 Chemistry on Electrochemistry is
a continuation of Part 3 which was on the electrolysis of aqueous solutions. In the previous
post, the focus was on the positions of ions in the electrochemical series. This time is is on the
effects of concentration of ions in the solution. So if you have not read the previous parts,
please read it first before hopping onto this part.
[Tips: The effects of concentration of ions in solutions on affecting electrolysis of aqueous
solution is only significant if the two ions are not too far apart in the electrochemical series.]
2. Effect of concentration of ions in the solution
The concentration of a particular type of ion is high = ion more likely to be discharged in
electrolysis.
Example:
2.0 mol dm
-3
of lead(II) chloride, PbCl
2
solution
Positive ions (cations): lead(II) ions (Pb
2+
) and hydrogen ions (H
+
),
Negative ions (anions): chloride ions (Cl
-
) and hydroxide ions (OH
-
)
Cathode (negative electrode): Pb
2+
move to the cathode (ions are selectively
discharge)
Anode (positive electrode): Cl
-
move to the anode (ions are selectively discharge)
Nevertheless, if the two ions are placed very far apart in the electrochemical series, the
concentration aspect becomes insignificant.
Example 1:
2.0 mol dm
-3
of sodium bromide, NaBr solution
Positive ions (cations): sodium ions (Na
+
) and hydrogen ions (H
+
),
Negative ions (anions): bromide ions (Br
-
) and hydroxide ions (OH
-
)
Cathode (negative electrode): H
+
move to the cathode (ions are selectively discharge)
Anode (positive electrode): Br
-
move to the anode (ions are selectively discharge)
Example 2:
2.0 mol dm
-3
of lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO
3
)
2
solution
Positive ions (cations): lead(II) ions (Pb
2+
) and hydrogen ions (H
+
),
Negative ions (anions): chloride ions (NO
3
-
) and hydroxide ions (OH
-
)
Cathode (negative electrode): Pb
2+
move to the cathode (ions are selectively
discharge)
Anode (positive electrode): OH
-
move to the anode (ions are selectively discharge)
This ends Part 4. The next part, Part 5 of short notes from Berry Berry Easy on SPM Form
4 Chemistry Electrochemistry will be on the main title of electrolysis of aqueous
compounds while dwelling on the subtopic of types of electrodes used in the electrolysis.
One important factor governing the process of electrolysis is the types of electrodes used.
This Part 5 of Berry Berry Easy notes for SPM Form 4 Chemistry on Electrochemistry is
a further add-on to the two previous factors affecting electrolysis. The first two being the
positions of ions in the electrochemical series and effects of concentration of ions in the
solution. So do read on the previous two posts, Part 3 and 4 in this series of notes on
Electrochemistry before proceeding on to this post (if you have not read them yet).
[Tips: Just to give Berry Readers an idea of how important the types of electrodes can
influence electrolysis, it is rumoured in 2008 that there is a new electrode which allows the
electrolysis of hydrogen to be 1000% faster than the conventional method. Presently,
conventional electrolysis of hydrogen uses precious metal catalyst which is still relatively
slow and inefficient. The new method uses alkaline electrolysis process in conjunction with
nanatechnology, allowing the electrode's catalytic surface area to be larger. While this
information might be not exactly useful, unless it is to quote an example in essays, but it is
good to know the actual effect of electrodes in the electrolysis process.]
3. Types of electrodes used in the electrolysis
There are 2 important notes:
Inert electrodes: Carbon and platinum (Both of these electrodes do not react with the
electrolytes or products of electrolysis)
Active electrodes: Silver, copper and nickel (Active anode ionises and concentration
of cations in the electrolyte does not change)
Example 1:
Carbon electrode (inert electrode) in the electrolysis of 0.1 mol dm
-3
of aqueous copper(II)
sulphate, CuSO
4
solution
Positive ions (cations): copper ions (Cu
2+
) and hydrogen ions (H
+
),
Negative ions (anions): sulphate ions (SO
4
2-
) and hydroxide ions (OH
-
)
Cathode (negative electrode): Cu
2+
move to the cathode (ions are selectively
discharge). A brown deposited on the cathode.
Anode (positive electrode): OH
-
move to the anode (ions are selectively discharge).
Gas bubbles are produced. A colourless gas liberates and it ignites the glowing
wooden splinter.
The intensity of the blue colour solution decreases because the concentration of
copper(II) ions decreases.
Example 2:
Copper electrode (active electrode) in the electrolysis of 0.1 mol dm
-3
of aqueous copper(II)
sulphate, CuSO
4
solution
Positive ions (cations): copper ions (Cu
2+
) and hydrogen ions (H
+
),
Negative ions (anions): sulphate ions (SO
4
2-
) and hydroxide ions (OH
-
)
Anode (positive electrode): OH
-
and SO
4
2-
are not discharged. Copper anode dissolves
by releasing electrons to form copper(II) ions, Cu
2+
. Copper anode becomes thinner.
Cathode (negative electrode): Cu
2+
move to the cathode (ions are selectively
discharge) to form copper metal. Copper cathode becomes thicker.
The intensity of the blue colour solution remains unchanged because the concentration
of copper(II) ions remains the same.
Other examples:
3. Copper electrode (active electrode) in the electrolysis of 0.1 mol dm
-3
of aqueous copper(II)
nitrate, Cu(NO
3
)
2
solution
4. Silver electrode (active electrode) in the electrolysis of 0.1 mol dm
-3
of aqueous silver
nitrate, AgNO
3
solution
This ends Part 5. The next part, Part 6 of short notes from Berry Berry Easy on SPM Form 4
Chemistry Electrochemistry will focus on the prediction of electrolysis products of aqueous
solutions and industrial applications of electrolysis.
Industrial uses of electrolysis are very important to produce many raw materials and
feedstock for generating electricity. However, most Berry Readers might not even realise
the magnitude of the electrolysis-based industry and the economical impact if electrolysis is
not used. Among example of large-scale industrial uses of electrolysis include the production
of aluminium (Hall-Heroult process), lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, chlorine and
even hydrogen.
This Part 6 of Berry Berry Easy notes for SPM Form 4 Chemistry on Electrochemistry is
a wrap-up of the first 6 sub-topics in electrochemistry. Here, youll learn how to predict the
products of electrolysis of aqueous solutions and also the various categories of electrolysis in
industries. Do read up on the first 5 parts before proceeding with this post.
[Tips: In essay questions, when asked for uses of electrolysis in industries, do not just throw
examples. You'll need to categorise them based on the end product, name a couple of example
and describe in minor detail how they differ from the other categories. When you have the
time, putting in a diagram always helps too.]
Predict the Products of Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
Main factor: Position of ions in the electrochemical series
Cation: The higher the position in the electrochemical series are very stable (remain as
cation). Example: K
+
and Na
+
are never discharged in an aqueous solution in
electrolysis.
Anions: The higher the position in the electrochemical series are very stable (remain
as anion). Example: F
-
and SO
4
2-
are never discharged in an aqueous solution in
electrolysis.
Second factor: Concentration of the electrolyte
Third factor: Types of electrode as anode
Electrolysis in Industries
A. Extraction of reactive metals
Reactive metals: Sodium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium extract from their
compounds
Example: extraction of aluminium from aluminium oxide, Al
2
O
3
(bauxite) by using
cryolite, Na
3
AlF
6
at 980C.
B. Purification of metals
Anode: impure metal
Cathode: pure metal
Electrolyte: solution containing the ions of the metal to be purified
Example: purification of impure copper metal.
C. Electroplating of metals
Electroplating is a process of coating the surface of metal objects with a thin and even
layer of another metal.
Importance of electroplating is to prevent corrosion and improve the appearance.
Cathode: object to be electroplated
Anode: pure plating metal
Electrolyte: aqueous solution contains plating metal ions
This marks the end of this post. The next part, Part 7 of short notes from Berry Berry Easy
on SPM Form 4 Chemistry Electrochemistry will be on voltaic cell/galvanic cell and
Daniell cell.
The two cells that Berry Readers will learn during the course of SPM Chemistry are the
voltaic cell/galvanic cell and the Danielle cell. The first is an electrochemical cell which
produces electrical energy from chemical reactions occuring in the cell which consists of two
different metal connected by a salt bridge (alternatively, half-cells separated by porous
membrane). The Danielle cell is actually one example of galvanic cell, rather than commonly
mistaken as another type of cell which is different from the galvanic cell. In this Part 7 of
short notes from Berry Berry Easy on Electrochemistry for SPM Chemistry Form 4
students, well be learning all about cells.
[Tips: Be sure to note that Danielle cell is a subset of the voltaic cell. So if you were ever
asked about the difference between a voltaic cell and Danielle cell, be sure not to describe
them as two separate kind of cells. At best you could give examples of the general usage of
voltaic cell against the more specialised usage of the Danielle cell, the general components
involved and the specific components involved in a Danielle cell. Key point, Danielle cell is a
subset of the voltaic cell.
Another key point to note is that the voltaic cell is also known as the galvanic cell. Although
rare, but some students do describe them as different cells, which is wrong. Be sure to know
that they are the same]
Voltaic Cell / Galvanic cell
It is an electrochemical cell which converts chemical energy > electrical energy
Negative terminal: more electropositive (higher position in the electrochemical series)
Positive terminal: less electropositive (lower position in the electrochemical series)
Electrons released (more electropositive metal) through the wire to a less
electropositive metal.
Example 1: Zinc plate and iron plate are placed in 1.0 mol dm
3
of lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO
3
)
2

solution
Negative terminal (Anode): Zinc metal (Zinc plate dissolves to form Zn
2+
)
Positive terminal (Cathode): Iron metal (hydrogen ions will be selectively discharge to
form hydrogen gas. It is because H
+
is lower position than Pb
2+
and Zn
2+
in the
electrochemical series)
Example 2: Magnesium plate and copper plate are placed in 1.0 mol dm
3
of sodium chloride,
NaCl solution
Negative terminal (Anode): Magnesium metal (Magnesium plate dissolves to form
Mg
2+
)
Positive terminal (Cathode): Copper metal (hydrogen ions will be selectively
discharge to form hydrogen gas. It is because H
+
is lower position than Mg
2+
and Na
+

in the electrochemical series)
Daniell Cell
It is another example of a voltaic cell.
Solutions are connected by a salt bridge (inert electrolyte) or a porous pot.
The main function of a salt bridge / porous pot is to complete the circuit by allowing
the movement of ions and prevent two aq from mixing.
In the next part, Part 8 of short notes from Berry Berry Easy on Electrochemistry for SPM
Chemistry Form 4 students, the focus will be on half equations and overall equations, in
addition to comparison of Electrolytic Cells and Voltaic Cells.
Half-equations are components that make up an overall reaction equation. Two half-
equations (usually written as empirical equations) can be written as a pair in which overall
reaction equation is form (must be balanced according to electron charge). The two that can
form a pair must each be an oxidation and reduction half-reactions. Usually students taking
SPM level chemistry will see this for redox reactions with ions or in acqueous solutions.
Berry Berry Easy would like to clear all doubts from Berry Readers regarding this half-
equations through Part 8 of the summarised notes for SPM Chemistry Form 4 on
Electrochemistry. Also in this notes is the application of what you have learnt through the
comparison of electrolytic cells and voltaic cells.
[Tips: Students occasionally forget to use minimum stoichiometric values when combining
two half-equations as a pair. Although questions like this occur rarely in SPM level, but they
do exist. The reason behind the requirement to write in minimum stoichiometric values is due
to the half-equations being empirical in nature.]
Berry Important Half Equations
Anode:
2Cl
-
> Cl
2
+ 2e
2Br
-
> Br
2
+ 2e
2I
-
> I
2
+ 2e
4OH
-
> 2H
2
O + O
2
+ 4e
Cathode:
2H
+
+ 2e > H
2

Zn
2+
+ 2e > Zn
Fe
2+
+ 2e > Fe
Pb
2+
+ 2e > Pb
Cu
2+
+ 2e > Cu
Ag
+
+ e > Ag
How to write overall reaction equation?
Example 1:
Anode: 2I
-
> I
2
+ 2e
Cathode: 2H
+
+ 2e > H
2

Overall: 2I
-
+ 2H
+
> I2 + H
2

Example 2:
Anode: 2Br
-
> Br
2
+ 2e
Cathode: Pb
2+
+ 2e > Pb
Overall: 2Br
-
+ Pb
2+
> Br
2
+ Pb
Example 3:
Anode: 4OH
-
> 2H
2
O + O
2
+ 4e
Cathode: 2H
+
+ 2e > H
2 (x2)

Overall: 4OH
-
+ 4H
+
> 2H
2
O + O
2
+ 2H
2

Example 4:
Anode: 4OH
-
> 2H
2
O + O
2
+ 4e
Cathode: Cu
2+
+ 2e > Cu (x2)
Overall: 2Cu
2+
+ 4OH
-
> 2Cu + 2H
2
O + O
2

.
Comparison of Electrolytic Cells and Voltaic Cells
Similarities:
Two electrodes involves in the reaction
Electrons flow through the external circuit (connecting wires)
Anode (oxidation): loss of electrons
Cathode (reduction): gain of electrons
Differences:
Electrolytic Cell Voltaic Cell
Main basic
structures
A battery is needed to
supply electrical
energy
Battery is not needed.
Energy conversion Electrical energy >
chemical energy
Chemical energy >
electrical energy
Transfer of electrons
at the positive
terminal
Anode (positive
terminal): Oxidation
anions lose electrons at
the anode
Cathode (positive
terminal): Reduction
Transfer of electrons
at the negative
terminal
Cathode (negative
terminal): Reduction
cations accept
electrons from the
cathode
Anode (negative
terminal): Oxidation
In the next part, Part 9 of short notes from Berry Berry Easy on Electrochemistry for SPM
Chemistry Form 4 students, the main focus will be on the Electrochemical Series which all
students love to hate.
Electrochemical series for SPM Chemistry is simply a collection of the standard electrode
potential values being ordered in tables. Sometimes the volts as compared to the baseline is
given. Here, the value of standard hydrogen electrode is used as the baseline and is set at 0.
So, this Part 9 in the series of note on Electrochemistry for SPM Chemistry Form 4
students by Berry Berry Easy will be on the electrochemical series. This is a very important
subtopic that appears in exams frequently.
[Tips: Come back to read this tip only when you are in Form 5, if you are in Form 4 now,
please disregard this tip.
Students and teachers alike usually confuse electrochemical series with reactivity series
especially during Form 5. Students sometimes mix up the two and get confused with the order.
In the reactivity series, it is ...K, Na, Ca, Mg and so on...
In the electrochemical series, it is ... K, Ca, Na, Mg and so on
The electrochemical series is based on a measured potential difference.The reactivity series
also changes position due to the 'relative' nature of the series (meaning, order is relative to
one chemical to another).]
Electrochemistry
It is an arrangement of elements according to their tendencies to donate electrons to
form cations.
Higher position in the series = a metal that has a higher tendencies to ionise and form
positive ions.
Electrochemistry is constructed by the potential difference (voltage difference)
between pairs of metals and the ability of a metal to displace another metal from its
own salt solution.
A) Electrochemical Series based on the Potential Difference (Voltage Difference)
To construct an electrochemical series = measure the potential difference between two
metals in voltaic cells.
Negative terminal (anode) in voltaic cell has a higher tendency to release electrons =
higher position in the electrochemical series (Positive terminal (cathode) in voltaic cell
has a lower tendency to release electrons = lower position in the electrochemical
series.
The greater the potential difference (voltage) = further apart the positions of two
metals in electrochemical series.
B) Electrochemical Series from the Displacement Reaction of Metals
To construct an electrochemical series = ability of a metal to displace another metal
from its salt solution.
Higher position of a metal in the electrochemical series = able to displace a metal
below it from its salt solution.
Example:
Mg(s) + CuSO
4
(aq) > MgSO
4
(aq) + Cu(s)
Mg is more electropositive than Cu (placed higher than copper in electrochemical
series)
Mg atom loses electrons to form magnesium ion and dissolves in the solution.
This end Part 9 in the series of note on Electrochemistry for SPM Chemistry Form 4
students by Berry Berry Easy. In the next part (final Part 10), Berry Readers will learn about
the importance of the electrochemical series. A very simple subtopic once you understand this
part.
Most of the time, students learn stuffs in SPM Chemistry thinking that it is just for exams
and whatever they learn will have no practical application in real life. That perception is
wrong, as everything you learn is either building blocks to understand something more
complex or it already has practical applications which was neglected to be described in detail.
The electrochemical series is one of those which students typically only memorise for exam
purposes but forget about its actual purposes. So this post, Part 10 in the series of note on
Electrochemistry for SPM Chemistry Form 4 students by Berry Berry Easy will be on the
importance of electrochemical series. Typically this question will appear (although not too
frequently) as the last part of an essay question, so do try to remember what is presented
below.
[Tips: Berry Readers occasionally ask that why is it that the values stated in an
electrochemical series for different books are varied. This is due to the fact that it is usually
only an approximation, albeit a close approximation. So, use it as a rough guide for
placement of order rather than actual absolute numerical figure. Although in exams, if given
the values, you should just use it for calculations and do not dispute the values given.]
The Importance of Electrochemical Series
To determine:
Terminal of a voltaic cell
Voltage produced by a pair of metals
Ability of a metal to displace another metal from its salt solution
Metal displacement of hydrogen from an acid
The Importance of Electrochemical Industries
Extract useful metals (aluminium, sodium and magnesium) from its ore using
electrolysis.
Manufacture of useful chemical substances (chlorine and sodium hydroxide) using
electrolysis.
Electroplating of iron with chromium to protect the iron layer.
Silver-plating to make fine cutleries.
Voltaic cell (batteries)
Effect of Electrochemical Industries towards the Environment
Heavy metals (chromium and mercury) cause water pollution.
Chlorine gas is a toxic gas cause problem (irritates) to human respiratory system.
Mercury cell (batteries) is highly toxic.
Improper disposal of industrial waste cause water pollution.
This marks the end of the entire series of note on Electrochemistry for SPM Chemistry
Form 4 students by Berry Berry Easy. Do try to read again all parts in this chapter on
electrochemistry as it is a sure question in your SPM examinations.