The Noble Eightfold Path

The Way to the End of Suffering

by
Bhikkhu Bodhi
Source: The Wheel Publication No. 308/3 !"andy: Buddhi#t
Publication Society$ %8&'$ #econd edition !re(i#ed' %%&. Tran#cribed
fro) a file *ro(ided by the BPS
+o*yright , %%8 Buddhi#t Publication Society
-cce## to .n#ight edition , %%%
/or free di#tribution. Thi# 0ork )ay be re*ubli#hed$ refor)atted$
re*rinted$ and redi#tributed in any )ediu). .t i# the author1# 0i#h$
ho0e(er$ that any #uch re*ublication and redi#tribution be )ade
a(ailable to the *ublic on a free and unre#tricted ba#i# and that
tran#lation# and other deri(ati(e 0ork# be clearly )arked a# #uch.
iii
+ontent#
Preface ...................................................................................................................................... (
-bbre(iation# ............................................................................................................... (ii
+ha*ter .
The Way to the End of Suffering ............................................................
The 2ange of Suffering ...................................................................................... 3
The +au#e# of Suffering ...................................................................................... 4
+utting 5ff the +au#e# of Suffering .................................................. %
+ha*ter ..
2ight 6ie0 ...................................................................................................................... 7
8undane 2ight 6ie0 ........................................................................................ 9
Su*erior 2ight 6ie0 ............................................................................................ 7
+ha*ter ...
2ight .ntention ........................................................................................................... 73
The .ntention of 2enunciation .............................................................. 30
The .ntention of :ood Will ...................................................................... 33
The .ntention of ;ar)le##ne## ............................................................... 34
i(
+ha*ter .6
2ight S*eech$ 2ight -ction$ 2ight <i(elihood .................. &0
2ight S*eech !#a))a (aca' ......................................................................... &3
2ight -ction !#a))a ka))anta' ......................................................... &%
2ight <i(elihood !#a))a a=i(a' .............................................................. 99
+ha*ter 6
2ight Effort ..................................................................................................................... 94
+ha*ter 6.
2ight 8indfulne## ................................................................................................. 40
+ha*ter 6..
2ight +oncentration ............................................................................................ 83
The >e(elo*)ent of +oncentration ............................................... 84
The Stage# of +oncentration .................................................................... %0
+ha*ter 6...
The >e(elo*)ent of Wi#do) ............................................................... %8
E*ilogue ........................................................................................................................... 0
-**endi? ..........................................................................................................................
2eco))ended 2eading# .......................................................................... 3
-bout the -uthor ................................................................................................. 9
Preface
The e##ence of the Buddha1# teaching can be #u))ed
u* in t0o *rinci*le#: the /our Noble Truth# and the Noble
Eightfold Path. The fir#t co(er# the #ide of doctrine$ and the *ri)ary
re#*on#e it elicit# i# under#tanding@ the #econd co(er# the
#ide of di#ci*line$ in the broade#t #en#e of that 0ord$ and the
*ri)ary re#*on#e it call# for i# *ractice. .n the #tructure of the
teaching the#e t0o *rinci*le# lock together into an indi(i#ible
unity called the dha))aA(inaya$ the doctrineAandAdi#ci*line$ or$
in brief$ the >ha))a. The internal unity of the >ha))a i#
guaranteed by the fact that the la#t of the /our Noble Truth#$
the truth of the 0ay$ i# the Noble Eightfold Path$ 0hile the fir#t
factor of the Noble Eightfold Path$ right (ie0$ i# the under#tanding
of the /our Noble Truth#. Thu# the t0o *rinci*le# *enetrate
and include one another$ the for)ula of the /our Noble
Truth# containing the Eightfold Path and the Noble Eightfold
Path containing the /our Truth#.
:i(en thi# integral unity$ it 0ould be *ointle## to *o#e the
Bue#tion 0hich of the t0o a#*ect# of the >ha))a ha# greater
(alue$ the doctrine or the *ath. But if 0e did ri#k the *ointle##
by a#king that Bue#tion$ the an#0er 0ould ha(e to be the *ath.
The *ath clai)# *ri)acy becau#e it i# *reci#ely thi# that bring#
the teaching to life. The *ath tran#late# the >ha))a fro) a
collection of ab#tract for)ula# into a continually unfolding di#clo#ure
of truth. .t gi(e# an outlet fro) the *roble) of #uffering
0ith 0hich the teaching #tart#. -nd it )ake# the teaching1#
goal$ liberation fro) #uffering$ acce##ible to u# in our o0n e?*erience$
0here alone it take# on authentic )eaning.
To follo0 the Noble Eightfold Path i# a )atter of *ractice
rather than intellectual kno0ledge$ but to a**ly the *ath correctly
it ha# to be *ro*erly under#tood. .n fact$ right under#tanding
of the *ath i# it#elf a *art of the *ractice. .t i# a facet of right
(ie0$ the fir#t *ath factor$ the forerunner and guide for the re#t
of the *ath. Thu#$ though initial enthu#ia#) )ight #ugge#t that
the ta#k of intellectual co)*rehen#ion )ay be #hel(ed a# a bother#o)e
di#traction$ )ature con#ideration re(eal# it to be Buite
e##ential to ulti)ate #ucce## in the *ractice.
The *re#ent book ai)# at contributing to0ard# a *ro*er
under#tanding of the Noble Eightfold Path by in(e#tigating it#
eight factor# and their co)*onent# to deter)ine e?actly 0hat
they in(ol(e. . ha(e atte)*ted to be conci#e$ u#ing a# the fra)e0ork
for e?*o#ition the Buddha1# o0n 0ord# in e?*lanation of
the *ath factor#$ a# found in the Sutta Pitaka of the Pali +anon.
To a##i#t the reader 0ith li)ited acce## to *ri)ary #ource# e(en
in tran#lation$ . ha(e tried to confine )y #election of Buotation#
a# )uch a# *o##ible !but not co)*letely' to tho#e found in 6enerable
Nyanatiloka1# cla##ic anthology$ The Word of the Buddha.
.n #o)e ca#e# *a##age# taken fro) that 0ork ha(e been #lightly
)odified$ to accord 0ith )y o0n *referred rendering#. /or further
a)*lification of )eaning . ha(e #o)eti)e# dra0n u*on the
co))entarie#@ e#*ecially in )y account# of concentration and
0i#do) !+ha*ter# 6.. and 6...' . ha(e relied hea(ily on the
6i#uddhi)agga !The Path of Purification'$ a (a#t encyclo*edic 0ork
0hich #y#te)atiCe# the *ractice of the *ath in a detailed and
co)*rehen#i(e )anner. <i)itation# of #*ace *re(ent an e?hau#ti(e
treat)ent of each factor. To co)*en#ate for thi# deficiency .
ha(e included a li#t of reco))ended reading# at the end$ 0hich
the reader )ay con#ult for )ore detailed e?*lanation# of indi(idual
*ath factor#. /or full co))it)ent to the *ractice of the
*ath$ ho0e(er$ e#*ecially in it# ad(anced #tage# of concentration
and in#ight$ it 0ill be e?tre)ely hel*ful to ha(e contact 0ith a
*ro*erly Bualified teacher.
D Bhikkhu Bodhi
-bbre(iation#
Te?tual reference# ha(e been abbre(iated a# follo0#:
>NE >igha Nikaya !nu)ber of #utta'
8NE 8a==hi)a Nikaya !nu)ber of #utta'
SNE Sa)yutta Nikaya !cha*ter F nu)ber of #utta'
-NE -nguttara Nikaya !nu)erical collection F nu)ber of #utta'
>h*E >ha))a*ada !(er#e'
6i#)E 6i#uddhi)agga
2eference# to 6i#). are to the cha*ter and #ection nu)ber of
the tran#lation by Bhikkhu Gana)oli$ The Path of Purification
!BPS ed. %49$ %%' H
+ha*ter .
The Way to the End of Suffering
The #earch for a #*iritual *ath i# born out of #uffering. .t
doe# not #tart 0ith light# and ec#ta#y$ but 0ith the hard tack#
of *ain$ di#a**oint)ent$ and confu#ion. ;o0e(er$ for #uffering
to gi(e birth to a genuine #*iritual #earch$ it )u#t a)ount to
)ore than #o)ething *a##i(ely recei(ed fro) 0ithout. .t ha# to
trigger an inner realiCation$ a *erce*tion 0hich *ierce# through
the facile co)*lacency of our u#ual encounter 0ith the 0orld
to gli)*#e the in#ecurity *er*etually ga*ing underfoot. When
thi# in#ight da0n#$ e(en if only )o)entarily$ it can *reci*itate a
*rofound *er#onal cri#i#. .t o(erturn# accu#to)ed goal# and (alue#$
)ock# our routine *reoccu*ation#$ lea(e# old en=oy)ent#
#tubbornly un#ati#fying.
-t fir#t #uch change# generally are not 0elco)e. We try to
deny our (i#ion and to #)other our doubt#@ 0e #truggle to dri(e
a0ay the di#content 0ith ne0 *ur#uit#. But the fla)e of inBuiry$
once lit$ continue# to burn$ and if 0e do not let our#el(e# be
#0e*t a0ay by #u*erficial read=u#t)ent# or #louch back into
a *atched u* (er#ion of our natural o*ti)i#)$ e(entually the
original gli))ering of in#ight 0ill again flare u*$ again confront
u# 0ith our e##ential *light. .t i# *reci#ely at that *oint$
0ith all e#ca*e route# blocked$ that 0e are ready to #eek a 0ay
to bring our di#Buietude to an end. No longer can 0e continue
to drift co)*lacently through life$ dri(en blindly by our hunger
for #en#e *lea#ure# and by the *re##ure of *re(ailing #ocial
nor)#. - dee*er reality beckon# u#@ 0e ha(e heard the call of
a )ore #table$ )ore authentic ha**ine##$ and until 0e arri(e at
our de#tination 0e cannot re#t content.
But it i# =u#t then that 0e find our#el(e# facing a ne0 difficulty.
5nce 0e co)e to recogniCe the need for a #*iritual
*ath 0e di#co(er that #*iritual teaching# are by no )ean#
ho)ogeneou# and )utually co)*atible. When 0e bro0#e
through the #hel(e# of hu)anity1# #*iritual heritage$ both
ancient and conte)*orary$ 0e do not find a #ingle tidy (olu)e
but a (eritable baCaar of #*iritual #y#te)# and di#ci*line# each
offering the)#el(e# to u# a# the highe#t$ the fa#te#t$ the )o#t
*o0erful$ or the )o#t *rofound #olution to our Bue#t for the
Ilti)ate. +onfronted 0ith thi# )elange$ 0e fall into confu#ion
trying to #iCe the) u* D to decide 0hich i# truly liberati(e$
a real #olution to our need#$ and 0hich i# a #idetrack be#et
0ith hidden fla0#.
5ne a**roach to re#ol(ing thi# *roble) that i# *o*ular today
i# the eclectic one: to *ick and choo#e fro) the (ariou# tradition#
0hate(er #ee)# a)enable to our need#$ 0elding together different
*ractice# and techniBue# into a #ynthetic 0hole that i# *er#onally
#ati#fying. Thu# one )ay co)bine Buddhi#t )indfulne##
)editation 0ith #e##ion# of ;indu )antra recitation$ +hri#tian
*rayer 0ith Sufi dancing$ Je0i#h "abbala 0ith Tibetan (i#ualiCation
e?erci#e#. Eclectici#)$ ho0e(er$ though #o)eti)e# hel*ful
in )aking a tran#ition fro) a *redo)inantly 0orldly and
)ateriali#tic 0ay of life to one that take# on a #*iritual hue$ e(entually
0ear# thin. While it )ake# a co)fortable half0ay hou#e$
it i# not co)fortable a# a final (ehicle.
There are t0o interrelated fla0# in eclectici#) that account
for it# ulti)ate inadeBuacy. 5ne i# that eclectici#) co)*ro)i#e#
the (ery tradition# it dra0# u*on. The great #*iritual tradition#
the)#el(e# do not *ro*o#e their di#ci*line# a# inde*endent techniBue#
that )ay be e?ci#ed fro) their #etting and freely reco)bined
to enhance the felt Buality of our li(e#. They *re#ent the)$
rather$ a# *art# of an integral 0hole$ of a coherent (i#ion regarding
the funda)ental nature of reality and the final goal of the
#*iritual Bue#t. - #*iritual tradition i# not a #hallo0 #trea) in
0hich one can 0et one1# feet and then beat a Buick retreat to
the #hore. .t i# a )ighty$ tu)ultuou# ri(er 0hich 0ould ru#h
through the entire land#ca*e of one1# life$ and if one truly 0i#he#
to tra(el on it$ one )u#t be courageou# enough to launch one1#
boat and head out for the de*th#.
The #econd defect in eclectici#) follo0# fro) the fir#t. -#
#*iritual *ractice# are built u*on (i#ion# regarding the nature of
reality and the final good$ the#e (i#ion# are not )utually co)*atible.
When 0e hone#tly e?a)ine the teaching# of the#e tradition#$
0e 0ill find that )a=or difference# in *er#*ecti(e re(eal
the)#el(e# to our #ight$ difference# 0hich cannot be ea#ily di#)i##ed
a# alternati(e 0ay# of #aying the #a)e thing. 2ather$ they
*oint to (ery different e?*erience# con#tituting the #u*re)e
goal and the *ath that )u#t be trodden to reach that goal.
;ence$ becau#e of the difference# in *er#*ecti(e# and *ractice#
that the different #*iritual tradition# *ro*o#e$ once 0e
decide that 0e ha(e outgro0n eclectici#) and feel that 0e are
ready to )ake a #eriou# co))it)ent to one *articular *ath$ 0e
find our#el(e# confronted 0ith the challenge of choo#ing a *ath
that 0ill lead u# to true enlighten)ent and liberation. 5ne cue
to re#ol(ing thi# dile))a i# to clarify to our#el(e# our funda)ental
ai)$ to deter)ine 0hat 0e #eek in a genuinely liberati(e
*ath. .f 0e reflect carefully$ it 0ill beco)e clear that the *ri)e
reBuire)ent i# a 0ay to the end of #uffering. -ll *roble)# ulti)ately
can be reduced to the *roble) of #uffering@ thu# 0hat
0e need i# a 0ay that 0ill end thi# *roble) finally and co)*letely.
Both the#e Bualifying 0ord# are i)*ortant. The *ath
ha# to lead to a co)*lete end of #uffering$ to an end of #uffering
in all it# for)#$ and to a final end of #uffering$ to bring #uffering
to an irre(er#ible #to*.
But here 0e run u* again#t another Bue#tion. ;o0 are 0e to
find #uch a *ath D a *ath 0hich ha# the ca*acity to lead u# to the
full and final end of #ufferingK Intil 0e actually follo0 a *ath
to it# goal 0e cannot kno0 0ith certainty 0here it lead#$ and in
order to follo0 a *ath to it# goal 0e )u#t *lace co)*lete tru#t
in the efficacy of the *ath. The *ur#uit of a #*iritual *ath i# not
like #electing a ne0 #uit of clothe#. To #elect a ne0 #uit one need
only try on a nu)ber of #uit#$ in#*ect one#elf in the )irror$ and
#elect the #uit in 0hich one a**ear# )o#t attracti(e. The choice
of a #*iritual *ath i# clo#er to )arriage: one 0ant# a *artner for
life$ one 0ho#e co)*anion#hi* 0ill *ro(e a# tru#t0orthy and
durable a# the *ole #tar in the night #ky.
/aced 0ith thi# ne0 dile))a$ 0e )ay think that 0e ha(e
reached a dead end and conclude that 0e ha(e nothing to guide
u# but *er#onal inclination$ if not a fli* of the coin. ;o0e(er$
our #election need not be a# blind and uninfor)ed a# 0e i)agine$
for 0e do ha(e a guideline to hel* u#. Since #*iritual *ath#
are generally *re#ented in the fra)e0ork of a total teaching$ 0e
can e(aluate the effecti(ene## of any *articular *ath by in(e#tigating
the teaching 0hich e?*ound# it.
.n )aking thi# in(e#tigation 0e can look to three criteria a#
#tandard# for e(aluation:
!' /ir#t$ the teaching ha# to gi(e a full and accurate *icture of
the range of #uffering. .f the *icture of #uffering it gi(e# i#
inco)*lete or defecti(e$ then the *ath it #et# forth 0ill )o#t
likely be fla0ed$ unable to yield a #ati#factory #olution. Ju#t
a# an ailing *atient need# a doctor 0ho can )ake a full and
correct diagno#i# of hi# illne##$ #o in #eeking relea#e fro)
#uffering 0e need a teaching that *re#ent# a reliable account
of our condition.
!7' The #econd criterion call# for a correct analy#i# of the cau#e#
gi(ing ri#e to #uffering. The teaching cannot #to* 0ith a #ur(ey
of the out0ard #y)*to)#. .t ha# to *enetrate beneath
the #y)*to)# to the le(el of cau#e#$ and to de#cribe tho#e
cau#e# accurately. .f a teaching )ake# a faulty cau#al analy#i#$
there i# little likelihood that it# treat)ent 0ill #ucceed.
!3' The third criterion *ertain# directly to the *ath it#elf. .t #ti*ulate#
that the *ath 0hich the teaching offer# ha# to re)o(e
#uffering at it# #ource. Thi# )ean# it )u#t *ro(ide a )ethod
to cut off #uffering by eradicating it# cau#e#. .f it fail# to bring
about thi# rootAle(el #olution$ it# (alue i# ulti)ately nil. The
*ath it *re#cribe# )ight hel* to re)o(e #y)*to)# and )ake
u# feel that all i# 0ell@ but one afflicted 0ith a fatal di#ea#e
cannot afford to #ettle for co#)etic #urgery 0hen belo0 the
#urface the cau#e of hi# )alady continue# to thri(e.
To #u) u*$ 0e find three reBuire)ent# for a teaching *ro*o#ing
to offer a true *ath to the end of #uffering: fir#t$ it ha# to #et
forth a full and accurate *icture of the range of #uffering@ #econd$
it )u#t *re#ent a correct analy#i# of the cau#e# of #uffering@
and third$ it )u#t gi(e u# the )ean# to eradicate the cau#e# of
#uffering.
Thi# i# not the *lace to e(aluate the (ariou# #*iritual di#ci*line#
in ter)# of the#e criteria. 5ur concern i# only 0ith the
>ha))a$ the teaching of the Buddha$ and 0ith the #olution
thi# teaching offer# to the *roble) of #uffering. That the teaching
#hould be rele(ant to thi# *roble) i# e(ident fro) it# (ery
nature@ for it i# for)ulated$ not a# a #et of doctrine# about the
origin and end of thing# co))anding belief$ but a# a )e##age of
deli(erance fro) #uffering clai)ing to be (erifiable in our o0n
e?*erience. -long 0ith that )e##age there co)e# a )ethod of
*ractice$ a 0ay leading to the end of #uffering. Thi# 0ay i# the
Noble Eightfold Path !ariya atthangika )agga'. The Eightfold Path
#tand# at the (ery heart of the Buddha1# teaching. .t 0a# the di#co(ery
of the *ath that ga(e the Buddha1# o0n enlighten)ent
a uni(er#al #ignificance and ele(ated hi) fro) the #tatu# of a
0i#e and bene(olent #age to that of a 0orld teacher. To hi# o0n
di#ci*le# he 0a# *reAe)inently Lthe arou#er of the *ath unari#en
before$ the *roducer of the *ath not *roduced before$ the
declarer of the *ath not declared before$ the kno0er of the *ath$
the #eer of the *ath$ the guide along the *athM !8N 08'. -nd
he hi)#elf in(ite# the #eeker 0ith the *ro)i#e and challenge:
LHou your#el(e# )u#t #tri(e. The Buddha# are only teacher#.
The )editati(e one# 0ho *ractice the *ath are relea#ed fro)
the bond# of e(ilM !>h*. (. 743'.
To #ee the Noble Eightfold Path a# a (iable (ehicle to
liberation$ 0e ha(e to check it out again#t our three criteria: to
look at the Buddha1# account of the range of #uffering$ hi# analy#i#
of it# cau#e#$ and the *rogra))e he offer# a# a re)edy.
The 2ange of Suffering
The Buddha doe# not )erely touch the *roble) of #uffering tangentially@
he )ake# it$ rather$ the (ery corner#tone of hi# teaching.
;e #tart# the /our Noble Truth# that #u) u* hi# )e##age
0ith the announce)ent that life i# in#e*arably tied to #o)ething
he call# dukkha. The Pali 0ord i# often tran#lated a# #uffering$
but it )ean# #o)ething dee*er than *ain and )i#ery. .t
refer# to a ba#ic un#ati#factorine## running through our li(e#$
the li(e# of all but the enlightened. So)eti)e# thi# un#ati#factorine##
eru*t# into the o*en a# #orro0$ grief$ di#a**oint)ent$
or de#*air@ but u#ually it ho(er# at the edge of our a0arene## a#
a (ague unlocaliCed #en#e that thing# are ne(er Buite *erfect$
ne(er fully adeBuate to our e?*ectation# of 0hat they #hould be.
Thi# fact of dukkha$ the Buddha #ay#$ i# the only real #*iritual
*roble). The other *roble)# D the theological and )eta*hy#ical
Bue#tion# that ha(e taunted religiou# thinker# through the
centurie# D he gently 0a(e# a#ide a# L)atter# not tending to liberation.M
What he teache#$ he #ay#$ i# =u#t #uffering and the ending
of #uffering$ dukkha and it# ce##ation.
The Buddha doe# not #to* 0ith generalitie#. ;e goe# on to
e?*o#e the different for)# that dukkha take#$ both the e(ident
and the #ubtle. ;e #tart# 0ith 0hat i# clo#e at hand$ 0ith the #uffering
inherent in the *hy#ical *roce## of life it#elf. ;ere dukkha
#ho0# u* in the e(ent# of birth$ aging$ and death$ in our #u#ce*tibility
to #ickne##$ accident#$ and in=urie#$ e(en in hunger and
thir#t. .t a**ear# again in our inner reaction# to di#agreeable
#ituation# and e(ent#: in the #orro0$ anger$ fru#tration$ and fear
arou#ed by *ainful #e*aration#$ by un*lea#ant encounter#$ by the
failure to get 0hat 0e 0ant. E(en our *lea#ure#$ the Buddha #ay#$
are not i))une fro) dukkha. They gi(e u# ha**ine## 0hile they
la#t$ but they do not la#t fore(er@ e(entually they )u#t *a## a0ay$
and 0hen they go the lo## lea(e# u# feeling de*ri(ed. 5ur li(e#$
for the )o#t *art$ are #trung out bet0een the thir#t for *lea#ure
and the fear of *ain. We *a## our day# running after the one
and running a0ay fro) the other$ #eldo) en=oying the *eace
of content)ent@ real #ati#faction #ee)# #o)eho0 al0ay# out of
reach$ =u#t beyond the ne?t horiCon. Then in the end 0e ha(e to
die: to gi(e u* the identity 0e #*ent our 0hole life building$ to
lea(e behind e(erything and e(eryone 0e lo(e.
But e(en death$ the Buddha teache#$ doe# not bring u# to
the end of dukkha$ for the life *roce## doe# not #to* 0ith death.
When life end# in one *lace$ 0ith one body$ the L)ental continuu)$M
the indi(idual #trea) of con#ciou#ne##$ #*ring# u* again
el#e0here 0ith a ne0 body a# it# *hy#ical #u**ort. Thu# the
cycle goe# on o(er and o(er D birth$ aging$ and death D dri(en
by the thir#t for )ore e?i#tence. The Buddha declare# that thi#
round of rebirth# D called #a)#ara$ Lthe 0anderingM D ha# been
turning through beginningle## ti)e. .t i# 0ithout a fir#t *oint$
0ithout te)*oral origin. No )atter ho0 far back in ti)e 0e
go 0e al0ay# find li(ing being# D our#el(e# in *re(iou# li(e# D
0andering fro) one #tate of e?i#tence to another. The Buddha
de#cribe# (ariou# real)# 0here rebirth can take *lace: real)# of
tor)ent$ the ani)al real)$ the hu)an real)$ real)# of cele#tial
bli##. But none of the#e real)# can offer a final refuge. <ife in any
*lane )u#t co)e to an end. .t i# i)*er)anent and thu# )arked
0ith that in#ecurity 0hich i# the dee*e#t )eaning of dukkha.
/or thi# rea#on one a#*iring to the co)*lete end of dukkha cannot
re#t content 0ith any )undane achie(e)ent$ 0ith any #tatu#$
but )u#t 0in e)anci*ation fro) the entire un#table 0hirl.
The +au#e# of Suffering
- teaching *ro*o#ing to lead to the end of #uffering )u#t$ a#
0e #aid$ gi(e a reliable account of it# cau#al origination. /or if
0e 0ant to *ut a #to* to #uffering$ 0e ha(e to #to* it 0here
it begin#$ 0ith it# cau#e#. To #to* the cau#e# reBuire# a thorough
kno0ledge of 0hat they are and ho0 they 0ork@ thu# the
Buddha de(ote# a #iCeable #ection of hi# teaching to laying bare
Lthe truth of the origin of dukkha.M The origin he locate# 0ithin
our#el(e#$ in a funda)ental )alady that *er)eate# our being$
cau#ing di#order in our o0n )ind# and (itiating our relation#hi*#
0ith other# and 0ith the 0orld. The #ign of thi# )alady
can be #een in our *rocli(ity to certain un0hole#o)e )ental
#tate# called in Pali kile#a#$ u#ually tran#lated Ldefile)ent#.M The
)o#t ba#ic defile)ent# are the triad of greed$ a(er#ion$ and delu#ion.
:reed !lobha' i# #elfAcentered de#ire: the de#ire for *lea#ure
and *o##e##ion#$ the dri(e for #ur(i(al$ the urge to bol#ter
the #en#e of ego 0ith *o0er$ #tatu#$ and *re#tige. -(er#ion !do#a'
#ignifie# the re#*on#e of negation$ e?*re##ed a# re=ection$ irritation$
conde)nation$ hatred$ en)ity$ anger$ and (iolence. >elu#ion
!)oha' )ean# )ental darkne##: the thick coat of in#en#iti(ity
0hich block# out clear under#tanding.
/ro) the#e three root# e)erge the (ariou# other defile)ent#
D conceit$ =ealou#y$ a)bition$ lethargy$ arrogance$ and the
re#t D and fro) all the#e defile)ent# together$ the root# and the
branche#$ co)e# dukkha in it# di(er#e for)#: a# *ain and #orro0$
a# fear and di#content$ a# the ai)le## drifting through the round
of birth and death. To gain freedo) fro) #uffering$ therefore$
0e ha(e to eli)inate the defile)ent#. But the 0ork of re)o(ing
the defile)ent# ha# to *roceed in a )ethodical 0ay. .t cannot
be acco)*li#hed #i)*ly by an act of 0ill$ by 0anting the)
to go a0ay. The 0ork )u#t be guided by in(e#tigation. We ha(e
to find out 0hat the defile)ent# de*end u*on and then #ee ho0
it lie# 0ithin our *o0er to re)o(e their #u**ort.
The Buddha teache# that there i# one defile)ent 0hich gi(e#
ri#e to all the other#$ one root 0hich hold# the) all in *lace.
Thi# root i# ignorance !a(i==a'. .gnorance i# not )ere ab#ence of
. .gnorance i# actually identical in nature 0ith the un0hole#o)e root
kno0ledge$ a lack of kno0ing *articular *iece# of infor)ation.
.gnorance can coAe?i#t 0ith a (a#t accu)ulation of ite)iCed
kno0ledge$ and in it# o0n 0ay it can be tre)endou#ly #hre0d
and re#ourceful. -# the ba#ic root of dukkha$ ignorance i# a funda)ental
darkne## #hrouding the )ind. So)eti)e# thi# ignorance
o*erate# in a *a##i(e )anner$ )erely ob#curing correct under#tanding.
-t other ti)e# it take# on an acti(e role: it beco)e# the
great decei(er$ con=uring u* a )a## of di#torted *erce*tion# and
conce*tion# 0hich the )ind gra#*# a# attribute# of the 0orld$
una0are that they are it# o0n deluded con#truct#.
.n the#e erroneou# *erce*tion# and idea# 0e find the #oil
that nurture# the defile)ent#. The )ind catche# #ight of #o)e
*o##ibility of *lea#ure$ acce*t# it at face (alue$ and the re#ult i#
greed. 5ur hunger for gratification i# th0arted$ ob#tacle# a**ear$
and u* #*ring anger and a(er#ion. 5r 0e #truggle o(er a)biguitie#$
our #ight cloud#$ and 0e beco)e lo#t in delu#ion. With thi#
0e di#co(er the breeding ground of dukkha: ignorance i##uing
in the defile)ent#$ the defile)ent# i##uing in #uffering. -# long
a# thi# cau#al )atri? #tand# 0e are not yet beyond danger. We
)ight #till find *lea#ure and en=oy)ent D #en#e *lea#ure#$ #ocial
*lea#ure#$ *lea#ure# of the )ind and heart. But no )atter ho0
)uch *lea#ure 0e )ight e?*erience$ no )atter ho0 #ucce##ful
0e )ight be at dodging *ain$ the ba#ic *roble) re)ain# at the
core of our being and 0e continue to )o(e 0ithin the bound#
of dukkha.
+utting 5ff the +au#e# of Suffering
To free our#el(e# fro) #uffering fully and finally 0e ha(e to
eli)inate it by the root$ and that )ean# to eli)inate ignorance.
But ho0 doe# one go about eli)inating ignoranceK The an#0er
follo0# clearly fro) the nature of the ad(er#ary. Since ignorance
Ldelu#ionM !)oha'. When the Buddha #*eak# in a *#ychological conte?t
about )ental factor#$ he generally u#e# the 0ord Ldelu#ionM@ 0hen he #*eak#
about the cau#al ba#i# of #a)#ara$ he u#e# the 0ord LignoranceM !a(i==a'.
i# a #tate of not kno0ing thing# a# they really are$ 0hat i# needed
i# kno0ledge of thing# a# they really are. Not )erely conce*tual
kno0ledge$ kno0ledge a# idea$ but *erce*tual kno0ledge$
a kno0ing 0hich i# al#o a #eeing. Thi# kind of kno0ing i# called
0i#do) !*aNNa'. Wi#do) hel*# to correct the di#torting 0ork of
ignorance. .t enable# u# to gra#* thing# a# they are in actuality$
directly and i))ediately$ free fro) the #creen of idea#$ (ie0#$
and a##u)*tion# our )ind# ordinarily #et u* bet0een the)#el(e#
and the real.
To eli)inate ignorance 0e need 0i#do)$ but ho0 i# 0i#do)
to be acBuiredK -# indubitable kno0ledge of the ulti)ate
nature of thing#$ 0i#do) cannot be gained by )ere learning$
by gathering and accu)ulating a battery of fact#. ;o0e(er$ the
Buddha #ay#$ 0i#do) can be culti(ated. .t co)e# into being
through a #et of condition#$ condition# 0hich 0e ha(e the *o0er
to de(elo*. The#e condition# are actually )ental factor#$ co)*onent#
of con#ciou#ne##$ 0hich fit together into a #y#te)atic #tructure
that can be called a *ath in the 0ord1# e##ential )eaning: a
cour#e0ay for )o(e)ent leading to a goal. The goal here i# the
end of #uffering$ and the *ath leading to it i# the Noble Eightfold
Path 0ith it# eight factor#: right (ie0$ right intention$ right
#*eech$ right action$ right li(elihood$ right effort$ right )indfulne##$
and right concentration.
The Buddha call# thi# *ath the )iddle 0ay !)a==hi)a *ati*ada'.
.t i# the )iddle 0ay becau#e it #teer# clear of t0o e?tre)e#$ t0o
)i#guided atte)*t# to gain relea#e fro) #uffering. 5ne i# the
e?tre)e of indulgence in #en#e *lea#ure#$ the atte)*t to e?tingui#h
di##ati#faction by gratifying de#ire. Thi# a**roach gi(e#
*lea#ure$ but the en=oy)ent 0on i# gro##$ tran#itory$ and de(oid
of dee* content)ent. The Buddha recogniCed that #en#ual de#ire
can e?erci#e a tight gri* o(er the )ind# of hu)an being#$ and
he 0a# keenly a0are of ho0 ardently attached *eo*le beco)e to
the *lea#ure# of the #en#e#. But he al#o kne0 that thi# *lea#ure
i# far inferior to the ha**ine## that ari#e# fro) renunciation$
and therefore he re*eatedly taught that the 0ay to the Ilti)ate
e(entually reBuire# the relinBui#h)ent of #en#ual de#ire. Thu#
the Buddha de#cribe# the indulgence in #en#e *lea#ure# a# Llo0$
co))on$ 0orldly$ ignoble$ not leading to the goal.M
The other e?tre)e i# the *ractice of #elfA)ortification$ the
atte)*t to gain liberation by afflicting the body. Thi# a**roach
)ay #te) fro) a genuine a#*iration for deli(erance$ but it 0ork#
0ithin the co)*a## of a 0rong a##u)*tion that render# the
energy e?*ended barren of re#ult#. The error i# taking the body
to be the cau#e of bondage$ 0hen the real #ource of trouble lie#
in the )ind D the )ind ob#e##ed by greed$ a(er#ion$ and delu#ion.
To rid the )ind of the#e defile)ent# the affliction of the
body i# not only u#ele## but #elfAdefeating$ for it i# the i)*air)ent
of a nece##ary in#tru)ent. Thu# the Buddha de#cribe# thi#
#econd e?tre)e a# L*ainful$ ignoble$ not leading to the goal.M
-loof fro) the#e t0o e?tre)e a**roache# i# the Noble Eightfold
Path$ called the )iddle 0ay$ not in the #en#e that it effect# a
co)*ro)i#e bet0een the e?tre)e#$ but in the #en#e that it tran#cend#
the) both by a(oiding the error# that each in(ol(e#. The
*ath a(oid# the e?tre)e of #en#e indulgence by it# recognition
of the futility of de#ire and it# #tre## on renunciation. >e#ire and
#en#uality$ far fro) being )ean# to ha**ine##$ are #*ring# of #uffering
to be abandoned a# the reBui#ite of deli(erance. But the
*ractice of renunciation doe# not entail the tor)enting of the
body. .t con#i#t# in )ental training$ and for thi# the body )u#t
be fit$ a #turdy #u**ort for the in0ard 0ork. Thu# the body i#
to be looked after 0ell$ ke*t in good health$ 0hile the )ental
facultie# are trained to generate the liberating 0i#do). That
i# the )iddle 0ay$ the Noble Eightfold Path$ 0hich Lgi(e# ri#e
to (i#ion$ gi(e# ri#e to kno0ledge$ and lead# to *eace$ to direct
kno0ledge$ to enlighten)ent$ to Nibbana.M H
. SN 93:@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 73
. .bid.
+ha*ter ..
2ight 6ie0
!Sa))a >itthi'
The eight factor# of the Noble Eightfold Path are not #te*#
to be follo0ed in #eBuence$ one after another. They can be
)ore a*tly de#cribed a# co)*onent# rather than a# #te*#$ co)*arable
to the intert0ining #trand# of a #ingle cable that reBuire#
the contribution# of all the #trand# for )a?i)u) #trength. With
a certain degree of *rogre## all eight factor# can be *re#ent #i)ultaneou#ly$
each #u**orting the other#. ;o0e(er$ until that *oint
i# reached$ #o)e #eBuence in the unfolding of the *ath i# ine(itable.
+on#idered fro) the #tand*oint of *ractical training$ the
eight *ath factor# di(ide into three grou*#: !i' the )oral di#ci*line
grou* !#ilakkhandha'$ )ade u* of right #*eech$ right action$ and
right li(elihood@ !ii' the concentration grou* !#a)adhikkhandha'$
)ade u* of right effort$ right )indfulne##$ and right concentration@
and !iii' the 0i#do) grou* !*aNNakkhandha'$ )ade u*
of right (ie0 and right intention. The#e three grou*# re*re#ent
three #tage# of training: the training in the higher )oral di#ci*line$
the training in the higher con#ciou#ne##$ and the training
in the higher 0i#do).
The order of the three training# i# deter)ined by the o(erall
ai) and direction of the *ath. Since the final goal to 0hich
the *ath lead#$ liberation fro) #uffering$ de*end# ulti)ately on
u*rooting ignorance$ the cli)a? of the *ath )u#t be the training
directly o**o#ed to ignorance. Thi# i# the training in 0i#do)$
de#igned to a0aken the faculty of *enetrati(e under#tanding
0hich #ee# thing# La# they really are.M Wi#do) unfold# by
degree#$ but e(en the fainte#t fla#he# of in#ight *re#u**o#e a#
their ba#i# a )ind that ha# been concentrated$ cleared of di#turbance
and di#traction. +oncentration i# achie(ed through the
training in the higher con#ciou#ne##$ the #econd di(i#ion of the
. -dhi#ila#ikkha$ adhicitta#ikkha$ adhi*aNNa#ikkha.
*ath$ 0hich bring# the cal) and collectedne## needed to de(elo*
0i#do). But in order for the )ind to be unified in concentration$
a check )u#t be *laced on the un0hole#o)e di#*o#ition#
0hich ordinarily do)inate it# 0orking#$ #ince the#e di#*o#ition#
di#*er#e the bea) of attention and #catter it a)ong a )ultitude
of concern#. The un0hole#o)e di#*o#ition# continue to rule a#
long a# they are *er)itted to gain e?*re##ion through the channel#
of body and #*eech a# bodily and (erbal deed#. Therefore$
at the (ery out#et of training$ it i# nece##ary to re#train the facultie#
of action$ to *re(ent the) fro) beco)ing tool# of the defile)ent#.
Thi# ta#k i# acco)*li#hed by the fir#t di(i#ion of the *ath$
the training in )oral di#ci*line. Thu# the *ath e(ol(e# through
it# three #tage#$ 0ith )oral di#ci*line a# the foundation for concentration$
concentration the foundation for 0i#do)$ and 0i#do)
the direct in#tru)ent for reaching liberation.
Per*le?ity #o)eti)e# ari#e# o(er an a**arent incon#i#tency
in the arrange)ent of the *ath factor# and the threefold training.
Wi#do) D 0hich include# right (ie0 and right intention
D i# the la#t #tage in the threefold training$ yet it# factor# are
*laced at the beginning of the *ath rather than at it# end$ a#
)ight be e?*ected according to the canon of #trict con#i#tency.
The #eBuence of the *ath factor#$ ho0e(er$ i# not the re#ult of a
carele## #li*$ but i# deter)ined by an i)*ortant logi#tical con#ideration$
na)ely$ that right (ie0 and right intention of a *reli)inary
ty*e are called for at the out#et a# the #*ur for entering
the threefold training. 2ight (ie0 *ro(ide# the *er#*ecti(e for
*ractice$ right intention the #en#e of direction. But the t0o do
not e?*ire in thi# *re*aratory role. /or 0hen the )ind ha# been
refined by the training in )oral di#ci*line and concentration$ it
arri(e# at a #u*erior right (ie0 and right intention$ 0hich no0
for) the *ro*er training in the higher 0i#do).
2ight (ie0 i# the forerunner of the entire *ath$ the guide
for all the other factor#. .t enable# u# to under#tand our #tarting
*oint$ our de#tination$ and the #ucce##i(e land)ark# to *a## a#
*ractice ad(ance#. To atte)*t to engage in the *ractice 0ithout
a foundation of right (ie0 i# to ri#k getting lo#t in the futility of
undirected )o(e)ent. >oing #o )ight be co)*ared to 0anting
to dri(e #o)e*lace 0ithout con#ulting a road)a* or li#tening
to the #ugge#tion# of an e?*erienced dri(er. 5ne )ight get into
the car and #tart to dri(e$ but rather than a**roaching clo#er to
one1# de#tination$ one i# )ore likely to )o(e farther a0ay fro)
it. To arri(e at the de#ired *lace one ha# to ha(e #o)e idea of it#
general direction and of the road# leading to it. -nalogou# con#ideration#
a**ly to the *ractice of the *ath$ 0hich take# *lace in
a fra)e0ork of under#tanding e#tabli#hed by right (ie0.
The i)*ortance of right (ie0 can be gauged fro) the fact
that our *er#*ecti(e# on the crucial i##ue# of reality and (alue
ha(e a bearing that goe# beyond )ere theoretical con(iction#.
They go(ern our attitude#$ our action#$ our 0hole orientation
to e?i#tence. 5ur (ie0# )ight not be clearly for)ulated in
our )ind@ 0e )ight ha(e only a haCy conce*tual gra#* of our
belief#. But 0hether for)ulated or not$ e?*re##ed or )aintained
in #ilence$ the#e (ie0# ha(e a farAreaching influence. They #tructure
our *erce*tion#$ order our (alue#$ cry#talliCe into the ideational
fra)e0ork through 0hich 0e inter*ret to our#el(e# the
)eaning of our being in the 0orld.
The#e (ie0# then condition action. They lie behind our
choice# and goal#$ and our effort# to turn the#e goal# fro) ideal#
into actuality. The action# the)#el(e# )ight deter)ine con#eBuence#$
but the action# along 0ith their con#eBuence# hinge
on the (ie0# fro) 0hich they #*ring. Since (ie0# i)*ly an
Lontological co))it)ent$M a deci#ion on the Bue#tion of 0hat i#
real and true$ it follo0# that (ie0# di(ide into t0o cla##e#$ right
(ie0# and 0rong (ie0#. The for)er corre#*ond to 0hat i# real$
the latter de(iate fro) the real and confir) the fal#e in it# *lace.
The#e t0o different kind# of (ie0#$ the Buddha teache#$ lead to
radically di#*arate line# of action$ and thence to o**o#ite re#ult#.
.f 0e hold a 0rong (ie0$ e(en if that (ie0 i# (ague$ it 0ill lead
u# to0ard# cour#e# of action that e(entuate in #uffering. 5n the
other hand$ if 0e ado*t a right (ie0$ that (ie0 0ill #teer u#
to0ard# right action$ and thereby to0ard# freedo) fro) #uffering.
Though our conce*tual orientation to0ard# the 0orld )ight
#ee) innocuou# and incon#eBuential$ 0hen looked at clo#ely it
re(eal# it#elf to be the deci#i(e deter)inant of our 0hole cour#e
of future de(elo*)ent. The Buddha hi)#elf #ay# that he #ee# no
#ingle factor #o re#*on#ible for the ari#ing of un0hole#o)e #tate#
of )ind a# 0rong (ie0$ and no factor #o hel*ful for the ari#ing
of 0hole#o)e #tate# of )ind a# right (ie0. -gain$ he #ay# that
there i# no #ingle factor #o re#*on#ible for the #uffering of li(ing
being# a# 0rong (ie0$ and no factor #o *otent in *ro)oting the
good of li(ing being# a# right (ie0 !-N :3.7'.
.n it# fulle#t )ea#ure right (ie0 in(ol(e# a correct under#tanding
of the entire >ha))a or teaching of the Buddha$ and
thu# it# #co*e i# eBual to the range of the >ha))a it#elf. But
for *ractical *ur*o#e# t0o kind# of right (ie0 #tand out a# *ri)ary.
5ne i# )undane right (ie0$ right (ie0 0hich o*erate#
0ithin the confine# of the 0orld. The other i# #u*ra)undane
right (ie0$ the #u*erior right (ie0 0hich lead# to liberation
fro) the 0orld. The fir#t i# concerned 0ith the la0# go(erning
)aterial and #*iritual *rogre## 0ithin the round of beco)ing$
0ith the *rinci*le# that lead to higher and lo0er #tate# of e?i#tence$
to )undane ha**ine## and #uffering. The #econd i# concerned
0ith the *rinci*le# e##ential to liberation. .t doe# not ai)
)erely at #*iritual *rogre## fro) life to life$ but at e)anci*ation
fro) the cycle of recurring li(e# and death#.
8undane 2ight 6ie0
8undane right (ie0 in(ol(e# a correct gra#* of the la0 of ka))a$
the )oral efficacy of action. .t# literal na)e i# Lright (ie0 of the
o0ner#hi* of actionM !ka))a##akata #a))aditthi'$ and it find# it#
#tandard for)ulation in the #tate)ent: LBeing# are the o0ner#
of their action#$ the heir# of their action#@ they #*ring fro) their
action#$ are bound to their action#$ and are #u**orted by their
action#. Whate(er deed# they do$ good or bad$ of tho#e they #hall
be heir#.M 8ore #*ecific for)ulation# ha(e al#o co)e do0n in
the te?t#. 5ne #tock *a##age$ for e?a)*le$ affir)# that (irtuou#
action# #uch a# gi(ing and offering al)# ha(e )oral #ignificance$
that good and bad deed# *roduce corre#*onding fruit#$ that one
ha# a duty to #er(e )other and father$ that there i# rebirth and
a 0orld beyond the (i#ible one$ and that religiou# teacher# of
high attain)ent can be found 0ho e?*ound the truth about the
0orld on the ba#i# of their o0n #u*erior realiCation.
To under#tand the i)*lication# of thi# for) of right (ie0 0e
fir#t ha(e to e?a)ine the )eaning of it# key ter)$ ka))a. The
0ord ka))a )ean# action. /or Buddhi#) the rele(ant kind of
action i# (olitional action$ deed# e?*re##i(e of )orally deter)inate
(olition$ #ince it i# (olition that gi(e# the action ethical #ignificance.
Thu# the Buddha e?*re##ly identifie# action 0ith (olition.
.n a di#cour#e on the analy#i# of ka))a he #ay#: L8onk#$
it i# (olition that . call action !ka))a'. ;a(ing 0illed$ one *erfor)#
an action through body$ #*eech$ or )ind.M The identification
of ka))a 0ith (olition )ake# ka))a e##entially a
)ental e(ent$ a factor originating in the )ind 0hich #eek# to
actualiCe the )ind1# dri(e#$ di#*o#ition#$ and *ur*o#e#. 6olition
co)e# into being through any of three channel# D body$ #*eech$
or )ind D called the three door# of action !ka))ad(ara'. - (olition
e?*re##ed through the body i# a bodily action@ a (olition
e?*re##ed through #*eech i# a (erbal action@ and a (olition that
i##ue# in thought#$ *lan#$ idea#$ and other )ental #tate# 0ithout
gaining outer e?*re##ion i# a )ental action. Thu# the one factor
of (olition differentiate# into three ty*e# of ka))a according
to the channel through 0hich it beco)e# )anife#t.
. -N 3:33@ Word of the Buddha$ *. %.
. 8N 4@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 33.
. -N 3:33@ Word of the Buddha$ *. %.
2ight (ie0 reBuire# )ore than a #i)*le kno0ledge of the
general )eaning of ka))a. .t i# al#o nece##ary to under#tand:
!i' the ethical di#tinction of ka))a into the un0hole#o)e and
the 0hole#o)e@ !ii' the *rinci*al ca#e# of each ty*e@ and !iii'
the root# fro) 0hich the#e action# #*ring. -# e?*re##ed in a
#utta: LWhen a noble di#ci*le under#tand# 0hat i# ka))ically
un0hole#o)e$ and the root of un0hole#o)e ka))a$ 0hat i#
ka))ically 0hole#o)e$ and the root of 0hole#o)e ka))a$
then he ha# right (ie0.M
!i' Taking the#e *oint# in order$ 0e find that ka))a i# fir#t di#tingui#hed
a# un0hole#o)e !aku#ala' and 0hole#o)e !ku#ala'.
In0hole#o)e ka))a i# action that i# )orally bla)e0orthy$
detri)ental to #*iritual de(elo*)ent$ and conduci(e
to #uffering for one#elf and other#. Whole#o)e ka))a$ on
the other hand$ i# action that i# )orally co))endable$ hel*ful
to #*iritual gro0th$ and *roducti(e of benefit# for one#elf
and other#.
!ii' .nnu)erable in#tance# of un0hole#o)e and 0hole#o)e
ka))a can be cited$ but the Buddha #elect# ten of each a#
*ri)ary. The#e he call# the ten cour#e# of un0hole#o)e and
0hole#o)e action. -)ong the ten in the t0o #et#$ three are
bodily$ four are (erbal$ and three are )ental. The ten cour#e#
of un0hole#o)e ka))a )ay be li#ted a# follo0#$ di(ided by
0ay of their door# of e?*re##ion:
. >e#troying life
7. Taking 0hat i# not gi(en
3. Wrong conduct in regard to #en#e *lea#ure#
6erbal action:
&. /al#e #*eech
9. Slanderou# #*eech
3. ;ar#h #*eech !(acika))a'
. 8N %@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 7%.
4. .dle chatter
8. +o(etou#ne##
%. .ll 0ill
0. Wrong (ie0
The ten cour#e# of 0hole#o)e ka))a are the o**o#ite# of
the#e: ab#taining fro) the fir#t #e(en cour#e# of un0hole#o)e
ka))a$ being free fro) co(etou#ne## and ill 0ill$ and holding
right (ie0. Though the #e(en ca#e# of ab#tinence are e?erci#ed
entirely by the )ind and do not nece##arily entail o(ert action$
they are #till de#ignated 0hole#o)e bodily and (erbal action
becau#e they center on the control of the facultie# of body and
#*eech.
!iii' -ction# are di#tingui#hed a# 0hole#o)e and un0hole#o)e
on the ba#i# of their underlying )oti(e#$ called Lroot#M
!)ula'$ 0hich i)*art their )oral Buality to the (olition# conco)itant
0ith the)#el(e#. Thu# ka))a i# 0hole#o)e or
un0hole#o)e according to 0hether it# root# are 0hole#o)e
or un0hole#o)e. The root# are threefold for each #et. The
un0hole#o)e root# are the three defile)ent# 0e already )entioned
D greed$ a(er#ion$ and delu#ion. -ny action originating
fro) the#e i# an un0hole#o)e ka))a. The three 0hole#o)e
root# are their o**o#ite#$ e?*re##ed negati(ely in the
old .ndian fa#hion a# nonAgreed !alobha'$ nonAa(er#ion !ado#a'$
and nonAdelu#ion !a)oha'. Though the#e are negati(ely de#ignated$
they #ignify not )erely the ab#ence of defile)ent# but
the corre#*onding (irtue#. NonAgreed i)*lie# renunciation$
detach)ent$ and genero#ity@ nonAa(er#ion i)*lie# lo(ingAkindne##$
#y)*athy$ and gentlene##@ and nonAdelu#ion i)*lie# 0i#do).
-ny action originating fro) the#e root# i# a 0hole#o)e
ka))a.
The )o#t i)*ortant feature of ka))a i# it# ca*acity to *roduce
re#ult# corre#*onding to the ethical Buality of the action.
-n i))anent uni(er#al la0 hold# #0ay o(er (olitional action#$
bringing it about that the#e action# i##ue in retributi(e con#eBuence#$
called (i*aka$ Lri*ening#$M or *hala$ Lfruit#.M The la0
connecting action# 0ith their fruit# 0ork# on the #i)*le *rinci*le
that un0hole#o)e action# ri*en in #uffering$ 0hole#o)e
action# in ha**ine##. The ri*ening need not co)e right a0ay@
it need not co)e in the *re#ent life at all. "a))a can o*erate
acro## the #ucce##ion of lifeti)e#@ it can e(en re)ain dor)ant
for aeon# into the future. But 0hene(er 0e *erfor) a
(olitional action$ the (olition lea(e# it# i)*rint on the )ental
continuu)$ 0here it re)ain# a# a #tored u* *otency. When the
#tored u* ka))a )eet# 0ith condition# fa(orable to it# )aturation$
it a0aken# fro) it# dor)ant #tate and trigger# off #o)e
effect that bring# due co)*en#ation for the original action. The
ri*ening )ay take *lace in the *re#ent life$ in the ne?t life$ or
in #o)e life #ub#eBuent to the ne?t. - ka))a )ay ri*en by
*roducing rebirth into the ne?t e?i#tence$ thu# deter)ining the
ba#ic for) of life@ or it )ay ri*en in the cour#e of a lifeti)e$
i##uing in our (aried e?*erience# of ha**ine## and *ain$ #ucce##
and failure$ *rogre## and decline. But 0hene(er it ri*en# and in
0hate(er 0ay$ the #a)e *rinci*le in(ariably hold#: 0hole#o)e
action# yield fa(orable re#ult#$ un0hole#o)e action# yield unfa(orable
re#ult#.
To recogniCe thi# *rinci*le i# to hold right (ie0 of the )undane
kind. Thi# (ie0 at once e?clude# the )ulti*le for)# of
0rong (ie0 0ith 0hich it i# inco)*atible. -# it affir)# that
our action# ha(e an influence on our de#tiny continuing into
future li(e#$ it o**o#e# the nihili#tic (ie0 0hich regard# thi# life
a# our only e?i#tence and hold# that con#ciou#ne## ter)inate#
0ith death. -# it ground# the di#tinction bet0een good and e(il$
right and 0rong$ in an ob=ecti(e uni(er#al *rinci*le$ it o**o#e#
the ethical #ub=ecti(i#) 0hich a##ert# that good and e(il are
only *o#tulation# of *er#onal o*inion or )ean# to #ocial control.
-# it affir)# that *eo*le can choo#e their action# freely$ 0ithin
li)it# #et by their condition#$ it o**o#e# the Lhard deter)ini#ticM
line that our choice# are al0ay# )ade #ub=ect to nece##itation$
and hence that free (olition i# unreal and )oral re#*on#ibility
untenable.
So)e of the i)*lication# of the Buddha1# teaching on the
right (ie0 of ka))a and it# fruit# run counter to *o*ular trend#
in *re#entAday thought$ and it i# hel*ful to )ake the#e difference#
e?*licit. The teaching on right (ie0 )ake# it kno0n that
good and bad$ right and 0rong$ tran#cend con(entional o*inion#
about 0hat i# good and bad$ 0hat i# right and 0rong. -n entire
#ociety )ay be *redicated u*on a confu#ion of correct )oral (alue#$
and e(en though e(eryone 0ithin that #ociety )ay a**laud
one *articular kind of action a# right and conde)n another kind
a# 0rong$ thi# doe# not )ake the) (alidly right and 0rong. /or
the Buddha )oral #tandard# are ob=ecti(e and in(ariable. While
the )oral character of deed# i# doubtle##ly conditioned by the
circu)#tance# under 0hich they are *erfor)ed$ there are ob=ecti(e
criteria of )orality again#t 0hich any action$ or any co)*rehen#i(e
)oral code$ can be e(aluated. Thi# ob=ecti(e #tandard
of )orality i# integral to the >ha))a$ the co#)ic la0 of
truth and righteou#ne##. .t# tran#*er#onal ground of (alidation i#
the fact that deed#$ a# e?*re##ion# of the (olition# that engender
the)$ *roduce con#eBuence# for the agent$ and that the correlation#
bet0een deed# and their con#eBuence# are intrin#ic to the
(olition# the)#el(e#. There i# no di(ine =udge #tanding abo(e
the co#)ic *roce## 0ho a##ign# re0ard# and *uni#h)ent#. Ne(erthele##$
the deed# the)#el(e#$ through their inherent )oral or
i))oral nature$ generate the a**ro*riate re#ult#.
/or )o#t *eo*le$ the (a#t )a=ority$ the right (ie0 of ka))a
and it# re#ult# i# held out of confidence$ acce*ted on faith fro)
an e)inent #*iritual teacher 0ho *roclai)# the )oral efficacy
of action. But e(en 0hen the *rinci*le of ka))a i# not *er#onally
#een$ it #till re)ain# a facet of right (ie0. .t i# *art and *arcel
of right (ie0 becau#e right (ie0 i# concerned 0ith under#tanding
D 0ith under#tanding our *lace in the total #che)e of thing#
D and one 0ho acce*t# the *rinci*le that our (olitional action#
*o##e## a )oral *otency ha#$ to that e?tent$ gra#*ed an i)*ortant
fact *ertaining to the nature of our e?i#tence. ;o0e(er$ the
right (ie0 of the ka))ic efficacy of action need not re)ain
e?clu#i(ely an article of belief #creened behind an i)*enetrable
barrier. .t can beco)e a )atter of direct #eeing. Through
the attain)ent of certain #tate# of dee* concentration it i# *o##ible
to de(elo* a #*ecial faculty called the Ldi(ine eyeM !dibbacakkhu'$
a #u*erA#en#ory *o0er of (i#ion that re(eal# thing# hidden
fro) the eye# of fle#h. When thi# faculty i# de(elo*ed$ it
can be directed out u*on the 0orld of li(ing being# to in(e#tigate
the 0orking# of the ka))ic la0. With the #*ecial (i#ion it
confer# one can then #ee for one#elf$ 0ith i))ediate *erce*tion$
ho0 being# *a## a0ay and reAari#e according to their ka))a$
ho0 they )eet ha**ine## and #uffering through the )aturation
of their good and e(il deed#.
Su*erior 2ight 6ie0
The right (ie0 of ka))a and it# fruit# *ro(ide# a rationale for
engaging in 0hole#o)e action# and attaining high #tatu# 0ithin
the round of rebirth#$ but by it#elf it doe# not lead to liberation.
.t i# *o##ible for #o)eone to acce*t the la0 of ka))a yet #till
li)it hi# ai)# to )undane achie(e)ent#. 5ne1# )oti(e for *erfor)ing
noble deed# )ight be the accu)ulation of )eritoriou#
ka))a leading to *ro#*erity and #ucce## here and no0$ a fortunate
rebirth a# a hu)an being$ or the en=oy)ent of cele#tial
bli## in the hea(enly 0orld#. There i# nothing 0ithin the logic
of ka))ic cau#ality to i)*el the urge to tran#cend the cycle of
ka))a and it# fruit. The i)*ul#e to deli(erance fro) the entire
round of beco)ing de*end# u*on the acBui#ition of a different
and dee*er *er#*ecti(e$ one 0hich yield# in#ight into the inherent
defecti(ene## of all for)# of #a)#aric e?i#tence$ e(en the
)o#t e?alted.
. See >N 7$ 8N 74$ etc. /or detail#$ #ee 6i#). O...$ 47P0.
Thi# #u*erior right (ie0 leading to liberation i# the under#tanding
of the /our Noble Truth#. .t i# thi# right (ie0 that
figure# a# the fir#t factor of the Noble Eightfold Path in the
*ro*er #en#e: a# the noble right (ie0. Thu# the Buddha define#
the *ath factor of right (ie0 e?*re##ly in ter)# of the four
truth#: LWhat no0 i# right (ie0K .t i# under#tanding of #uffering
!dukkha'$ under#tanding of the origin of #uffering$
under#tanding of the ce##ation of #uffering$ under#tanding of
the 0ay leading to the ce##ation to #uffering.M 0 The Eightfold
Path #tart# 0ith a conce*tual under#tanding of the /our
Noble Truth# a**rehended only ob#curely through the )edia
of thought and reflection. .t reache# it# cli)a? in a direct intuition
of tho#e #a)e truth#$ *enetrated 0ith a clarity tanta)ount
to enlighten)ent. Thu# it can be #aid that the right (ie0 of
the /our Noble Truth# for)# both the beginning and the cul)ination
of the 0ay to the end of #uffering.
The fir#t noble truth i# the truth of #uffering !dukkha'$ the
inherent un#ati#factorine## of e?i#tence$ re(ealed in the i)*er)anence$
*ain$ and *er*etual inco)*letene## intrin#ic to all
for)# of life.
Thi# i# the noble truth of #uffering. Birth i# #uffering@ aging
i# #uffering@ #ickne## i# #uffering@ death i# #uffering@ #orro0$ la)entation$
*ain$ grief$ and de#*air are #uffering@ a##ociation 0ith
the un*lea#ant i# #uffering@ #e*aration fro) the *lea#ant i# #uffering@
not to get 0hat one 0ant# i# #uffering@ in brief$ the fi(e
aggregate# of clinging are #uffering.
The la#t #tate)ent )ake# a co)*rehen#i(e clai) that call#
for #o)e attention. The fi(e aggregate# of clinging !*aNcu*adanakkandha'
are a cla##ificatory #che)e for under#tanding the
nature of our being. What 0e are$ the Buddha teache#$ i# a #et
of fi(e aggregate# D )aterial for)$ feeling#$ *erce*tion#$ )ental
for)ation#$ and con#ciou#ne## D all connected 0ith clinging.
0. >N 77@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 7%.
. >N 77$ SN 93:@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 3
We are the fi(e and the fi(e are u#. Whate(er 0e identify 0ith$
0hate(er 0e hold to a# our #elf$ fall# 0ithin the #et of fi(e aggregate#.
Together the#e fi(e aggregate# generate the 0hole array of
thought#$ e)otion#$ idea#$ and di#*o#ition# in 0hich 0e d0ell$
Lour 0orld.M Thu# the Buddha1# declaration that the fi(e aggregate#
are dukkha in effect bring# all e?*erience$ our entire e?i#tence$
into the range of dukkha.
But here the Bue#tion ari#e#: Why #hould the Buddha #ay
that the fi(e aggregate# are dukkhaK The rea#on he #ay# that the
fi(e aggregate# are dukkha i# that they are i)*er)anent. They
change fro) )o)ent to )o)ent$ ari#e and fall a0ay$ 0ithout
anything #ub#tantial behind the) *er#i#ting through the change.
Since the con#tituent factor# of our being are al0ay# changing$
utterly de(oid of a *er)anent core$ there i# nothing 0e can cling
to in the) a# a ba#i# for #ecurity. There i# only a con#tantly di#integrating
flu? 0hich$ 0hen clung to in the de#ire for *er)anence$
bring# a *lunge into #uffering.
The #econd noble truth *oint# out the cau#e of dukkha. /ro)
the #et of defile)ent# 0hich e(entuate in #uffering$ the Buddha
#ingle# out cra(ing !tanha' a# the do)inant and )o#t *er(a#i(e
cau#e$ Lthe origin of #uffering.M
Thi# i# the noble truth of the origin of #uffering. .t i# thi#
cra(ing 0hich *roduce# re*eated e?i#tence$ i# bound u* 0ith
delight and lu#t$ and #eek# *lea#ure here and there$ na)ely$ cra(ing
for #en#e *lea#ure#$ cra(ing for e?i#tence$ and cra(ing for
nonAe?i#tence.7
The third noble truth #i)*ly re(er#e# thi# relation#hi* of
origination. .f cra(ing i# the cau#e of dukkha$ then to be free
fro) dukkha 0e ha(e to eli)inate cra(ing. Thu# the Buddha
#ay#:
Thi# i# the noble truth of the ce##ation of #uffering. .t i#
the co)*lete fading a0ay and ce##ation of thi# cra(ing$ it#
7. .bid. Word of the Buddha$ *. 3.
for#aking and abandon)ent$ liberation and detach)ent
fro) it.3
The #tate of *erfect *eace that co)e# 0hen cra(ing i# eli)inated
i# Nibbana !nir(ana'$ the unconditioned #tate e?*erienced
0hile ali(e 0ith the e?tingui#hing of the fla)e# of greed$ a(er#ion$
and delu#ion. The fourth noble truth #ho0# the 0ay to
reach the end of dukkha$ the 0ay to the realiCation of Nibbana.
That 0ay i# the Noble Eightfold Path it#elf.
The right (ie0 of the /our Noble Truth# de(elo*# in t0o
#tage#. The fir#t i# called the right (ie0 that accord# 0ith the
truth# !#accanulo)ika #a))a ditthi'@ the #econd$ the right (ie0 that
*enetrate# the truth# !#acca*ati(edha #a))a ditthi'. To acBuire the
right (ie0 that accord# 0ith the truth# reBuire# a clear under#tanding
of their )eaning and #ignificance in our li(e#. Such an
under#tanding ari#e# fir#t by learning the truth# and #tudying
the). Sub#eBuently it i# dee*ened by reflecting u*on the) in
the light of e?*erience until one gain# a #trong con(iction a# to
their (eracity.
But e(en at thi# *oint the truth# ha(e not been *enetrated$
and thu# the under#tanding achie(ed i# #till defecti(e$ a )atter
of conce*t rather than *erce*tion. To arri(e at the e?*eriential
realiCation of the truth# it i# nece##ary to take u* the *ractice of
)editation D fir#t to #trengthen the ca*acity for #u#tained concentration$
then to de(elo* in#ight. .n#ight ari#e# by conte)*lating
the fi(e aggregate#$ the factor# of e?i#tence$ in order to di#cern
their real characteri#tic#. -t the cli)a? of #uch conte)*lation the
)ental eye turn# a0ay fro) the conditioned *heno)ena co)*ri#ed
in the aggregate# and #hift# it# focu# to the unconditioned
#tate$ Nibbana$ 0hich beco)e# acce##ible through the dee*ened
faculty of in#ight. With thi# #hift$ 0hen the )ind1# eye #ee# Nibbana$
there take# *lace a #i)ultaneou# *enetration of all /our
Noble Truth#. By #eeing Nibbana$ the #tate beyond dukkha$ one
3. .bid. Word of the Buddha$ *. 77.
gain# a *er#*ecti(e fro) 0hich to (ie0 the fi(e aggregate# and
#ee that they are dukkha #i)*ly becau#e they are conditioned$
#ub=ect to cea#ele## change. -t the #a)e )o)ent Nibbana i#
realiCed$ cra(ing #to*#@ the under#tanding then da0n# that cra(ing
i# the true origin of dukkha. When Nibbana i# #een$ it i# realiCed
to be the #tate of *eace$ free fro) the tur)oil of beco)ing.
-nd becau#e thi# e?*erience ha# been reached by *racticing
the Noble Eightfold Path$ one kno0# for one#elf that the Noble
Eightfold Path i# truly the 0ay to the end of dukkha.
Thi# right (ie0 that *enetrate# the /our Noble Truth# co)e#
at the end of the *ath$ not at the beginning. We ha(e to #tart
0ith the right (ie0 confor)ing to the truth#$ acBuired through
learning and fortified through reflection. Thi# (ie0 in#*ire# u#
to take u* the *ractice$ to e)bark on the threefold training in
)oral di#ci*line$ concentration$ and 0i#do). When the training
)ature#$ the eye of 0i#do) o*en# by it#elf$ *enetrating the
truth# and freeing the )ind fro) bondage. H
+ha*ter ...
2ight .ntention
!Sa))a Sanka**a'
The #econd factor of the *ath i# called in Pali #a))a #anka**a$
0hich 0e 0ill tran#late a# Lright intention.M The ter)
i# #o)eti)e# tran#lated a# Lright thought$M a rendering that can
be acce*ted if 0e add the *ro(i#o that in the *re#ent conte?t the
0ord LthoughtM refer# #*ecifically to the *ur*o#i(e or conati(e
a#*ect of )ental acti(ity$ the cogniti(e a#*ect being co(ered by
the fir#t factor$ right (ie0. .t 0ould be artificial$ ho0e(er$ to in#i#t
too #trongly on the di(i#ion bet0een the#e t0o function#. /ro)
the Buddhi#t *er#*ecti(e$ the cogniti(e and *ur*o#i(e #ide# of
the )ind do not re)ain i#olated in #e*arate co)*art)ent# but
intert0ine and interact in clo#e correlation. E)otional *redilection#
influence (ie0#$ and (ie0# deter)ine *redilection#. Thu#
a *enetrating (ie0 of the nature of e?i#tence$ gained through
dee* reflection and (alidated through in(e#tigation$ bring# 0ith
it a re#tructuring of (alue# 0hich #et# the )ind )o(ing to0ard#
goal# co))en#urate 0ith the ne0 (i#ion. The a**lication of
)ind needed to achie(e tho#e goal# i# 0hat i# )eant by right
intention.
The Buddha e?*lain# right intention a# threefold: the intention
of renunciation$ the intention of good 0ill$ and the intention
of har)le##ne##.& The three are o**o#ed to three *arallel
kind# of 0rong intention: intention go(erned by de#ire$ intention
go(erned by ill 0ill$ and intention go(erned by har)fulne##.
9 Each kind of right intention counter# the corre#*onding
kind of 0rong intention. The intention of renunciation counter#
the intention of de#ire$ the intention of good 0ill counter# the
&. Nekkha))a#anka**a$ abya*ada #anka**a$ a(ihi)#a#anka**a.
9. "a)a#anka**a$ bya*ada#anka**a$ a(ihi)#a#anka**a. Though ka)a u#ually
)ean# #en#ual de#ire$ the conte?t #ee)# to allo0 a 0ider inter*retation$
a# #elfA#eeking de#ire in all it# for)#.
intention of ill 0ill$ and the intention of har)le##ne## counter#
the intention of har)fulne##.
The Buddha di#co(ered thi# t0ofold di(i#ion of thought in
the *eriod *rior to hi# Enlighten)ent !#ee 8N %'. While he
0a# #tri(ing for deli(erance$ )editating in the fore#t$ he found
that hi# thought# could be di#tributed into t0o different cla##e#.
.n one he *ut thought# of de#ire$ ill 0ill$ and har)fulne##$ in
the other thought# of renunciation$ good 0ill$ and har)le##ne##.
Whene(er he noticed thought# of the fir#t kind ari#e in hi)$ he
under#tood that tho#e thought# lead to har) for one#elf and
other#$ ob#truct 0i#do)$ and lead a0ay fro) Nibbana. 2eflecting
in thi# 0ay he e?*elled #uch thought# fro) hi# )ind and
brought the) to an end. But 0hene(er thought# of the #econd
kind aro#e$ he under#tood tho#e thought# to be beneficial$ conduci(e
to the gro0th of 0i#do)$ aid# to the attain)ent of Nibbana.
Thu# he #trengthened tho#e thought# and brought the)
to co)*letion.
2ight intention clai)# the #econd *lace in the *ath$ bet0een
right (ie0 and the triad of )oral factor# that begin# 0ith right
#*eech$ becau#e the )ind1# intentional function for)# the crucial
link connecting our cogniti(e *er#*ecti(e 0ith our )ode# of
acti(e engage)ent in the 0orld. 5n the one #ide action# al0ay#
*oint back to the thought# fro) 0hich they #*ring. Thought
i# the forerunner of action$ directing body and #*eech$ #tirring
the) into acti(ity$ u#ing the) a# it# in#tru)ent# for e?*re##ing
it# ai)# and ideal#. The#e ai)# and ideal#$ our intention#$ in turn
*oint back a further #te* to the *re(ailing (ie0#. When 0rong
(ie0# *re(ail$ the outco)e i# 0rong intention gi(ing ri#e to
un0hole#o)e action#. Thu# one 0ho denie# the )oral efficacy
of action and )ea#ure# achie(e)ent in ter)# of gain and #tatu#
0ill a#*ire to nothing but gain and #tatu#$ u#ing 0hate(er )ean#
he can to acBuire the). When #uch *ur#uit# beco)e 0ide#*read$
the re#ult i# #uffering$ the tre)endou# #uffering of indi(idual#$
#ocial grou*#$ and nation# out to gain 0ealth$ *o#ition$ and *o0er
0ithout regard for con#eBuence#. The cau#e for the endle## co)*etition$
conflict$ in=u#tice$ and o**re##ion doe# not lie out#ide
the )ind. The#e are all =u#t )anife#tation# of intention#$ outcro**ing#
of thought# dri(en by greed$ by hatred$ by delu#ion.
But 0hen the intention# are right$ the action# 0ill be right$
and for the intention# to be right the #ure#t guarantee i# right
(ie0#. 5ne 0ho recogniCe# the la0 of ka))a$ that action#
bring retributi(e con#eBuence#$ 0ill fra)e hi# *ur#uit# to accord
0ith thi# la0@ thu# hi# action#$ e?*re##i(e of hi# intention#$ 0ill
confor) to the canon# of right conduct. The Buddha #uccinctly
#u)# u* the )atter 0hen he #ay# that for a *er#on 0ho hold# a
0rong (ie0$ hi# deed#$ 0ord#$ *lan#$ and *ur*o#e# grounded in
that (ie0 0ill lead to #uffering$ 0hile for a *er#on 0ho hold#
right (ie0$ hi# deed#$ 0ord#$ *lan#$ and *ur*o#e# grounded in
that (ie0 0ill lead to ha**ine##.3
Since the )o#t i)*ortant for)ulation of right (ie0 i# the
under#tanding of the /our Noble Truth#$ it follo0# that thi#
(ie0 #hould be in #o)e 0ay deter)inati(e of the content of
right intention. Thi# 0e find to be in fact the ca#e. Inder#tanding
the four truth# in relation to one1# o0n life gi(e# ri#e to
the intention of renunciation@ under#tanding the) in relation to
other being# gi(e# ri#e to the other t0o right intention#. When
0e #ee ho0 our o0n li(e# are *er(aded by dukkha$ and ho0 thi#
dukkha deri(e# fro) cra(ing$ the )ind incline# to renunciation D
to abandoning cra(ing and the ob=ect# to 0hich it bind# u#. Then$
0hen 0e a**ly the truth# in an analogou# 0ay to other li(ing
being#$ the conte)*lation nurture# the gro0th of good 0ill and
har)le##ne##. We #ee that$ like our#el(e#$ all other li(ing being#
0ant to be ha**y$ and again that like our#el(e# they are #ub=ect
to #uffering. The con#ideration that all being# #eek ha**ine##
cau#e# thought# of good 0ill to ari#e D the lo(ing 0i#h that they
be 0ell$ ha**y$ and *eaceful. The con#ideration that being# are
e?*o#ed to #uffering cau#e# thought# of har)le##ne## to ari#e D
3. -N :3.7.
the co)*a##ionate 0i#h that they be free fro) #uffering.
The )o)ent the culti(ation of the Noble Eightfold Path
begin#$ the factor# of right (ie0 and right intention together
#tart to counteract the three un0hole#o)e root#. >elu#ion$ the
*ri)ary cogniti(e defile)ent$ i# o**o#ed by right (ie0$ the na#cent
#eed of 0i#do). The co)*lete eradication of delu#ion 0ill
only take *lace 0hen right (ie0 i# de(elo*ed to the #tage of full
realiCation$ but e(ery flickering of correct under#tanding contribute#
to it# e(entual de#truction. The other t0o root#$ being
e)oti(e defile)ent#$ reBuire o**o#ition through the redirecting
of intention$ and thu# )eet their antidote# in thought# of renunciation$
good 0ill$ and har)le##ne##.
Since greed and a(er#ion are dee*ly grounded$ they do not
yield ea#ily@ ho0e(er$ the 0ork of o(erco)ing the) i# not i)*o##ible
if an effecti(e #trategy i# e)*loyed. The *ath de(i#ed by the
Buddha )ake# u#e of an indirect a**roach: it *roceed# by tackling
the thought# to 0hich the#e defile)ent# gi(e ri#e. :reed
and a(er#ion #urface in the for) of thought#$ and thu# can be
eroded by a *roce## of Lthought #ub#titution$M by re*lacing the)
0ith the thought# o**o#ed to the). The intention of renunciation
*ro(ide# the re)edy to greed. :reed co)e# to )anife#tation
in thought# of de#ire D a# #en#ual$ acBui#iti(e$ and *o##e##i(e
thought#. Thought# of renunciation #*ring fro) the 0hole#o)e
root of nonAgreed$ 0hich they acti(ate 0hene(er they are culti(ated.
Since contrary thought# cannot coe?i#t$ 0hen thought# of
renunciation are rou#ed$ they di#lodge thought# of de#ire$ thu#
cau#ing nonAgreed to re*lace greed. Si)ilarly$ the intention# of
good 0ill and har)le##ne## offer the antidote to a(er#ion. -(er#ion
co)e# to )anife#tation either in thought# of ill 0ill D a#
angry$ ho#tile$ or re#entful thought#@ or in thought# of har)ing
D a# the i)*ul#e# to cruelty$ aggre##ion$ and de#truction.
Thought# of good 0ill counter the for)er outflo0 of a(er#ion$
thought# of har)le##ne## the latter outflo0$ in thi# 0ay e?ci#ing
the un0hole#o)e root of a(er#ion it#elf.
The .ntention of 2enunciation
The Buddha de#cribe# hi# teaching a# running contrary to the
0ay of the 0orld. The 0ay of the 0orld i# the 0ay of de#ire$ and
the unenlightened 0ho follo0 thi# 0ay flo0 0ith the current
of de#ire$ #eeking ha**ine## by *ur#uing the ob=ect# in 0hich
they i)agine they 0ill find fulfill)ent. The Buddha1# )e##age
of renunciation #tate# e?actly the o**o#ite: the *ull of de#ire i#
to be re#i#ted and e(entually abandoned. >e#ire i# to be abandoned
not becau#e it i# )orally e(il but becau#e it i# a root of
#uffering.4 Thu# renunciation$ turning a0ay fro) cra(ing and
it# dri(e for gratification$ beco)e# the key to ha**ine##$ to freedo)
fro) the hold of attach)ent.
The Buddha doe# not de)and that e(eryone lea(e the hou#ehold
life for the )ona#tery or a#k hi# follo0er# to di#card all
#en#e en=oy)ent# on the #*ot. The degree to 0hich a *er#on
renounce# de*end# on hi# or her di#*o#ition and #ituation. But
0hat re)ain# a# a guiding *rinci*le i# thi#: that the attain)ent
of deli(erance reBuire# the co)*lete eradication of cra(ing$ and
*rogre## along the *ath i# accelerated to the e?tent that one o(erco)e#
cra(ing. Breaking free fro) do)ination by de#ire )ay
not be ea#y$ but the difficulty doe# not abrogate the nece##ity.
Since cra(ing i# the origin of dukkha$ *utting an end to dukkha
de*end# on eli)inating cra(ing$ and that in(ol(e# directing the
)ind to renunciation.
But it i# =u#t at thi# *oint$ 0hen one trie# to let go of attach)ent$
that one encounter# a *o0erful inner re#i#tance. The )ind
doe# not 0ant to relinBui#h it# hold on the ob=ect# to 0hich it
4. Strictly #*eaking$ greed or de#ire !raga' beco)e# i))oral only 0hen
it i)*el# action# (iolating the ba#ic *rinci*le# of ethic#$ #uch a# killing$
#tealing$ adultery$ etc. When it re)ain# )erely a# a )ental factor or
i##ue# in action# not inherently i))oral D e.g.$ the en=oy)ent of good
food$ the de#ire for recognition$ #e?ual relation# that do not hurt other#
D it i# not i))oral but i# #till a for) of cra(ing cau#ing bondage to
#uffering.
ha# beco)e attached. /or #uch a long ti)e it ha# been accu#to)ed
to gaining$ gra#*ing$ and holding$ that it #ee)# i)*o##ible
to break the#e habit# by an act of 0ill. 5ne )ight agree
to the need for renunciation$ )ight 0ant to lea(e attach)ent
behind$ but 0hen the call i# actually #ounded the )ind recoil#
and continue# to )o(e in the gri* of it# de#ire#.
So the *roble) ari#e# of ho0 to break the #hackle# of de#ire.
The Buddha doe# not offer a# a #olution the )ethod of re*re##ion
D the atte)*t to dri(e de#ire a0ay 0ith a )ind full of fear
and loathing. Thi# a**roach doe# not re#ol(e the *roble) but
only *u#he# it belo0 the #urface$ 0here it continue# to thri(e.
The tool the Buddha hold# out to free the )ind fro) de#ire
i# under#tanding. 2eal renunciation i# not a )atter of co)*elling
our#el(e# to gi(e u* thing# #till in0ardly cheri#hed$ but of
changing our *er#*ecti(e on the) #o that they no longer bind
u#. When 0e under#tand the nature of de#ire$ 0hen 0e in(e#tigate
it clo#ely 0ith keen attention$ de#ire fall# a0ay by it#elf$
0ithout need for #truggle.
To under#tand de#ire in #uch a 0ay that 0e can loo#en it#
hold$ 0e need to #ee that de#ire i# in(ariably bound u* 0ith
dukkha. The 0hole *heno)enon of de#ire$ 0ith it# cycle of
0anting and gratification$ hang# on our 0ay of #eeing thing#.
We re)ain in bondage to de#ire becau#e 0e #ee it a# our )ean#
to ha**ine##. .f 0e can look at de#ire fro) a different angle$ it#
force 0ill be abated$ re#ulting in the )o(e to0ard# renunciation.
What i# needed to alter *erce*tion i# #o)ething called L0i#e
con#iderationM !yoni#o )ana#ikara'. Ju#t a# *erce*tion influence#
thought$ #o thought can influence *erce*tion. 5ur u#ual *erce*tion#
are tinged 0ith Lun0i#e con#iderationM !ayoni#o )ana#ikara'.
We ordinarily look only at the #urface# of thing#$ #can
the) in ter)# of our i))ediate intere#t# and 0ant#@ only rarely
do 0e dig into the root# of our in(ol(e)ent# or e?*lore their
longArange con#eBuence#. To #et thi# #traight call# for 0i#e con#ideration:
looking into the hidden undertone# to our action#$
e?*loring their re#ult#$ e(aluating the 0orthine## of our goal#.
.n thi# in(e#tigation our concern )u#t not be 0ith 0hat i# *lea#ant
but 0ith 0hat i# true. We ha(e to be *re*ared and 0illing
to di#co(er 0hat i# true e(en at the co#t of our co)fort. /or
real #ecurity al0ay# lie# on the #ide of truth$ not on the #ide of
co)fort.
When de#ire i# #crutiniCed clo#ely$ 0e find that it i# con#tantly
#hado0ed by dukkha. So)eti)e# dukkha a**ear# a# *ain or irritation@
often it lie# lo0 a# a con#tant #train of di#content. But the
t0o D de#ire and dukkha D are in#e*arable conco)itant#. We
can confir) thi# for our#el(e# by con#idering the 0hole cycle of
de#ire. -t the )o)ent de#ire #*ring# u* it create# in u# a #en#e
of lack$ the *ain of 0ant. To end thi# *ain 0e #truggle to fulfill
the de#ire. .f our effort fail#$ 0e e?*erience fru#tration$ di#a**oint)ent$
#o)eti)e# de#*air. But e(en the *lea#ure of #ucce##
i# not unBualified. We 0orry that 0e )ight lo#e the ground 0e
ha(e gained. We feel dri(en to #ecure our *o#ition$ to #afeguard
our territory$ to gain )ore$ to ri#e higher$ to e#tabli#h tighter
control#. The de)and# of de#ire #ee) endle##$ and each de#ire
de)and# the eternal: it 0ant# the thing# 0e get to la#t fore(er.
But all the ob=ect# of de#ire are i)*er)anent. Whether it be
0ealth$ *o0er$ *o#ition$ or other *er#on#$ #e*aration i# ine(itable$
and the *ain that acco)*anie# #e*aration i# *ro*ortional
to the force of attach)ent: #trong attach)ent bring# )uch #uffering@
little attach)ent bring# little #uffering@ no attach)ent
bring# no #uffering.8
+onte)*lating the dukkha inherent in de#ire i# one 0ay to
incline the )ind to renunciation. -nother 0ay i# to conte)*late
directly the benefit# flo0ing fro) renunciation. To )o(e fro)
de#ire to renunciation i# not$ a# )ight be i)agined$ to )o(e
fro) ha**ine## to grief$ fro) abundance to de#titution. .t i# to
*a## fro) gro##$ entangling *lea#ure# to an e?alted ha**ine##
and *eace$ fro) a condition of #er(itude to one of #elfA)a#tery.
8. /or a full account of the dukkha tied u* 0ith #en#ual de#ire$ #ee 8N 3.
>e#ire ulti)ately breed# fear and #orro0$ but renunciation gi(e#
fearle##ne## and =oy. .t *ro)ote# the acco)*li#h)ent of all three
#tage# of the threefold training: it *urifie# conduct$ aid# concentration$
and nouri#he# the #eed of 0i#do). The entire cour#e of
*ractice fro) #tart to fini#h can in fact be #een a# an e(ol(ing
*roce## of renunciation cul)inating in Nibbana a# the ulti)ate
#tage of relinBui#h)ent$ Lthe relinBui#hing of all foundation# of
e?i#tenceM !#abb1u*adhi*atini##agga'.
When 0e )ethodically conte)*late the danger# of de#ire
and the benefit# of renunciation$ gradually 0e #teer our )ind
a0ay fro) the do)ination of de#ire. -ttach)ent# are #hed like
the lea(e# of a tree$ naturally and #*ontaneou#ly. The change# do
not co)e #uddenly$ but 0hen there i# *er#i#tent *ractice$ there
i# no doubt that they 0ill co)e. Through re*eated conte)*lation
one thought knock# a0ay another$ the intention of renunciation
di#lodge# the intention of de#ire.
The .ntention of :ood Will
The intention of good 0ill o**o#e# the intention of ill 0ill$
thought# go(erned by anger and a(er#ion. -# in the ca#e of de#ire$
there are t0o ineffecti(e 0ay# of handling ill 0ill. 5ne i# to yield
to it$ to e?*re## the a(er#ion by bodily or (erbal action. Thi#
a**roach relea#e# the ten#ion$ hel*# dri(e the anger Lout of one1#
#y#te)$M but it al#o *o#e# certain danger#. .t breed# re#ent)ent$
*ro(oke# retaliation$ create# ene)ie#$ *oi#on# relation#hi*#$ and
generate# un0hole#o)e ka))a@ in the end$ the ill 0ill doe#
not lea(e the L#y#te)M after all$ but in#tead i# dri(en do0n to
a dee*er le(el 0here it continue# to (itiate one1# thought# and
conduct. The other a**roach$ re*re##ion$ al#o fail# to di#*el the
de#tructi(e force of ill 0ill. .t )erely turn# that force around
and *u#he# it in0ard$ 0here it beco)e# tran#)ogrified into #elfA
conte)*t$ chronic de*re##ion$ or a tendency to irrational outbur#t#
of (iolence.
The re)edy the Buddha reco))end# to counteract ill 0ill$
e#*ecially 0hen the ob=ect i# another *er#on$ i# a Buality called
in Pali )etta. Thi# 0ord deri(e# fro) another 0ord )eaning
Lfriend$M but )etta #ignifie# )uch )ore than ordinary friendline##.
. *refer to tran#late it by the co)*ound Llo(ingAkindne##$M
0hich be#t ca*ture# the intended #en#e: an inten#e feeling of
#elfle## lo(e for other being# radiating out0ard# a# a heartfelt
concern for their 0ellAbeing and ha**ine##. 8etta i# not =u#t #enti)ental
good 0ill$ nor i# it a con#cientiou# re#*on#e to a )oral
i)*erati(e or di(ine co))and. .t )u#t beco)e a dee* inner
feeling$ characteriCed by #*ontaneou# 0ar)th rather than by
a #en#e of obligation. -t it# *eak )etta ri#e# to the height# of a
brah)a(ihara$ a Ldi(ine d0elling$M a total 0ay of being centered
on the radiant 0i#h for the 0elfare of all li(ing being#.
The kind of lo(e i)*lied by )etta #hould be di#tingui#hed
fro) #en#ual lo(e a# 0ell a# fro) the lo(e in(ol(ed in *er#onal
affection. The fir#t i# a for) of cra(ing$ nece##arily #elfAdirected$
0hile the #econd #till include# a degree of attach)ent: 0e lo(e
a *er#on becau#e that *er#on gi(e# u# *lea#ure$ belong# to our
fa)ily or grou*$ or reinforce# our o0n #elfAi)age. 5nly rarely
doe# the feeling of affection tran#cend all trace# of egoAreference$
and e(en then it# #co*e i# li)ited. .t a**lie# only to a certain
*er#on or grou* of *eo*le 0hile e?cluding other#.
The lo(e in(ol(ed in )etta$ in contra#t$ doe# not hinge on
*articular relation# to *articular *er#on#. ;ere the reference
*oint of #elf i# utterly o)itted. We are concerned only 0ith #uffu#ing
other# 0ith a )ind of lo(ingAkindne##$ 0hich ideally i# to
be de(elo*ed into a uni(er#al #tate$ e?tended to all li(ing being#
0ithout di#cri)ination# or re#er(ation#. The 0ay to i)*art to
)etta thi# uni(er#al #co*e i# to culti(ate it a# an e?erci#e in )editation.
S*ontaneou# feeling# of good 0ill occur too #*oradically
and are too li)ited in range to be relied on a# the re)edy
for a(er#ion. The idea of deliberately de(elo*ing lo(e ha# been
criticiCed a# contri(ed$ )echanical$ and calculated. <o(e$ it i#
#aid$ can only be genuine 0hen it i# #*ontaneou#$ ari#en 0ithout
inner *ro)*ting or effort. But it i# a Buddhi#t the#i# that the
)ind cannot be co))anded to lo(e #*ontaneou#ly@ it can only
be #ho0n the )ean# to de(elo* lo(e and en=oined to *ractice
accordingly. -t fir#t the )ean# ha# to be e)*loyed 0ith #o)e
deliberation$ but through *ractice the feeling of lo(e beco)e#
ingrained$ grafted onto the )ind a# a natural and #*ontaneou#
tendency.
The )ethod of de(elo*)ent i# )ettaAbha(ana$ the )editation
on lo(ingAkindne##$ one of the )o#t i)*ortant kind# of
Buddhi#t )editation. The )editation begin# 0ith the de(elo*)ent
of lo(ingAkindne## to0ard# one#elf.% .t i# #ugge#ted that
one take one#elf a# the fir#t ob=ect of )etta becau#e true lo(ingA
kindne## for other# only beco)e# *o##ible 0hen one i# able
to feel genuine lo(ingAkindne## for one#elf. Probably )o#t of
the anger and ho#tility 0e direct to other# #*ring# fro) negati(e
attitude# 0e hold to0ard# our#el(e#. When )etta i# directed
in0ard# to0ard# one#elf$ it hel*# to )elt do0n the hardened
cru#t created by the#e negati(e attitude#$ *er)itting a fluid diffu#ion
of kindne## and #y)*athy out0ard#.
5nce one ha# learned to kindle the feeling of )etta to0ard#
one#elf$ the ne?t #te* i# to e?tend it to other#. The e?ten#ion of
)etta hinge# on a #hift in the #en#e of identity$ on e?*anding the
#en#e of identity beyond it# ordinary confine# and learning to
identify 0ith other#. The #hift i# *urely *#ychological in )ethod$
entirely free fro) theological and )eta*hy#ical *o#tulate#$ #uch
a# that of a uni(er#al #elf i))anent in all being#. .n#tead$ it *roceed#
fro) a #i)*le$ #traightfor0ard cour#e of reflection 0hich
enable# u# to #hare the #ub=ecti(ity of other# and e?*erience the
%. Thi# )ight a**ear to contradict 0hat 0e #aid earlier$ that )etta i# free
fro) #elfAreference. The contradiction i# only a**arent$ ho0e(er$ for in
de(elo*ing )etta to0ard# one#elf one regard# one#elf ob=ecti(ely$ a# a
third *er#on. /urther$ the kind of lo(e de(elo*ed i# not #elfAcheri#hing
but a detached altrui#tic 0i#h for one1# o0n 0ellAbeing.
0orld !at lea#t i)aginati(ely' fro) the #tand*oint of their o0n
in0ardne##. The *rocedure #tart# 0ith one#elf. .f 0e look into
our o0n )ind$ 0e find that the ba#ic urge of our being i# the
0i#h to be ha**y and free fro) #uffering. No0$ a# #oon a# 0e
#ee thi# in our#el(e#$ 0e can i))ediately under#tand that all li(ing
being# #hare the #a)e ba#ic 0i#h. -ll 0ant to be 0ell$ ha**y$
and #ecure. To de(elo* )etta to0ard# other#$ 0hat i# to be done
i# to i)aginati(ely #hare their o0n innate 0i#h for ha**ine##.
We u#e our o0n de#ire for ha**ine## a# the key$ e?*erience thi#
de#ire a# the ba#ic urge of other#$ then co)e back to our o0n
*o#ition and e?tend to the) the 0i#h that they )ay achie(e
their ulti)ate ob=ecti(e$ that they )ay be 0ell and ha**y.
The )ethodical radiation of )etta i# *racticed fir#t by directing
)etta to indi(idual# re*re#enting certain grou*#. The#e
grou*# are #et in an order of *rogre##i(e re)otene## fro) one#elf.
The radiation begin# 0ith a dear *er#on$ #uch a# a *arent
or teacher$ then )o(e# on to a friend$ then to a neutral *er#on$
then finally to a ho#tile *er#on. Though the ty*e# are defined by
their relation to one#elf$ the lo(e to be de(elo*ed i# not ba#ed on
that relation but on each *er#on1# co))on a#*iration for ha**ine##.
With each indi(idual one ha# to bring hi# !or her' i)age
into focu# and radiate the thought: L8ay he !#he' be 0ellQ 8ay
he !#he' be ha**yQ 8ay he !#he' be *eacefulQM 70 5nly 0hen one
#ucceed# in generating a 0ar) feeling of good 0ill and kindne##
to0ard# that *er#on #hould one turn to the ne?t. 5nce one
gain# #o)e #ucce## 0ith indi(idual#$ one can then 0ork 0ith
larger unit#. 5ne can try de(elo*ing )etta to0ard# all friend#$ all
neutral *er#on#$ all ho#tile *er#on#. Then )etta can be 0idened
by directional #uffu#ion$ *roceeding in the (ariou# direction# D
ea#t$ #outh$ 0e#t$ north$ abo(e$ belo0 D then it can be e?tended
to all being# 0ithout di#tinction. .n the end one #uffu#e# the
70. -ny other for)ula found to be effecti(e )ay be u#ed in *lace of the for)ula
gi(en here. /or a full treat)ent$ #ee Gana)oli Thera$ The Practice
of <o(ingAkindne##$ Wheel No. 4.
entire 0orld 0ith a )ind of lo(ingAkindne## L(a#t$ #ubli)e$ and
i))ea#urable$ 0ithout en)ity$ 0ithout a(er#ion.M
The .ntention of ;ar)le##ne##
The intention of har)le##ne## i# thought guided by co)*a##ion
!karuna'$ arou#ed in o**o#ition to cruel$ aggre##i(e$ and (iolent
thought#. +o)*a##ion #u**lie# the co)*le)ent to lo(ingA
kindne##. Wherea# lo(ingAkindne## ha# the characteri#tic of
0i#hing for the ha**ine## and 0elfare of other#$ co)*a##ion ha#
the characteri#tic of 0i#hing that other# be free fro) #uffering$
a 0i#h to be e?tended 0ithout li)it# to all li(ing being#. <ike
)etta$ co)*a##ion ari#e# by entering into the #ub=ecti(ity of other#$
by #haring their interiority in a dee* and total 0ay. .t #*ring#
u* by con#idering that all being#$ like our#el(e#$ 0i#h to be free
fro) #uffering$ yet de#*ite their 0i#he# continue to be hara##ed
by *ain$ fear$ #orro0$ and other for)# of dukkha.
To de(elo* co)*a##ion a# a )editati(e e?erci#e$ it i# )o#t
effecti(e to #tart 0ith #o)ebody 0ho i# actually undergoing
#uffering$ #ince thi# *ro(ide# the natural ob=ect for co)*a##ion.
5ne conte)*late# thi# *er#on1# #uffering$ either directly or
i)aginati(ely$ then reflect# that like one#elf$ he !#he' al#o 0ant#
to be free fro) #uffering. The thought #hould be re*eated$ and
conte)*lation continually e?erci#ed$ until a #trong feeling of
co)*a##ion #0ell# u* in the heart. Then$ u#ing that feeling a# a
#tandard$ one turn# to different indi(idual#$ con#ider# ho0 they
are each e?*o#ed to #uffering$ and radiate# the gentle feeling of
co)*a##ion out to the). To increa#e the breadth and inten#ity
of co)*a##ion it i# hel*ful to conte)*late the (ariou# #uffering#
to 0hich li(ing being# are #u#ce*tible. - u#eful guideline to
thi# e?ten#ion i# *ro(ided by the fir#t noble truth$ 0ith it# enu)eration
of the different a#*ect# of dukkha. 5ne conte)*late#
being# a# #ub=ect to old age$ then a# #ub=ect to #ickne##$ then to
death$ then to #orro0$ la)entation$ *ain$ grief$ and de#*air$ and
#o forth.
When a high le(el of #ucce## ha# been achie(ed in generating
co)*a##ion by the conte)*lation of being# 0ho are directly
afflicted by #uffering$ one can then )o(e on to con#ider *eo*le
0ho are *re#ently en=oying ha**ine## 0hich they ha(e acBuired
by i))oral )ean#. 5ne )ight reflect that #uch *eo*le$ de#*ite
their #u*erficial fortune$ are doubtle##ly troubled dee* 0ithin by
the *ang# of con#cience. E(en if they di#*lay no out0ard #ign# of
inner di#tre##$ one kno0# that they 0ill e(entually rea* the bitter
fruit# of their e(il deed#$ 0hich 0ill bring the) inten#e #uffering.
/inally$ one can 0iden the #co*e of one1# conte)*lation
to include all li(ing being#. 5ne #hould conte)*late all being#
a# #ub=ect to the uni(er#al #uffering of #a)#ara$ dri(en by their
greed$ a(er#ion$ and delu#ion through the round of re*eated birth
and death. .f co)*a##ion i# initially difficult to arou#e to0ard#
being# 0ho are total #tranger#$ one can #trengthen it by reflecting
on the Buddha1# dictu) that in thi# beginningle## cycle of
rebirth#$ it i# hard to find e(en a #ingle being 0ho ha# not at
#o)e ti)e been one1# o0n )other or father$ #i#ter or brother$
#on or daughter.
To #u) u*$ 0e #ee that the three kind# of right intention D
of renunciation$ good 0ill$ and har)le##ne## D counteract the
three 0rong intention# of de#ire$ ill 0ill$ and har)fulne##. The
i)*ortance of *utting into *ractice the conte)*lation# leading
to the ari#ing of the#e thought# cannot be o(ere)*ha#iCed.
The conte)*lation# ha(e been taught a# )ethod# for culti(ation$
not )ere theoretical e?cur#ion#. To de(elo* the intention
of renunciation 0e ha(e to conte)*late the #uffering tied
u* 0ith the Bue#t for 0orldly en=oy)ent@ to de(elo* the intention
of good 0ill 0e ha(e to con#ider ho0 all being# de#ire
ha**ine##@ to de(elo* the intention of har)le##ne## 0e ha(e to
con#ider ho0 all being# 0i#h to be free fro) #uffering. The
un0hole#o)e thought i# like a rotten *eg lodged in the )ind@
the 0hole#o)e thought i# like a ne0 *eg #uitable to re*lace
it. The actual conte)*lation function# a# the ha))er u#ed to
dri(e out the old *eg 0ith the ne0 one. The 0ork of dri(ing in
the ne0 *eg i# *ractice D *racticing again and again$ a# often a#
i# nece##ary to reach #ucce##. The Buddha gi(e# u# hi# a##urance
that the (ictory can be achie(ed. ;e #ay# that 0hate(er one
reflect# u*on freBuently beco)e# the inclination of the )ind.
.f one freBuently think# #en#ual$ ho#tile$ or har)ful thought#$
de#ire$ ill 0ill$ and har)fulne## beco)e the inclination of the
)ind. .f one freBuently think# in the o**o#ite 0ay$ renunciation$
good 0ill$ and har)le##ne## beco)e the inclination of the
)ind !8N %'. The direction 0e take al0ay# co)e# back to
our#el(e#$ to the intention# 0e generate )o)ent by )o)ent in
the cour#e of our li(e#. H
+ha*ter .6
2ight S*eech$ 2ight -ction$ 2ight <i(elihood
!Sa))a 6aca$ Sa))a "a))anta$ Sa))a -=i(a'
The ne?t three *ath factor# D right #*eech$ right action$
and right li(elihood D )ay be treated together$ a# collecti(ely
they )ake u* the fir#t of the three di(i#ion# of the *ath$ the di(i#ion
of )oral di#ci*line !#ilakkhandha'. Though the *rinci*le#
laid do0n in thi# #ection re#train i))oral action# and *ro)ote
good conduct$ their ulti)ate *ur*o#e i# not #o )uch ethical a#
#*iritual. They are not *re#cribed )erely a# guide# to action$ but
*ri)arily a# aid# to )ental *urification. -# a nece##ary )ea#ure
for hu)an 0ellAbeing$ ethic# ha# it# o0n =u#tification in the
Buddha1# teaching and it# i)*ortance cannot be underrated. But
in the #*ecial conte?t of the Noble Eightfold Path ethical *rinci*le#
are #ubordinate to the *ath1# go(erning goal$ final deli(erance
fro) #uffering. Thu# for the )oral training to beco)e a
*ro*er *art of the *ath$ it ha# to be taken u* under the tutelage
of the fir#t t0o factor#$ right (ie0 and right intention$ and to
lead beyond to the training# in concentration and 0i#do).
Though the training in )oral di#ci*line i# li#ted fir#t a)ong
the three grou*# of *ractice#$ it #hould not be regarded lightly.
.t i# the foundation for the entire *ath$ e##ential for the #ucce##
of the other training#. The Buddha hi)#elf freBuently urged hi#
di#ci*le# to adhere to the rule# of di#ci*line$ L#eeing danger in the
#lighte#t fault.M 5ne ti)e$ 0hen a )onk a**roached the Buddha
and a#ked for the training in brief$ the Buddha told hi): L/ir#t
e#tabli#h your#elf in the #tarting *oint of 0hole#o)e #tate#$ that
i#$ in *urified )oral di#ci*line and in right (ie0. Then$ 0hen
your )oral di#ci*line i# *urified and your (ie0 #traight$ you
#hould *ractice the four foundation# of )indfulne##M !SN &4:3'.
The Pali 0ord 0e ha(e been tran#lating a# L)oral di#ci*line$M
#ila$ a**ear# in the te?t# 0ith #e(eral o(erla**ing )eaning# all
connected 0ith right conduct. .n #o)e conte?t# it )ean# action
confor)ing to )oral *rinci*le#$ in other# the *rinci*le# the)#el(e#$
in #till other# the (irtuou# Bualitie# of character that re#ult
fro) the ob#er(ance of )oral *rinci*le#. Sila in the #en#e of *rece*t#
or *rinci*le# re*re#ent# the for)ali#tic #ide of the ethical
training$ #ila a# (irtue the ani)ating #*irit$ and #ila a# right
conduct the e?*re##ion of (irtue in realAlife #ituation#. 5ften
#ila i# for)ally defined a# ab#tinence fro) un0hole#o)e bodily
and (erbal action. Thi# definition$ 0ith it# #tre## on outer action$
a**ear# #u*erficial. 5ther e?*lanation#$ ho0e(er$ )ake u* for
the deficiency and re(eal that there i# )ore to #ila than i# e(ident
at fir#t glance. The -bhidha))a$ for e?a)*le$ eBuate# #ila
0ith the )ental factor# of ab#tinence !(iratiyo' D right #*eech$
right action$ and right li(elihood D an eBuation 0hich )ake#
it clear that 0hat i# really being culti(ated through the ob#er(ance
of )oral *rece*t# i# the )ind. Thu# 0hile the training in
#ila bring# the L*ublicM benefit of inhibiting #ocially detri)ental
action#$ it entail# the *er#onal benefit of )ental *urification$
*re(enting the defile)ent# fro) dictating to u# 0hat line# of
conduct 0e #hould follo0.
The Engli#h 0ord L)oralityM and it# deri(ati(e# #ugge#t a
#en#e of obligation and con#traint Buite foreign to the Buddhi#t
conce*tion of #ila@ thi# connotation *robably enter# fro) the thei#tic
background to We#tern ethic#. Buddhi#)$ 0ith it# nonAthei#tic
fra)e0ork$ ground# it# ethic#$ not on the notion of obedience$
but on that of har)ony. .n fact$ the co))entarie# e?*lain
the 0ord #ila by another 0ord$ #a)adhana$ )eaning Lhar)onyM
or Lcoordination.M
The ob#er(ance of #ila lead# to har)ony at #e(eral le(el# D
#ocial$ *#ychological$ ka))ic$ and conte)*lati(e. -t the #ocial
le(el the *rinci*le# of #ila hel* to e#tabli#h har)oniou# inter*er#onal
relation#$ 0elding the )a## of differently con#tituted )e)ber#
of #ociety 0ith their o0n *ri(ate intere#t# and goal# into a
cohe#i(e #ocial order in 0hich conflict$ if not utterly eli)inated$
i# at lea#t reduced. -t the *#ychological le(el #ila bring# har)ony
to the )ind$ *rotection fro) the inner #*lit cau#ed by guilt
and re)or#e o(er )oral tran#gre##ion#. -t the ka))ic le(el
the ob#er(ance of #ila en#ure# har)ony 0ith the co#)ic la0 of
ka))a$ hence fa(orable re#ult# in the cour#e of future )o(e)ent
through the round of re*eated birth and death. -nd at the fourth
le(el$ the conte)*lati(e$ #ila hel*# e#tabli#h the *reli)inary *urification
of )ind to be co)*leted$ in a dee*er and )ore thorough
0ay$ by the )ethodical de(elo*)ent of #erenity and in#ight.
When briefly defined$ the factor# of )oral training are u#ually
0orded negati(ely$ in ter)# of ab#tinence. But there i# )ore
to #ila than refraining fro) 0hat i# 0rong. Each *rinci*le e)bedded
in the *rece*t#$ a# 0e 0ill #ee$ actually ha# t0o a#*ect#$ both
e##ential to the training a# a 0hole. 5ne i# ab#tinence fro) the
un0hole#o)e$ the other co))it)ent to the 0hole#o)e@ the
for)er i# called La(oidanceM !(aritta' and the latter L*erfor)anceM
!caritta'. -t the out#et of training the Buddha #tre##e# the
a#*ect of a(oidance. ;e doe# #o$ not becau#e ab#tinence fro) the
un0hole#o)e i# #ufficient in it#elf$ but to e#tabli#h the #te*# of
*ractice in *ro*er #eBuence. The #te*# are #et out in their natural
order !)ore logical than te)*oral' in the fa)ou# dictu) of the
>ha))a*ada: LTo ab#tain fro) all e(il$ to culti(ate the good$
and to *urify one1# )ind D thi# i# the teaching of the Buddha#M
!(. 83'. The other t0o #te*# D culti(ating the good and *urifying
the )ind D al#o recei(e their due$ but to en#ure their #ucce##$
a re#ol(e to a(oid the un0hole#o)e i# a nece##ity. Without #uch
a re#ol(e the atte)*t to de(elo* 0hole#o)e Bualitie# i# bound
to i##ue in a 0ar*ed and #tunted *attern of gro0th.
The training in )oral di#ci*line go(ern# the t0o *rinci*al
channel# of outer action$ #*eech and body$ a# 0ell a# another area
of (ital concern D one1# 0ay of earning a li(ing. Thu# the training
contain# three factor#: right #*eech$ right action$ and right
li(elihood. The#e 0e 0ill no0 e?a)ine indi(idually$ follo0ing
the order in 0hich they are #et forth in the u#ual e?*o#ition of
the *ath.
2ight S*eech !#a))a (aca'
The Buddha di(ide# right #*eech into four co)*onent#: ab#taining
fro) fal#e #*eech$ ab#taining fro) #landerou# #*eech$
ab#taining fro) har#h #*eech$ and ab#taining fro) idle chatter.
Becau#e the effect# of #*eech are not a# i))ediately e(ident
a# tho#e of bodily action$ it# i)*ortance and *otential i# ea#ily
o(erlooked. But a little reflection 0ill #ho0 that #*eech and it#
off#hoot$ the 0ritten 0ord$ can ha(e enor)ou# con#eBuence#
for good or for har). .n fact$ 0herea# for being# #uch a# ani)al#
0ho li(e at the *re(erbal le(el *hy#ical action i# of do)inant
concern$ for hu)an# i))er#ed in (erbal co))unication
#*eech gain# the a#cendency. S*eech can break li(e#$ create ene)ie#$
and #tart 0ar#$ or it can gi(e 0i#do)$ heal di(i#ion#$ and
create *eace. Thi# ha# al0ay# been #o$ yet in the )odern age
the *o#iti(e and negati(e *otential# of #*eech ha(e been (a#tly
)ulti*lied by the tre)endou# increa#e in the )ean#$ #*eed$ and
range of co))unication#. The ca*acity for (erbal e?*re##ion$
oral and 0ritten$ ha# often been regarded a# the di#tingui#hing
)ark of the hu)an #*ecie#. /ro) thi# 0e can a**reciate
the need to )ake thi# ca*acity the )ean# to hu)an e?cellence
rather than$ a# too often ha# been the ca#e$ the #ign of hu)an
degradation.
!' -b#taining fro) fal#e #*eech !)u#a(ada (era)ani'
;erein #o)eone a(oid# fal#e #*eech and ab#tain# fro) it. ;e
#*eak# the truth$ i# de(oted to truth$ reliable$ 0orthy of confidence$
not a decei(er of *eo*le. Being at a )eeting$ or a)ong#t
*eo*le$ or in the )id#t of hi# relati(e#$ or in a #ociety$ or in the
king1# court$ and called u*on and a#ked a# 0itne## to tell 0hat
he kno0#$ he an#0er#$ if he kno0# nothing: L. kno0 nothing$M
and if he kno0#$ he an#0er#: L. kno0M@ if he ha# #een nothing$ he
an#0er#: L. ha(e #een nothing$M and if he ha# #een$ he an#0er#: L.
ha(e #een.M Thu# he ne(er kno0ingly #*eak# a lie$ either for the
#ake of hi# o0n ad(antage$ or for the #ake of another *er#on1#
ad(antage$ or for the #ake of any ad(antage 0hat#oe(er.7
Thi# #tate)ent of the Buddha di#clo#e# both the negati(e
and the *o#iti(e #ide# to the *rece*t. The negati(e #ide i#
ab#taining fro) lying$ the *o#iti(e #ide #*eaking the truth. The
deter)inati(e factor behind the tran#gre##ion i# the intention
to decei(e. .f one #*eak# #o)ething fal#e belie(ing it to be true$
there i# no breach of the *rece*t a# the intention to decei(e i#
ab#ent. Though the dece*ti(e intention i# co))on to all ca#e#
of fal#e #*eech$ lie# can a**ear in different gui#e# de*ending on
the )oti(ating root$ 0hether greed$ hatred$ or delu#ion. :reed
a# the chief )oti(e re#ult# in the lie ai)ed at gaining #o)e *er#onal
ad(antage for one#elf or for tho#e clo#e to one#elf D )aterial
0ealth$ *o#ition$ re#*ect$ or ad)iration. With hatred a# the
)oti(e$ fal#e #*eech take# the for) of the )aliciou# lie$ the lie
intended to hurt and da)age other#. When delu#ion i# the *rinci*al
)oti(e$ the re#ult i# a le## *erniciou# ty*e of fal#ehood: the
irrational lie$ the co)*ul#i(e lie$ the intere#ting e?aggeration$
lying for the #ake of a =oke.
The Buddha1# #tricture again#t lying re#t# u*on #e(eral rea#on#.
/or one thing$ lying i# di#ru*ti(e to #ocial cohe#ion. Peo*le
can li(e together in #ociety only in an at)o#*here of )utual
tru#t$ 0here they ha(e rea#on to belie(e that other# 0ill #*eak
the truth@ by de#troying the ground# for tru#t and inducing
)a## #u#*icion$ 0ide#*read lying beco)e# the harbinger #ignalling
the fall fro) #ocial #olidarity to chao#. But lying ha# other
con#eBuence# of a dee*ly *er#onal nature at lea#t eBually di#a#trou#.
By their (ery nature lie# tend to *roliferate. <ying once
and finding our 0ord #u#*ect$ 0e feel co)*elled to lie again
to defend our credibility$ to *aint a con#i#tent *icture of e(ent#.
So the *roce## re*eat# it#elf: the lie# #tretch$ )ulti*ly$ and connect
until they lock u# into a cage of fal#ehood# fro) 0hich it i#
difficult to e#ca*e. The lie i# thu# a )iniature *aradig) for the
0hole *roce## of #ub=ecti(e illu#ion. .n each ca#e the #elfAa##ured
7. -N 0:43@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 90.
creator$ #ucked in by hi# o0n dece*tion#$ e(entually 0ind# u*
their (icti).
Such con#ideration# *robably lie behind the 0ord# of coun#el
the Buddha #*oke to hi# #on$ the young no(ice 2ahula$ #oon
after the boy 0a# ordained. 5ne day the Buddha ca)e to 2ahula$
*ointed to a bo0l 0ith a little bit of 0ater in it$ and a#ked:
L2ahula$ do you #ee thi# bit of 0ater left in the bo0lKM 2ahula
an#0ered: LHe#$ #ir.M LSo little$ 2ahula$ i# the #*iritual achie(e)ent
!#a)aNNa$ lit. Rreclu#e#hi*1' of one 0ho i# not afraid to #*eak
a deliberate lie.M Then the Buddha thre0 the 0ater a0ay$ *ut
the bo0l do0n$ and #aid: L>o you #ee$ 2ahula$ ho0 that 0ater
ha# been di#cardedK .n the #a)e 0ay one 0ho tell# a deliberate
lie di#card# 0hate(er #*iritual achie(e)ent he ha# )ade.M -gain
he a#ked: L>o you #ee ho0 thi# bo0l i# no0 e)*tyK .n the #a)e
0ay one 0ho ha# no #ha)e in #*eaking lie# i# e)*ty of #*iritual
achie(e)ent.M Then the Buddha turned the bo0l u*#ide
do0n and #aid: L>o you #ee$ 2ahula$ ho0 thi# bo0l ha# been
turned u*#ide do0nK .n the #a)e 0ay one 0ho tell# a deliberate
lie turn# hi# #*iritual achie(e)ent# u*#ide do0n and beco)e#
inca*able of *rogre##.M Therefore$ the Buddha concluded$ one
#hould not #*eak a deliberate lie e(en in =e#t.77
.t i# #aid that in the cour#e of hi# long training for enlighten)ent
o(er )any li(e#$ a bodhi#atta can break all the )oral *rece*t#
e?ce*t the *ledge to #*eak the truth. The rea#on for thi# i#
(ery *rofound$ and re(eal# that the co))it)ent to truth ha# a
#ignificance tran#cending the do)ain of ethic# and e(en )ental
*urification$ taking u# to the do)ain# of kno0ledge and being.
Truthful #*eech *ro(ide#$ in the #*here of inter*er#onal co))unication$
a *arallel to 0i#do) in the #*here of *ri(ate under#tanding.
The t0o are re#*ecti(ely the out0ard and in0ard )odalitie#
of the #a)e co))it)ent to 0hat i# real. Wi#do) con#i#t#
in the realiCation of truth$ and truth !#acca' i# not =u#t a (erbal
*ro*o#ition but the nature of thing# a# they are. To realiCe truth
77. 8N 3.
our 0hole being ha# to be brought into accord 0ith actuality$
0ith thing# a# they are$ 0hich reBuire# that in co))unication#
0ith other# 0e re#*ect thing# a# they are by #*eaking the truth.
Truthful #*eech e#tabli#he# a corre#*ondence bet0een our o0n
inner being and the real nature of *heno)ena$ allo0ing 0i#do)
to ri#e u* and fatho) their real nature. Thu#$ )uch )ore
than an ethical *rinci*le$ de(otion to truthful #*eech i# a )atter
of taking our #tand on reality rather than illu#ion$ on the truth
gra#*ed by 0i#do) rather than the fanta#ie# 0o(en by de#ire.
!7' -b#taining fro) #landerou# #*eech !*i#unaya (acaya
(era)ani'
;e a(oid# #landerou# #*eech and ab#tain# fro) it. What he ha#
heard here he doe# not re*eat there$ #o a# to cau#e di##en#ion
there@ and 0hat he ha# heard there he doe# not re*eat here$ #o a#
to cau#e di##en#ion here. Thu# he unite# tho#e that are di(ided@
and tho#e that are united he encourage#. +oncord gladden# hi)$
he delight# and re=oice# in concord@ and it i# concord that he
#*read# by hi# 0ord#.73
Slanderou# #*eech i# #*eech intended to create en)ity and
di(i#ion$ to alienate one *er#on or grou* fro) another. The
)oti(e behind #uch #*eech i# generally a(er#ion$ re#ent)ent of
a ri(al1# #ucce## or (irtue#$ the intention to tear do0n other# by
(erbal denigration#. 5ther )oti(e# )ay enter the *icture a# 0ell:
the cruel intention of cau#ing hurt to other#$ the e(il de#ire to
0in affection for one#elf$ the *er(er#e delight in #eeing friend#
di(ided.
Slanderou# #*eech i# one of the )o#t #eriou# )oral tran#gre##ion#.
The root of hate )ake# the un0hole#o)e ka))a
already hea(y enough$ but #ince the action u#ually occur# after
deliberation$ the negati(e force beco)e# e(en #tronger becau#e
*re)editation add# to it# gra(ity. When the #landerou# #tate)ent
i# fal#e$ the t0o 0rong# of fal#ehood and #lander co)bine
73. -N 0:43@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 90.
to *roduce an e?tre)ely *o0erful un0hole#o)e ka))a. The
canonical te?t# record #e(eral ca#e# in 0hich the calu)ny ofan
innocent *arty led to an i))ediate rebirth in the *lane of
)i#ery.
The o**o#ite of #lander$ a# the Buddha indicate#$ i# #*eech
that *ro)ote# friend#hi* and har)ony. Such #*eech originate#
fro) a )ind of lo(ingAkindne## and #y)*athy. .t 0in# the tru#t
and affection of other#$ 0ho feel they can confide in one 0ithout
fear that their di#clo#ure# 0ill be u#ed again#t the). Beyond
the ob(iou# benefit# that #uch #*eech bring# in thi# *re#ent life$
it i# #aid that ab#taining fro) #lander ha# a# it# ka))ic re#ult
the gain of a retinue of friend# 0ho can ne(er be turned again#t
one by the #landerou# 0ord# of other#.7&
!3' -b#taining fro) har#h #*eech !*haru#aya (acaya
(era)ani'.
;e a(oid# har#h language and ab#tain# fro) it. ;e #*eak# #uch
0ord# a# are gentle$ #oothing to the ear$ lo(ing$ #uch 0ord# a#
go to the heart$ and are courteou#$ friendly$ and agreeable to
)any.79
;ar#h #*eech i# #*eech uttered in anger$ intended to cau#e the
hearer *ain. Such #*eech can a##u)e different for)#$ of 0hich
0e )ight )ention three. 5ne i# abu#i(e #*eech: #colding$ re(iling$
or re*ro(ing another angrily 0ith bitter 0ord#. - #econd i#
in#ult: hurting another by a#cribing to hi) #o)e offen#i(e Buality
0hich detract# fro) hi# dignity. - third i# #arca#): #*eaking
to #o)eone in a 0ay 0hich o#ten#ibly laud# hi)$ but 0ith #uch
a tone or t0i#t of *hra#ing that the ironic intent beco)e# clear
and cau#e# *ain.
The )ain root of har#h #*eech i# a(er#ion$ a##u)ing the for)
of anger. Since the defile)ent in thi# ca#e tend# to 0ork i)*ul#i(ely$
0ithout deliberation$ the tran#gre##ion i# le## #eriou# than
7&. Subco))entary to >igha Nikaya.
79. -N 0:43@ Word of the Buddha$ **. 90P9.
#lander and the ka))ic con#eBuence generally le## #e(ere. Still$
har#h #*eech i# an un0hole#o)e action 0ith di#agreeable re#ult#
for one#elf and other#$ both no0 and in the future$ #o it ha# to
be re#trained. The ideal antidote i# *atience D learning to tolerate
bla)e and critici#) fro) other#$ to #y)*athiCe 0ith their
#hortco)ing#$ to re#*ect difference# in (ie0*oint$ to endure
abu#e 0ithout feeling co)*elled to retaliate. The Buddha call#
for *atience e(en under the )o#t trying condition#:
E(en if$ )onk#$ robber# and )urderer# #a0 through your
li)b# and =oint#$ 0ho#oe(er #hould gi(e 0ay to anger thereat
0ould not be follo0ing )y ad(ice. /or thu# ought you to train
your#el(e#: LIndi#turbed #hall our )ind re)ain$ 0ith heart full
of lo(e$ and free fro) any hidden )alice@ and that *er#on #hall
0e *enetrate 0ith lo(ing thought#$ 0ide$ dee*$ boundle##$ freed
fro) anger and hatred.M 73
!&' -b#taining fro) idle chatter !#a)*ha**ala*a (era)ani'.
;e a(oid# idle chatter and ab#tain# fro) it. ;e #*eak# at the right
ti)e$ in accordance 0ith fact#$ #*eak# 0hat i# u#eful$ #*eak# of
the >ha))a and the di#ci*line@ hi# #*eech i# like a trea#ure$
uttered at the right )o)ent$ acco)*anied by rea#on$ )oderate
and full of #en#e.74
.dle chatter i# *ointle## talk$ #*eech that lack# *ur*o#e or
de*th. Such #*eech co))unicate# nothing of (alue$ but only
#tir# u* the defile)ent# in one1# o0n )ind and in other#. The
Buddha ad(i#e# that idle talk #hould be curbed and #*eech
re#tricted a# )uch a# *o##ible to )atter# of genuine i)*ortance.
.n the ca#e of a )onk$ the ty*ical #ub=ect of the *a##age =u#t
Buoted$ hi# 0ord# #hould be #electi(e and concerned *ri)arily
0ith the >ha))a. <ay *er#on# 0ill ha(e )ore need for affectionate
#)all talk 0ith friend# and fa)ily$ *olite con(er#ation
0ith acBuaintance#$ and talk in connection 0ith their line of
73. 8N 7@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 9.
74. -N 0:43@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 9
0ork. But e(en then they #hould be )indful not to let the con(er#ation
#tray into *a#ture# 0here the re#tle## )ind$ al0ay#
eager for #o)ething #0eet or #*icy to feed on$ )ight find the
chance to indulge it# defiling *ro*en#itie#.
The traditional e?ege#i# of ab#taining fro) idle chatter refer#
only to a(oiding engage)ent in #uch talk one#elf. But today
it )ight be of (alue to gi(e thi# factor a different #lant$ )ade
i)*erati(e by certain de(elo*)ent# *eculiar to our o0n ti)e$
unkno0n in the day# of the Buddha and the ancient co))entator#.
Thi# i# a(oiding e?*o#ure to the idle chatter con#tantly
bo)barding u# through the ne0 )edia of co))unication created
by )odern technology. -n incredible array of de(ice# D
tele(i#ion$ radio$ ne0#*a*er#$ *ul* =ournal#$ the cine)a D turn#
out a continuou# #trea) of needle## infor)ation and di#tracting
entertain)ent the net effect of 0hich i# to lea(e the )ind *a##i(e$
(acant$ and #terile. -ll the#e de(elo*)ent#$ nai(ely acce*ted
a# L*rogre##$M threaten to blunt our ae#thetic and #*iritual #en#iti(itie#
and deafen u# to the higher call of the conte)*lati(e life.
Seriou# a#*irant# on the *ath to liberation ha(e to be e?tre)ely
di#cerning in 0hat they allo0 the)#el(e# to be e?*o#ed to. They
0ould greatly #er(e their a#*iration# by including the#e #ource#
of a)u#e)ent and needle## infor)ation in the category of idle
chatter and )aking an effort to a(oid the).
2ight -ction !#a))a ka))anta'
2ight action )ean# refraining fro) un0hole#o)e deed# that
occur 0ith the body a# their natural )ean# of e?*re##ion. The
*i(otal ele)ent in thi# *ath factor i# the )ental factor of ab#tinence$
but becau#e thi# ab#tinence a**lie# to action# *erfor)ed
through the body$ it i# called Lright action.M The Buddha )ention#
three co)*onent# of right action: ab#taining fro) taking
life$ ab#taining fro) taking 0hat i# not gi(en$ and ab#taining
fro) #e?ual )i#conduct. The#e 0e 0ill briefly di#cu## in
order.
!' -b#taining fro) the taking of life !*anati*ata (era)ani'
;erein #o)eone a(oid# the taking of life and ab#tain# fro) it.
Without #tick or #0ord$ con#cientiou#$ full of #y)*athy$ he i#
de#irou# of the 0elfare of all #entient being#.78
L-b#taining fro) taking lifeM ha# a 0ider a**lication than
#i)*ly refraining fro) killing other hu)an being#. The *rece*t
en=oin# ab#taining fro) killing any #entient being. - L#entient
beingM !*ani$ #atta' i# a li(ing being endo0ed 0ith )ind or con#ciou#ne##@
for *ractical *ur*o#e#$ thi# )ean# hu)an being#$ ani)al#$
and in#ect#. Plant# are not con#idered to be #entient being#@
though they e?hibit #o)e degree of #en#iti(ity$ they lack fullA
fledged con#ciou#ne##$ the defining attribute of a #entient being.
The Ltaking of lifeM that i# to be a(oided i# intentional killing$
the deliberate de#truction of life of a being endo0ed 0ith con#ciou#ne##.
The *rinci*le i# grounded in the con#ideration that
all being# lo(e life and fear death$ that all #eek ha**ine## and
are a(er#e to *ain. The e##ential deter)inant of tran#gre##ion
i# the (olition to kill$ i##uing in an action that de*ri(e# a being
of life. Suicide i# al#o generally regarded a# a (iolation$ but not
accidental killing a# the intention to de#troy life i# ab#ent. The
ab#tinence )ay be taken to a**ly to t0o kind# of action$ the
*ri)ary and the #econdary. The *ri)ary i# the actual de#truction
of life@ the #econdary i# deliberately har)ing or torturing
another being 0ithout killing it.
While the Buddha1# #tate)ent on nonAin=ury i# Buite #i)*le
and #traightfor0ard$ later co))entarie# gi(e a detailed analy#i#
of the *rinci*le. - treati#e fro) Thailand$ 0ritten by an erudite
Thai *atriarch$ collate# a )a## of earlier )aterial into an e#*ecially
thorough treat)ent$ 0hich 0e #hall briefly #u))ariCe here.7%
The treati#e *oint# out that the taking of life )ay ha(e (arying
78. -N 0:43@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 93.
7%. ;2; Prince 6a=iraNana(arora#a$ The /i(e Prece*t# and the /i(e Ennobler#
!Bangkok$ %49'$ **. P%.
degree# of )oral 0eight entailing different con#eBuence#. The
three *ri)ary (ariable# go(erning )oral 0eight are the ob=ect$
the )oti(e$ and the effort. With regard to the ob=ect there i# a
difference in #eriou#ne## bet0een killing a hu)an being and
killing an ani)al$ the for)er being ka))ically hea(ier #ince
)an ha# a )ore highly de(elo*ed )oral #en#e and greater #*iritual
*otential than ani)al#. -)ong hu)an being#$ the degree
of ka))ic 0eight de*end# on the Bualitie# of the *er#on killed
and hi# relation to the killer@ thu# killing a *er#on of #u*erior
#*iritual Bualitie# or a *er#onal benefactor$ #uch a# a *arent or a
teacher$ i# an e#*ecially gra(e act.
The )oti(e for killing al#o influence# )oral 0eight. -ct#
of killing can be dri(en by greed$ hatred$ or delu#ion. 5f the
three$ killing )oti(ated by hatred i# the )o#t #eriou#$ and the
0eight increa#e# to the degree that the killing i# *re)editated.
The force of effort in(ol(ed al#o contribute#$ the un0hole#o)e
ka))a being *ro*ortional to the force and the #trength of the
defile)ent#.
The *o#iti(e counter*art to ab#taining fro) taking life$ a#
the Buddha indicate#$ i# the de(elo*)ent of kindne## and co)*a##ion
for other being#. The di#ci*le not only a(oid# de#troying
life@ he d0ell# 0ith a heart full of #y)*athy$ de#iring the 0elfare
of all being#. The co))it)ent to nonAin=ury and concern
for the 0elfare of other# re*re#ent the *ractical a**lication of
the #econd *ath factor$ right intention$ in the for) of good 0ill
and har)le##ne##.
!7' -b#taining fro) taking 0hat i# not gi(en !adinnadana
(era)ani'
;e a(oid# taking 0hat i# not gi(en and ab#tain# fro) it@ 0hat
another *er#on *o##e##e# of good# and chattel in the (illage or
in the 0ood$ that he doe# not take a0ay 0ith thie(i#h intent.30
LTaking 0hat i# not gi(enM )ean# a**ro*riating the rightful
30. -N 0:43@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 93.
belonging# of other# 0ith thie(i#h intent. .f one take# #o)ething
that ha# no o0ner$ #uch a# unclai)ed #tone#$ 0ood$ or
e(en ge)# e?tracted fro) the earth$ the act doe# not count a# a
(iolation e(en though the#e ob=ect# ha(e not been gi(en. But al#o
i)*lied a# a tran#gre##ion$ though not e?*re##ly #tated$ i# 0ithholding
fro) other# 0hat #hould rightfully be gi(en to the).
+o))entarie# )ention a nu)ber of 0ay# in 0hich Ltaking
0hat i# not gi(enM can be co))itted. So)e of the )o#t co))on
)ay be enu)erated:
!' #tealing: taking the belonging# of other# #ecretly$ a# in hou#ebreaking$
*ick*ocketing$ etc.@
!7' robbery: taking 0hat belong# to other# o*enly by force or
threat#@
!3' #natching: #uddenly *ulling a0ay another1# *o##e##ion before
he ha# ti)e to re#i#t@
!&' fraudulence: gaining *o##e##ion of another1# belonging# by
fal#ely clai)ing the) a# one1# o0n@
!9' deceitfulne##: u#ing fal#e 0eight# and )ea#ure# to cheat
cu#to)er#.3
The degree of )oral 0eight that attache# to the action i# deter)ined
by three factor#: the (alue of the ob=ect taken@ the Bualitie#
of the (icti) of the theft@ and the #ub=ecti(e #tate of the
thief. 2egarding the fir#t$ )oral 0eight i# directly *ro*ortional
to the (alue of the ob=ect. 2egarding the #econd$ the 0eight (arie#
according to the )oral Bualitie# of the de*ri(ed indi(idual.
2egarding the third$ act# of theft )ay be )oti(ated either by
greed or hatred. While greed i# the )o#t co))on cau#e$ hatred
)ay al#o be re#*on#ible a# 0hen one *er#on de*ri(e# another
of hi# belonging# not #o )uch becau#e he 0ant# the) for hi)#elf
a# becau#e he 0ant# to har) the latter. Bet0een the t0o$
3. The /i(e Prece*t# and the /i(e Ennobler# gi(e# a fuller li#t$ **. 0P3.
act# )oti(ated by hatred are ka))ically hea(ier than act# )oti(ated
by #heer greed.
The *o#iti(e counter*art to ab#taining fro) #tealing i# hone#ty$
0hich i)*lie# re#*ect for the belonging# of other# and for
their right to u#e their belonging# a# they 0i#h. -nother related
(irtue i# content)ent$ being #ati#fied 0ith 0hat one ha# 0ithout
being inclined to increa#e one1# 0ealth by un#cru*ulou# )ean#.
The )o#t e)inent o**o#ite (irtue i# genero#ity$ gi(ing a0ay
one1# o0n 0ealth and *o##e##ion# in order to benefit other#.
!3' -b#taining fro) #e?ual )i#conduct !ka)e#u )icchaAcara
(era)ani'
;e a(oid# #e?ual )i#conduct and ab#tain# fro) it. ;e ha# no intercour#e
0ith #uch *er#on# a# are #till under the *rotection of father$
)other$ brother$ #i#ter or relati(e#$ nor 0ith )arried 0o)en$ nor
0ith fe)ale con(ict#$ nor la#tly$ 0ith betrothed girl#.37
The guiding *ur*o#e# of thi# *rece*t$ fro) the ethical #tand*oint$
are to *rotect )arital relation# fro) out#ide di#ru*tion
and to *ro)ote tru#t and fidelity 0ithin the )arital union. /ro)
the #*iritual #tand*oint it hel*# curb the e?*an#i(e tendency of
#e?ual de#ire and thu# i# a #te* in the direction of renunciation$
0hich reache# it# con#u))ation in the ob#er(ance of celibacy
!brah)acariya' binding on )onk# and nun#. But for lay*eo*le the
*rece*t en=oin# ab#taining fro) #e?ual relation# 0ith an illicit
*artner. The *ri)ary tran#gre##ion i# entering into full #e?ual
union$ but all other #e?ual in(ol(e)ent# of a le## co)*lete kind
)ay be con#idered #econdary infringe)ent#.
The )ain Bue#tion rai#ed by the *rece*t concern# 0ho i# to
count a# an illicit *artner. The Buddha1# #tate)ent define# the
illicit *artner fro) the *er#*ecti(e of the )an$ but later treati#e#
elaborate the )atter for both #e?e#.33
37. -N 0:43@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 93.
33. The follo0ing i# #u))ariCed fro) The /i(e Prece*t# and the /i(e Ennobler#$
**. 3P8.
/or a )an$ three kind# of 0o)en are con#idered illicit *artner#:
!' - 0o)an 0ho i# )arried to another )an. Thi# include#$
be#ide# a 0o)an already )arried to a )an$ a 0o)an 0ho
i# not hi# legal 0ife but i# generally recogniCed a# hi# con#ort$
0ho li(e# 0ith hi) or i# ke*t by hi) or i# in #o)e
0ay ackno0ledged a# hi# *artner. -ll the#e 0o)en are illicit
*artner# for )en other than their o0n hu#band#. Thi# cla##
0ould al#o include a 0o)an engaged to another )an. But
a 0ido0 or di(orced 0o)an i# not out of bound#$ *ro(ided
#he i# not e?cluded for other rea#on#.
!7' - 0o)an #till under *rotection. Thi# i# a girl or 0o)an
0ho i# under the *rotection of her )other$ father$ relati(e#$
or other# rightfully entitled to be her guardian#. Thi# *ro(i#ion
rule# out elo*e)ent# or #ecret )arriage# contrary to the
0i#he# of the *rotecting *arty.
!3' - 0o)an *rohibited by con(ention. Thi# include# clo#e
fe)ale relati(e# forbidden a# *artner# by #ocial tradition$
nun# and other 0o)en under a (o0 of celibacy$ and tho#e
*rohibited a# *artner# by the la0 of the land.
/ro) the #tand*oint of a 0o)an$ t0o kind# of )en are con#idered
illicit *artner#:
!' /or a )arried 0o)an any )an other than her hu#band i#
out of bound#. Thu# a )arried 0o)an (iolate# the *rece*t if
#he break# her (o0 of fidelity to her hu#band. But a 0ido0
or di(orcee i# free to re)arry.
!7' /or any 0o)an any )an forbidden by con(ention$ #uch a#
clo#e relati(e# and tho#e under a (o0 of celibacy$ i# an illicit
*artner.
Be#ide# the#e$ any ca#e of forced$ (iolent$ or coerci(e #e?ual union
con#titute# a tran#gre##ion. But in #uch a ca#e the (iolation fall#
only on the offender$ not on the one co)*elled to #ub)it.
The *o#iti(e (irtue corre#*onding to the ab#tinence i#$ for
lay*eo*le$ )arital fidelity. ;u#band and 0ife #hould each be
faithful and de(oted to the other$ content 0ith the relation#hi*$
and #hould not ri#k a breaku* to the union by #eeking out#ide
*artner#. The *rinci*le doe# not$ ho0e(er$ confine #e?ual relation#
to the )arital union. .t i# fle?ible enough to allo0 for (ariation#
de*ending on #ocial con(ention. The e##ential *ur*o#e$
a# 0a# #aid$ i# to *re(ent #e?ual relation# 0hich are hurtful to
other#. When )ature inde*endent *eo*le$ though un)arried$
enter into a #e?ual relation#hi* through free con#ent$ #o long a#
no other *er#on i# intentionally har)ed$ no breach of the training
factor i# in(ol(ed.
5rdained )onk# and nun#$ including )en and 0o)en 0ho
ha(e undertaken the eight or ten *rece*t#$ are obliged to ob#er(e
celibacy. They )u#t ab#tain not only fro) #e?ual )i#conduct$
but fro) all #e?ual in(ol(e)ent#$ at lea#t during the *eriod of
their (o0#. The holy life at it# highe#t ai)# at co)*lete *urity
in thought$ 0ord$ and deed$ and thi# reBuire# turning back the
tide of #e?ual de#ire.
2ight <i(elihood !#a))a a=i(a'
2ight li(elihood i# concerned 0ith en#uring that one earn# one1#
li(ing in a righteou# 0ay. /or a lay di#ci*le the Buddha teache#
that 0ealth #hould be gained in accordance 0ith certain #tandard#.
5ne #hould acBuire it only by legal )ean#$ not illegally@
one #hould acBuire it *eacefully$ 0ithout coercion or (iolence@
one #hould acBuire it hone#tly$ not by trickery or deceit@ and
one #hould acBuire it in 0ay# 0hich do not entail har) and #uffering
for other#.3& The Buddha )ention# fi(e #*ecific kind# of
li(elihood 0hich bring har) to other# and are therefore to be
a(oided: dealing in 0ea*on#$ in li(ing being# !including rai#ing
ani)al# for #laughter a# 0ell a# #la(e trade and *ro#titution'$
in )eat *roduction and butchery$ in *oi#on#$ and in into?icant#
3&. See -N &:37@ -N 9:&@ -N 8:9&.
!-N 9:44'. ;e further na)e# #e(eral di#hone#t )ean# of gaining
0ealth 0hich fall under 0rong li(elihood: *racticing deceit$
treachery$ #ooth#aying$ trickery$ and u#ury !8N 4'. 5b(iou#ly
any occu*ation that reBuire# (iolation of right #*eech and right
action i# a 0rong for) of li(elihood$ but other occu*ation#$ #uch
a# #elling 0ea*on# or into?icant#$ )ay not (iolate tho#e factor#
and yet be 0rong becau#e of their con#eBuence# for other#.
The Thai treati#e di#cu##e# the *o#iti(e a#*ect# of right li(elihood
under the three con(enient heading# of rightne## regarding
action#$ rightne## regarding *er#on#$ and rightne## regarding
ob=ect#.39 L2ightne## regarding action#M )ean# that 0orker#
#hould fulfill their dutie# diligently and con#cientiou#ly$ not
idling a0ay ti)e$ clai)ing to ha(e 0orked longer hour# than
they did$ or *ocketing the co)*any1# good#. L2ightne## regarding
*er#on#M )ean# that due re#*ect and con#ideration #hould
be #ho0n to e)*loyer#$ e)*loyee#$ colleague#$ and cu#to)er#.
-n e)*loyer$ for e?a)*le$ #hould a##ign hi# 0orker# chore#
according to their ability$ *ay the) adeBuately$ *ro)ote the)
0hen they de#er(e a *ro)otion and gi(e the) occa#ional (acation#
and bonu#e#. +olleague# #hould try to coo*erate rather
than co)*ete$ 0hile )erchant# #hould be eBuitable in their
dealing# 0ith cu#to)er#. L2ightne## regarding ob=ect#M )ean#
that in bu#ine## tran#action# and #ale# the article# to be #old
#hould be *re#ented truthfully. There #hould be no dece*ti(e
ad(erti#ing$ )i#re*re#entation# of Buality or Buantity$ or di#hone#t
)anoeu(er#. H
39. The /i(e Prece*t# and the /i(e Ennobler#$ **. &9P&4.
+ha*ter 6
2ight Effort
!Sa))a 6aya)a'
The *urification of conduct e#tabli#hed by the *rior three
factor# #er(e# a# the ba#i# for the ne?t di(i#ion of the *ath$ the
di(i#ion of concentration !#a)adhikkhandha'. Thi# *re#ent *ha#e
of *ractice$ 0hich ad(ance# fro) )oral re#traint to direct )ental
training$ co)*ri#e# the three factor# of right effort$ right )indfulne##$
and right concentration. .t gain# it# na)e fro) the goal
to 0hich it a#*ire#$ the *o0er of #u#tained concentration$ it#elf
reBuired a# the #u**ort for in#ightA0i#do). Wi#do) i# the *ri)ary
tool for deli(erance$ but the *enetrating (i#ion it yield# can
only o*en u* 0hen the )ind ha# been co)*o#ed and collected.
2ight concentration bring# the reBui#ite #tillne## to the )ind by
unifying it 0ith undi#tracted focu# on a #uitable ob=ect. To do #o$
ho0e(er$ the factor of concentration need# the aid of effort and
)indfulne##. 2ight effort *ro(ide# the energy de)anded by the
ta#k$ right )indfulne## the #teadying *oint# for a0arene##.
The co))entator# illu#trate the interde*endence of the
three factor# 0ithin the concentration grou* 0ith a #i)*le #i)ile.
Three boy# go to a *ark to *lay. While 0alking along they
#ee a tree 0ith flo0ering to*# and decide they 0ant to gather
the flo0er#. But the flo0er# are beyond the reach e(en of the
talle#t boy. Then one friend bend# do0n and offer# hi# back.
The tall boy cli)b# u*$ but #till he#itate# to reach for the flo0er#
fro) fear of falling. So the third boy co)e# o(er and offer# hi#
#houlder for #u**ort. The fir#t boy$ #tanding on the back of the
#econd boy$ then lean# on the #houlder of the third boy$ reache#
u*$ and gather# the flo0er#.33
.n thi# #i)ile the tall boy 0ho *ick# the flo0er# re*re#ent#
concentration 0ith it# function of unifying the )ind. But to
unify the )ind concentration need# #u**ort: the energy by right
33. Pa*aNca#udani !+o))entary to 8a==hi)a Nikaya'.
effort$ 0hich i# like the boy 0ho offer# hi# back. .t al#o reBuire#
the #tabiliCing a0arene## *ro(ided by )indfulne##$ 0hich i#
like the boy 0ho offer# hi# #houlder. When right concentration
recei(e# thi# #u**ort$ then e)*o0ered by right effort and balanced
by right )indfulne## it can dra0 in the #cattered #trand#
of thought and fi? the )ind fir)ly on it# ob=ect.
Energy !(iriya'$ the )ental factor behind right effort$ can
a**ear in either 0hole#o)e or un0hole#o)e for)#. The #a)e
factor fuel# de#ire$ aggre##ion$ (iolence$ and a)bition on the
one hand$ and genero#ity$ #elfAdi#ci*line$ kindne##$ concentration$
and under#tanding on the other. The e?ertion in(ol(ed in
right effort i# a 0hole#o)e for) of energy$ but it i# #o)ething
)ore #*ecific$ na)ely$ the energy in 0hole#o)e #tate# of con#ciou#ne##
directed to liberation fro) #uffering. Thi# la#t Bualifying
*hra#e i# e#*ecially i)*ortant. /or 0hole#o)e energy to
beco)e a contributor to the *ath it ha# to be guided by right
(ie0 and right intention$ and to 0ork in a##ociation 0ith the
other *ath factor#. 5ther0i#e$ a# the energy in ordinary 0hole#o)e
#tate# of )ind$ it )erely engender# an accu)ulation of
)erit that ri*en# 0ithin the round of birth and death@ it doe#
not i##ue in liberation fro) the round.
Ti)e and again the Buddha ha# #tre##ed the need for effort$
for diligence$ e?ertion$ and unflagging *er#e(erance. The rea#on
0hy effort i# #o crucial i# that each *er#on ha# to 0ork out hi# or
her o0n deli(erance. The Buddha doe# 0hat he can by *ointing
out the *ath to liberation@ the re#t in(ol(e# *utting the *ath
into *ractice$ a ta#k that de)and# energy. Thi# energy i# to be
a**lied to the culti(ation of the )ind$ 0hich for)# the focu# of
the entire *ath. The #tarting *oint i# the defiled )ind$ afflicted
and deluded@ the goal i# the liberated )ind$ *urified and illu)inated
by 0i#do). What co)e# in bet0een i# the unre)itting
effort to tran#for) the defiled )ind into the liberated )ind.
The 0ork of #elfAculti(ation i# not ea#y D there i# no one 0ho
can do it for u# but our#el(e# D but it i# not i)*o##ible. The
Buddha hi)#elf and hi# acco)*li#hed di#ci*le# *ro(ide the li(ing
*roof that the ta#k i# not beyond our reach. They a##ure u#$
too$ that anyone 0ho follo0# the *ath can acco)*li#h the #a)e
goal. But 0hat i# needed i# effort$ the 0ork of *ractice taken
u* 0ith the deter)ination: L. #hall not gi(e u* )y effort# until
. ha(e attained 0hate(er i# attainable by )anly *er#e(erance$
energy$ and endea(or.M 34
The nature of the )ental *roce## effect# a di(i#ion of right
effort into four Lgreat endea(or#M:
. to *re(ent the ari#ing of unari#en un0hole#o)e #tate#@
7. to abandon un0hole#o)e #tate# that ha(e already ari#en@
3. to arou#e 0hole#o)e #tate# that ha(e not yet ari#en@
&. to )aintain and *erfect 0hole#o)e #tate# already ari#en.
The un0hole#o)e #tate# !aku#ala dha))a' are the defile)ent#$
and the thought#$ e)otion#$ and intention# deri(ed fro) the)$
0hether breaking forth into action or re)aining confined
0ithin. The 0hole#o)e #tate# !ku#ala dha))a' are #tate# of )ind
untainted by defile)ent#$ e#*ecially tho#e conducing to deli(erance.
Each of the t0o kind# of )ental #tate# i)*o#e# a double
ta#k. The un0hole#o)e #ide reBuire# that the defile)ent#
lying dor)ant be *re(ented fro) eru*ting and that the acti(e
defile)ent# already *re#ent be e?*elled. The 0hole#o)e #ide
reBuire# that the unde(elo*ed liberating factor# fir#t be brought
into being$ then *er#i#tently de(elo*ed to the *oint of full )aturity.
No0 0e 0ill e?a)ine each of the#e four di(i#ion# of right
effort$ gi(ing #*ecial attention to their )o#t fertile field of a**lication$
the culti(ation of the )ind through )editation.
!' To *re(ent the ari#ing of unari#en un0hole#o)e #tate#
;erein the di#ci*le rou#e# hi# 0ill to a(oid the ari#ing of e(il$
un0hole#o)e #tate# that ha(e not yet ari#en@ and he )ake# effort$
34. 8N 40@ Word of the Buddha$ **. 9%A30.
#tir# u* hi# energy$ e?ert# hi# )ind and #tri(e#.38
The fir#t #ide of right effort ai)# at o(erco)ing un0hole#o)e
#tate#$ #tate# of )ind tainted by defile)ent#. .n#ofar a#
they i)*ede concentration the defile)ent# are u#ually *re#ented
in a fi(efold #et called the Lfi(e hindrance#M !*aNcani(arana':
#en#ual de#ire$ ill 0ill$ dullne## and dro0#ine##$ re#tle##ne##
and 0orry$ and doubt.3% They recei(e the na)e Lhindrance#M
becau#e they block the *ath to liberation@ they gro0 u* and
o(er the )ind *re(enting cal) and in#ight$ the *ri)ary in#tru)ent#
for *rogre##. The fir#t t0o hindrance#$ #en#ual de#ire and
ill 0ill$ are the #tronge#t of the #et$ the )o#t for)idable barrier#
to )editati(e gro0th$ re*re#enting$ re#*ecti(ely$ the un0hole#o)e
root# of greed and a(er#ion. The other three hindrance#$
le## to?ic but #till ob#tructi(e$ are off#hoot# of delu#ion$ u#ually
in a##ociation 0ith other defile)ent#.
Sen#ual de#ire i# inter*reted in t0o 0ay#. So)eti)e# it i#
under#tood in a narro0 #en#e a# lu#t for the Lfi(e #trand# of #en#e
*lea#ure$M i.e.$ agreeable #ight#$ #ound#$ #)ell#$ ta#te#$ and touche#@
#o)eti)e# a broader inter*retation i# gi(en$ by 0hich the ter)
beco)e# inclu#i(e of cra(ing in all it# )ode#$ 0hether for #en#e
*lea#ure#$ 0ealth$ *o0er$ *o#ition$ fa)e$ or anything el#e it can
#ettle u*on. The #econd hindrance$ ill 0ill$ i# a #ynony) for a(er#ion.
.t co)*ri#e# hatred$ anger$ re#ent)ent$ re*ul#ion of e(ery
#hade$ 0hether directed to0ard# other *eo*le$ to0ard# one#elf$
to0ard# ob=ect#$ or to0ard# #ituation#. The third hindrance$ dullne##
and dro0#ine##$ i# a co)*ound of t0o factor# linked together
by their co))on feature of )ental un0ieldine##. 5ne i# dullne##
!thina'$ )anife#t a# )ental inertia@ the other i# dro0#ine##
!)iddha'$ #een in )ental #inking$ hea(ine## of )ind$ or e?ce##i(e
inclination to #lee*. -t the o**o#ite e?tre)e i# the fourth
hindrance$ re#tle##ne## and 0orry. Thi# too i# a co)*ound 0ith it#
t0o )e)ber# linked by their co))on feature of di#Buietude.
38. -N &:3@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 94.
3%. "a)acchanda$ bya*ada$ thinaA)iddha$ uddhaccaAkukkucca$ (icikiccha.
2e#tle##ne## !uddhacca' i# agitation or e?cite)ent$ 0hich dri(e#
the )ind fro) thought to thought 0ith #*eed and frenCy@ 0orry
!kukkucca' i# re)or#e o(er *a#t )i#take# and an?iety about their
*o##ible unde#ired con#eBuence#. The fifth hindrance$ doubt$
#ignifie# a chronic indeci#i(ene## and lack of re#olution: not
the *robing of critical intelligence$ an attitude encouraged by
the Buddha$ but a *er#i#tent inability to co))it one#elf to the
cour#e of #*iritual training due to lingering doubt# concerning
the Buddha$ hi# doctrine$ and hi# *ath.
The fir#t effort to be )ade regarding the hindrance# i# the
effort to *re(ent the unari#en hindrance# fro) ari#ing@ thi# i#
al#o called the endea(or to re#train !#a)(ara**adhana'. The effort
to hold the hindrance# in check i# i)*erati(e both at the #tart
of )editati(e training and throughout the cour#e of it# de(elo*)ent.
/or 0hen the hindrance# ari#e$ they di#*er#e attention
and darken the Buality of a0arene##$ to the detri)ent of cal)
and clarity. The hindrance# do not co)e fro) out#ide the )ind
but fro) 0ithin. They a**ear through the acti(ation of certain
tendencie# con#tantly lying dor)ant in the dee* rece##e# of the
)ental continuu)$ a0aiting the o**ortunity to #urface.
:enerally 0hat #*ark# the hindrance# into acti(ity i# the
in*ut afforded by #en#e e?*erience. The *hy#ical organi#) i#
eBui**ed 0ith fi(e #en#e facultie# each rece*ti(e to it# o0n #*ecific
kind of data D the eye to for)#$ the ear to #ound#$ the
no#e to #)ell#$ the tongue to ta#te#$ the body to tangible#. Sen#e
ob=ect# continuou#ly i)*inge on the #en#e#$ 0hich relay the
infor)ation they recei(e to the )ind$ 0here it i# *roce##ed$
e(aluated$ and accorded an a**ro*riate re#*on#e. But the )ind
can deal 0ith the i)*re##ion# it recei(e# in different 0ay#$ go(erned
in the fir#t *lace by the )anner in 0hich it attend# to
the). When the )ind ad(ert# to the inco)ing data carele##ly$
0ith un0i#e con#ideration !ayoni#o )ana#ikara'$ the #en#e ob=ect#
tend to #tir u* un0hole#o)e #tate#. They do thi# either directly$
through their i))ediate i)*act$ or el#e indirectly by de*o#iting
)e)ory trace# 0hich later )ay #0ell u* a# the ob=ect# of defiled
thought#$ i)age#$ and fanta#ie#. -# a general rule the defile)ent
that i# acti(ated corre#*ond# to the ob=ect: attracti(e ob=ect# *ro(oke
de#ire$ di#agreeable ob=ect# *ro(oke ill 0ill$ and indeter)inate
ob=ect# *ro(oke the defile)ent# connected 0ith delu#ion.
Since an uncontrolled re#*on#e to the #en#ory in*ut #ti)ulate#
the latent defile)ent#$ 0hat i# e(idently needed to *re(ent
the) fro) ari#ing i# control o(er the #en#e#. Thu# the
Buddha teache#$ a# the di#ci*line for kee*ing the hindrance#
in check$ an e?erci#e called the re#traint of the #en#e facultie#
!indriyaA#a)(ara':
When he *ercei(e# a for) 0ith the eye$ a #ound 0ith the
ear$ an odor 0ith the no#e$ a ta#te 0ith the tongue$ an i)*re##ion
0ith the body$ or an ob=ect 0ith the )ind$ he a**rehend#
neither the #ign nor the *articular#. -nd he #tri(e# to 0ard off
that through 0hich e(il and un0hole#o)e #tate#$ greed and #orro0$
0ould ari#e$ if he re)ained 0ith unguarded #en#e#@ and he
0atche# o(er hi# #en#e#$ re#train# hi# #en#e#.&0
2e#traint of the #en#e# doe# not )ean denial of the #en#e#$
retreating into a total 0ithdra0al fro) the #en#ory 0orld. Thi#
i# i)*o##ible$ and e(en if it could be achie(ed$ the real *roble)
0ould #till not be #ol(ed@ for the defile)ent# lie in the )ind$ not
in the #en#e organ# or ob=ect#. The key to #en#e control i# indicated
by the *hra#e Lnot a**rehending the #ign or the *articular#.M
The L#ignM !ni)itta' i# the ob=ect1# general a**earance in#ofar
a# thi# a**earance i# gra#*ed a# the ba#i# for defiled thought#@
the L*articular#M !anubyan=ana' are it# le## con#*icuou# feature#.
.f #en#e control i# lacking$ the )ind roa)# reckle##ly o(er the
#en#e field#. /ir#t it gra#*# the #ign$ 0hich #et# the defile)ent#
into )otion$ then it e?*lore# the *articular#$ 0hich *er)it# the)
to )ulti*ly and thri(e.
To re#train the #en#e# reBuire# that )indfulne## and clear
under#tanding be a**lied to the encounter 0ith the #en#e field#.
&0. -N &:&@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 94.
Sen#e con#ciou#ne## occur# in a #erie#$ a# a #eBuence of )o)entary
cogniti(e act# each ha(ing it# o0n #*ecial ta#k. The initial
#tage# in the #erie# occur a# auto)atic function#: fir#t the )ind
ad(ert# to the ob=ect$ then a**rehend# it$ then ad)it# the *erce*t$
e?a)ine# it$ and identifie# it. .))ediately follo0ing the identification
a #*ace o*en# u* in 0hich there occur# a free e(aluation
of the ob=ect leading to the choice of a re#*on#e. When )indfulne##
i# ab#ent the latent defile)ent#$ *u#hing for an o**ortunity
to e)erge$ 0ill )oti(ate a 0rong con#ideration. 5ne 0ill
gra#* the #ign of the ob=ect$ e?*lore it# detail#$ and thereby gi(e
the defile)ent# their o**ortunity: on account of greed one 0ill
beco)e fa#cinated by an agreeable ob=ect$ on account of a(er#ion
one 0ill be re*elled by a di#agreeable ob=ect. But 0hen one
a**lie# )indfulne## to the #en#ory encounter$ one ni*# the cogniti(e
*roce## in the bud before it can e(ol(e into the #tage# that
#ti)ulate the dor)ant taint#. 8indfulne## hold# the hindrance#
in check by kee*ing the )ind at the le(el of 0hat i# #en#ed. .t ri(et#
a0arene## on the gi(en$ *re(enting the )ind fro) e)belli#hing
the datu) 0ith idea# born of greed$ a(er#ion$ and delu#ion.
Then$ 0ith thi# lucent a0arene## a# a guide$ the )ind can *roceed
to co)*rehend the ob=ect a# it i#$ 0ithout being led a#tray.
!7' To abandon the ari#en un0hole#o)e #tate#
;erein the di#ci*le rou#e# hi# 0ill to o(erco)e the e(il$ un0hole#o)e
#tate# that ha(e already ari#en and he )ake# effort$ #tir# u*
hi# energy$ e?ert# hi# )ind and #tri(e#.&
>e#*ite the effort at #en#e control the defile)ent# )ay #till
#urface. They #0ell u* fro) the de*th# of the )ental continuu)$
fro) the buried #trata of *a#t accu)ulation#$ to congeal
into un0hole#o)e thought# and e)otion#. When thi# ha**en#
a ne0 kind of effort beco)e# nece##ary$ the effort to abandon
ari#en un0hole#o)e #tate#$ called for #hort the endea(or to
abandon !*ahana**adhana':
&. -N &:3@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 98.
;e doe# not retain any thought of #en#ual lu#t$ ill 0ill$ or
har)fulne##$ or any other e(il and un0hole#o)e #tate# that )ay
ha(e ari#en@ he abandon# the)$ di#*el# the)$ de#troy# the)$
cau#e# the) to di#a**ear.&7
Ju#t a# a #killed *hy#ician ha# different )edicine# for different
ail)ent#$ #o the Buddha ha# different antidote# for the different
hindrance#$ #o)e eBually a**licable to all$ #o)e geared to
a *articular hindrance. .n an i)*ortant di#cour#e the Buddha
e?*lain# fi(e techniBue# for e?*elling di#tracting thought#.&3 The
fir#t i# to e?*el the defiled thought 0ith a 0hole#o)e thought
0hich i# it# e?act o**o#ite$ analogou# to the 0ay a car*enter
)ight u#e a ne0 *eg to dri(e out an old one. /or each of the
fi(e hindrance# there i# a #*ecific re)edy$ a line of )editation
de#igned e?*re##ly to deflate it and de#troy it. Thi# re)edy can
be a**lied inter)ittently$ 0hen a hindrance #*ring# u* and di#ru*t#
)editation on the *ri)ary #ub=ect@ or it can be taken a# a
*ri)ary #ub=ect it#elf$ u#ed to counter a defile)ent re*eatedly
#een to be a *er#i#tent ob#tacle to one1# *ractice. But for the antidote
to beco)e effecti(e in the fir#t role$ a# a te)*orary e?*edient
reBuired by the u*#urge of a hindrance$ it i# be#t to gain
#o)e fa)iliarity 0ith it by )aking it a *ri)ary ob=ect$ at lea#t
for #hort *eriod#.
/or de#ire a re)edy of general a**lication i# the )editation
on i)*er)anence$ 0hich knock# a0ay the underlying *ro* of
clinging$ the i)*licit a##u)*tion that the ob=ect# clung to are
#table and durable. /or de#ire in the #*ecific for) of #en#ual lu#t
the )o#t *otent antidote i# the conte)*lation of the unattracti(e
nature of the body$ to be dealt 0ith at greater length in the ne?t
cha*ter. .ll 0ill )eet# it# *ro*er re)edy in the )editation on
lo(ingAkindne## !)etta'$ 0hich bani#he# all trace# of hatred and
anger through the )ethodical radiation of the altrui#tic 0i#h
that all being# be 0ell and ha**y. The di#*elling of dullne## and
&7. -N &:&@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 98.
&3. 8N 70@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 98.
dro0#ine## call# for a #*ecial effort to arou#e energy$ for 0hich
#e(eral )ethod# are #ugge#ted: the (i#ualiCation of a brilliant
ball of light$ getting u* and doing a *eriod of bri#k 0alking
)editation$ reflection on death$ or #i)*ly )aking a fir) deter)ination
to continue #tri(ing. 2e#tle##ne## and 0orry are )o#t
effecti(ely countered by turning the )ind to a #i)*le ob=ect
that tend# to cal) it do0n@ the )ethod u#ually reco))ended
i# )indfulne## of breathing$ attention to the inAandAout flo0 of
the breath. .n the ca#e of doubt the #*ecial re)edy i# in(e#tigation:
to )ake inBuirie#$ a#k Bue#tion#$ and #tudy the teaching#
until the ob#cure *oint# beco)e clear.&&
Wherea# thi# fir#t of the fi(e )ethod# for e?*elling the hindrance#
in(ol(e# a oneAtoAone align)ent bet0een a hindrance
and it# re)edy$ the other four utiliCe general a**roache#. The
#econd )ar#hal# the force# of #ha)e !hiri' and )oral dread
!otta**a' to abandon the un0anted thought: one reflect# on the
thought a# (ile and ignoble or con#ider# it# unde#irable con#eBuence#
until an inner re(ul#ion #et# in 0hich dri(e# the thought
a0ay. The third )ethod in(ol(e# a deliberate di(er#ion of attention.
When an un0hole#o)e thought ari#e# and cla)our# to be
noticed$ in#tead of indulging it one #i)*ly #hut# it out by redirecting
one1# attention el#e0here$ a# if clo#ing one1# eye# or looking
a0ay to a(oid an un*lea#ant #ight. The fourth )ethod u#e# the
o**o#ite a**roach. .n#tead of turning a0ay fro) the un0anted
thought$ one confront# it directly a# an ob=ect$ #crutiniCe# it# feature#$
and in(e#tigate# it# #ource. When thi# i# done the thought
Buiet# do0n and e(entually di#a**ear#. /or an un0hole#o)e
thought i# like a thief: it only create# trouble 0hen it# o*eration i#
concealed$ but *ut under ob#er(ation it beco)e# ta)e. The fifth
&&. /or a full treat)ent of the )ethod# for dealing 0ith the hindrance#
indi(idually$ con#ult the co))entary to the Sati*atthana Sutta !>N 77$
8N 0'. - tran#lation of the rele(ant *a##age#$ 0ith further e?tract#
fro) the #ubco))entary$ can be found in So)a Thera$ The Way of
8indfulne##$ **. 3P73.
)ethod$ to be u#ed only a# a la#t re#ort$ i# #u**re##ion D (igorou#ly
re#training the un0hole#o)e thought 0ith the *o0er of
the 0ill in the 0ay a #trong )an )ight thro0 a 0eaker )an to
the ground and kee* hi) *inned there 0ith hi# 0eight.
By a**lying the#e fi(e )ethod# 0ith #kill and di#cretion$
the Buddha #ay#$ one beco)e# a )a#ter of all the *ath0ay# of
thought. 5ne i# no longer the #ub=ect of the )ind but it# )a#ter.
Whate(er thought one 0ant# to think$ that one 0ill think.
Whate(er thought one doe# not 0ant to think$ that one 0ill not
think. E(en if un0hole#o)e thought# occa#ionally ari#e$ one
can di#*el the) i))ediately$ =u#t a# Buickly a# a redAhot *an
0ill turn to #tea) a fe0 chance dro*# of 0ater.
!3' To arou#e unari#en 0hole#o)e #tate#
;erein the di#ci*le rou#e# hi# 0ill to arou#e 0hole#o)e #tate#
that ha(e not yet ari#en@ and he )ake# effort$ #tir# u* hi# energy$
e?ert# hi# )ind and #tri(e#.&9
Si)ultaneou#ly 0ith the re)o(al of defile)ent#$ right effort
al#o i)*o#e# the ta#k of culti(ating 0hole#o)e #tate# of )ind.
Thi# in(ol(e# t0o di(i#ion#: the arou#ing of 0hole#o)e #tate#
not yet ari#en and the )aturation of 0hole#o)e #tate# already
ari#en.
The fir#t of the t0o di(i#ion# i# al#o kno0n a# the endea(or
to de(elo* !bha(ana**adhana'. Though the 0hole#o)e #tate# to
be de(elo*ed can be grou*ed in (ariou# 0ay# D #erenity and
in#ight$ the four foundation# of )indfulne##$ the eight factor#
of the *ath$ etc. D the Buddha lay# #*ecial #tre## on a #et called
the #e(en factor# of enlighten)ent !#atta bo==hanga': )indfulne##$
in(e#tigation of *heno)ena$ energy$ ra*ture$ tranBuillity$ concentration$
and eBuani)ity.
Thu# he de(elo*# the factor# of enlighten)ent$ ba#ed on #olitude$
on detach)ent$ on ce##ation$ and ending in deli(erance$
na)ely: the enlighten)ent factor# of )indfulne##$ in(e#tigation
&9. -N &:3@ Word of the Buddha$ **. 98P9%.
of *heno)ena$ energy$ ra*ture$ tranBuillity$ concentration$ and
eBuani)ity.&3
The #e(en #tate# are grou*ed together a# Lenlighten)ent
factor#M both becau#e they lead to enlighten)ent and becau#e
they con#titute enlighten)ent. .n the *reli)inary #tage# of the
*ath they *re*are the 0ay for the great realiCation@ in the end
they re)ain a# it# co)*onent#. The e?*erience of enlighten)ent$
*erfect and co)*lete under#tanding$ i# =u#t the#e #e(en
co)*onent# 0orking in uni#on to break all #hackle# and bring
final relea#e fro) #orro0.
The 0ay to enlighten)ent #tart# 0ith )indfulne##. 8indfulne##
clear# the ground for in#ight into the nature of thing# by
bringing to light *heno)ena in the no0$ the *re#ent )o)ent$
#tri**ed of all #ub=ecti(e co))entary$ inter*retation#$ and *ro=ection#.
Then$ 0hen )indfulne## ha# brought the bare *heno)ena
into focu#$ the factor of in(e#tigation #te*# in to #earch
out their characteri#tic#$ condition#$ and con#eBuence#. Wherea#
)indfulne## i# ba#ically rece*ti(e$ in(e#tigation i# an acti(e factor
0hich unflinchingly *robe#$ analyCe#$ and di##ect# *heno)ena
to unco(er their funda)ental #tructure#.
The 0ork of in(e#tigation reBuire# energy$ the third factor of
enlighten)ent$ 0hich )ount# in three #tage#. The fir#t$ ince*ti(e
energy$ #hake# off lethargy and arou#e# initial enthu#ia#).
-# the 0ork of conte)*lation ad(ance#$ energy gather# )o)entu)
and enter# the #econd #tage$ *er#e(erance$ 0herein it *ro*el#
the *ractice 0ithout #lackening. /inally$ at the *eak$ energy
reache# the third #tage$ in(incibility$ 0here it dri(e# conte)*lation
for0ard lea(ing the hindrance# *o0erle## to #to* it.
-# energy increa#e#$ the fourth factor of enlighten)ent i#
Buickened. Thi# i# ra*ture$ a *lea#urable intere#t in the ob=ect.
2a*ture gradually build# u*$ a#cending to ec#tatic height#: 0a(e#
&3. -N &:&@ Word of the Buddha$ *.9%. The Pali na)e# for the #e(en are:
#ati#a)bo==hanga$ dha))a(icaya#a)bo==hanga$ (iriya#a)bo==hanga$ *iti#a)bo==hanga$
*a##addhi#a)bo==hanga$ #a)adhi#a)bo==hanga$ u*ekkha#a)bo==hanga.
of bli## run through the body$ the )ind glo0# 0ith =oy$ fer(or
and confidence inten#ify. But the#e e?*erience#$ a# encouraging
a# they are$ #till contain a fla0: they create an e?citation (erging
on re#tle##ne##. With further *ractice$ ho0e(er$ ra*ture #ub#ide#
and a tone of Buietne## #et# in #ignalling the ri#e of the fifth factor$
tranBuillity. 2a*ture re)ain# *re#ent$ but it i# no0 #ubdued$
and the 0ork of conte)*lation *roceed# 0ith #elfA*o##e##ed
#erenity.
TranBuillity bring# to ri*ene## concentration$ the #i?th factor$
oneA*ointed unification of )ind. Then$ 0ith the dee*ening of
concentration$ the la#t enlighten)ent factor co)e# into do)inance.
Thi# i# eBuani)ity$ in0ard *oi#e and balance free fro)
the t0o defect# of e?cite)ent and inertia. When inertia *re(ail#$
energy )u#t be arou#ed@ 0hen e?cite)ent *re(ail#$ it i# nece##ary
to e?erci#e re#traint. But 0hen both defect# ha(e been (anBui#hed
the *ractice can unfold e(enly 0ithout need for concern.
The )ind of eBuani)ity i# co)*ared to the dri(er of a
chariot 0hen the hor#e# are )o(ing at a #teady *ace: he neither
ha# to urge the) for0ard nor to hold the) back$ but can =u#t #it
co)fortably and 0atch the #cenery go by. EBuani)ity ha# the
#a)e LonAlookingM Buality. When the other factor# are balanced
the )ind re)ain# *oi#ed 0atching the *lay of *heno)ena.
!&' To )aintain ari#en 0hole#o)e #tate#
;erein the di#ci*le rou#e# hi# 0ill to )aintain the 0hole#o)e
thing# that ha(e already ari#en$ and not to allo0 the) to di#a**ear$
but to bring the) to gro0th$ to )aturity$ and to the
full *erfection of de(elo*)ent@ and he )ake# effort$ #tir# u* hi#
energy$ e?ert# hi# )ind and #tri(e#.&4
Thi# la#t of the four right effort# ai)# at )aintaining the
ari#en 0hole#o)e factor# and bringing the) to )aturity.
+alled the Lendea(or to )aintainM !anurakkhana**adhana'$ it i#
e?*lained a# the effort to Lkee* fir)ly in the )ind a fa(orable
&4. -N &:3@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 9%.
ob=ect of concentration that ha# ari#en.M &8 The 0ork of guarding
the ob=ect cau#e# the #e(en enlighten)ent factor# to gain #tability
and gradually increa#e in #trength until they i##ue in the liberating
realiCation. Thi# )ark# the cul)ination of right effort$
the goal in 0hich the countle## indi(idual act# of e?ertion finally
reach fulfill)ent. H
&8. -N &:&@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 9%.
+ha*ter 6.
2ight 8indfulne##
!Sa))a Sati'
The Buddha #ay# that the >ha))a$ the ulti)ate truth of
thing#$ i# directly (i#ible$ ti)ele##$ calling out to be a**roached
and #een. ;e #ay# further that it i# al0ay# a(ailable to u#$ and
that the *lace 0here it i# to be realiCed i# 0ithin one#elf.&% The
ulti)ate truth$ the >ha))a$ i# not #o)ething )y#teriou# and
re)ote$ but the truth of our o0n e?*erience. .t can be reached
only by under#tanding our e?*erience$ by *enetrating it right
through to it# foundation#. Thi# truth$ in order to beco)e liberating
truth$ ha# to be kno0n directly. .t i# not enough )erely
to acce*t it on faith$ to belie(e it on the authority of book# or a
teacher$ or to think it out through deduction# and inference#. .t
ha# to be kno0n by in#ight$ gra#*ed and ab#orbed by a kind of
kno0ing 0hich i# al#o an i))ediate #eeing.
What bring# the field of e?*erience into focu# and )ake# it
acce##ible to in#ight i# a )ental faculty called in Pali #ati$ u#ually
tran#lated a# L)indfulne##.M 8indfulne## i# *re#ence of )ind$
attenti(ene## or a0arene##. Het the kind of a0arene## in(ol(ed
in )indfulne## differ# *rofoundly fro) the kind of a0arene##
at 0ork in our u#ual )ode of con#ciou#ne##. -ll con#ciou#ne##
in(ol(e# a0arene## in the #en#e of a kno0ing or e?*eriencing
of an ob=ect. But 0ith the *ractice of )indfulne## a0arene##
i# a**lied at a #*ecial *itch. The )ind i# deliberately ke*t at
the le(el of bare attention$ a detached ob#er(ation of 0hat i# ha**ening
0ithin u# and around u# in the *re#ent )o)ent. .n the
*ractice of right )indfulne## the )ind i# trained to re)ain in
the *re#ent$ o*en$ Buiet$ and alert$ conte)*lating the *re#ent
e(ent. -ll =udg)ent# and inter*retation# ha(e to be #u#*ended$
or if they occur$ =u#t regi#tered and dro**ed. The ta#k i# #i)*ly
&%. >ha))o #anditthiko akaliko ehi*a##iko o*anayiko *accatta) (editabbo
(iNNuhi. !8. 4$ etc.'
to note 0hate(er co)e# u* =u#t a# it i# occurring$ riding the
change# of e(ent# in the 0ay a #urfer ride# the 0a(e# on the #ea.
The 0hole *roce## i# a 0ay of co)ing back into the *re#ent$ of
#tanding in the here and no0 0ithout #li**ing a0ay$ 0ithout
getting #0e*t a0ay by the tide# of di#tracting thought#.
.t )ight be a##u)ed that 0e are al0ay# a0are of the *re#ent$
but thi# i# a )irage. 5nly #eldo) do 0e beco)e a0are of the
*re#ent in the *reci#e 0ay reBuired by the *ractice of )indfulne##.
.n ordinary con#ciou#ne## the )ind begin# a cogniti(e *roce##
0ith #o)e i)*re##ion gi(en in the *re#ent$ but it doe# not
#tay 0ith it. .n#tead it u#e# the i))ediate i)*re##ion a# a #*ringboard
for building block# of )ental con#truct# 0hich re)o(e it
fro) the #heer facticity of the datu). The cogniti(e *roce## i#
generally inter*retati(e. The )ind *ercei(e# it# ob=ect free fro)
conce*tualiCation only briefly. Then$ i))ediately after gra#*ing
the initial i)*re##ion$ it launche# on a cour#e of ideation by
0hich it #eek# to inter*ret the ob=ect to it#elf$ to )ake it intelligible
in ter)# of it# o0n categorie# and a##u)*tion#. To bring thi#
about the )ind *o#it# conce*t#$ =oin# the conce*t# into con#truct#
D #et# of )utually corroborati(e conce*t# D then 0ea(e# the con#truct#
together into co)*le? inter*retati(e #che)e#. .n the end
the original direct e?*erience ha# been o(errun by ideation and
the *re#ented ob=ect a**ear# only di)ly through den#e layer# of
idea# and (ie0#$ like the )oon through a layer of cloud#.
The Buddha call# thi# *roce## of )ental con#truction *a*aNca$
Lelaboration$M Le)belli#h)ent$M or Lconce*tual *roliferation.M
The elaboration# block out the *re#entational i))ediacy of *heno)ena@
they let u# kno0 the ob=ect only Lat a di#tance$M not a# it
really i#. But the elaboration# do not only #creen cognition@ they
al#o #er(e a# a ba#i# for *ro=ection#. The deluded )ind$ cloaked
in ignorance$ *ro=ect# it# o0n internal con#truct# out0ardly$
a#cribing the) to the ob=ect a# if they really belonged to it. -# a
re#ult$ 0hat 0e kno0 a# the final ob=ect of cognition$ 0hat 0e
u#e a# the ba#i# for our (alue#$ *lan#$ and action#$ i# a *atch0ork
*roduct$ not the original article. To be #ure$ the *roduct i# not
0holly illu#ion$ not #heer fanta#y. .t take# 0hati# gi(en in i))ediate
e?*erience a# it# ground0ork and ra0 )aterial$ but along
0ith thi# it include# #o)ething el#e: the e)belli#h)ent# fabricated
by the )ind.
The #*ring# for thi# *roce## of fabrication$ hidden fro) (ie0$
are the latent defile)ent#. The defile)ent# create the e)belli#h)ent#$
*ro=ect the) out0ardly$ and u#e the) a# hook# for
co)ing to the #urface$ 0here they cau#e further di#tortion. To
correct the erroneou# notion# i# the ta#k of 0i#do)$ but for 0i#do)
to di#charge it# 0ork effecti(ely$ it need# direct acce## to
the ob=ect a# it i# in it#elf$ uncluttered by the conce*tual elaboration#.
The ta#k of right )indfulne## i# to clear u* the cogniti(e
field. 8indfulne## bring# to light e?*erience in it# *ure i))ediacy.
.t re(eal# the ob=ect a# it i# before it ha# been *la#tered o(er
0ith conce*tual *aint$ o(erlaid 0ith inter*retation#. To *ractice
)indfulne## i# thu# a )atter not #o )uch of doing but of undoing:
not thinking$ not =udging$ not a##ociating$ not *lanning$ not
i)agining$ not 0i#hing. -ll the#e Ldoing#M of our# are )ode# of
interference$ 0ay# the )ind )ani*ulate# e?*erience and trie#
to e#tabli#h it# do)inance. 8indfulne## undoe# the knot# and
tangle# of the#e Ldoing#M by #i)*ly noting. .t doe# nothing but
note$ 0atching each occa#ion of e?*erience a# it ari#e#$ #tand#$
and *a##e# a0ay. .n the 0atching there i# no roo) for clinging$
no co)*ul#ion to #addle thing# 0ith our de#ire#. There i# only
a #u#tained conte)*lation of e?*erience in it# bare i))ediacy$
carefully and *reci#ely and *er#i#tently.
8indfulne## e?erci#e# a *o0erful grounding function. .t
anchor# the )ind #ecurely in the *re#ent$ #o it doe# not float
a0ay into the *a#t and future 0ith their )e)orie#$ regret#$ fear#$
and ho*e#. The )ind 0ithout )indfulne## i# #o)eti)e# co)*ared
to a *u)*kin$ the )ind e#tabli#hed in )indfulne## to a
#tone.90 - *u)*kin *laced on the #urface of a *ond #oon float#
90. +o))entary to 6i#). See 6i#). O.6$ n. 3&.
a0ay and al0ay# re)ain# on the 0ater1# #urface. But a #tone
doe# not float a0ay@ it #tay# 0here it i# *ut and at once #ink# into
the 0ater until it reache# botto). Si)ilarly$ 0hen )indfulne##
i# #trong$ the )ind #tay# 0ith it# ob=ect and *enetrate# it# characteri#tic#
dee*ly. .t doe# not 0ander and )erely #ki) the #urface
a# the )ind de#titute of )indfulne## doe#.
8indfulne## facilitate# the achie(e)ent of both #erenity
and in#ight. .t can lead to either dee* concentration or 0i#do)$
de*ending on the )ode in 0hich it i# a**lied. 8erely a
#light #hift in the )ode of a**lication can #*ell the difference
bet0een the cour#e the conte)*lati(e *roce## take#$ 0hether it
de#cend# to dee*er le(el# of inner cal) cul)inating in the #tage#
of ab#or*tion$ the =hana#$ or 0hether in#tead it #tri*# a0ay the
(eil# of delu#ion to arri(e at *enetrating in#ight. To lead to the
#tage# of #erenity the *ri)ary chore of )indfulne## i# to kee*
the )ind on the ob=ect$ free fro) #traying. 8indfulne## #er(e#
a# the guard charged 0ith the re#*on#ibility of )aking #ure that
the )ind doe# not #li* a0ay fro) the ob=ect to lo#e it#elf in
rando) undirected thought#. .t al#o kee*# 0atch o(er the factor#
#tirring in the )ind$ catching the hindrance# beneath their
ca)ouflage# and e?*elling the) before they can cau#e har).
To lead to in#ight and the realiCation# of 0i#do)$ )indfulne##
i# e?erci#ed in a )ore differentiated )anner. .t# ta#k$ in thi#
*ha#e of *ractice$ i# to ob#er(e$ to note$ to di#cern *heno)ena
0ith ut)o#t *reci#ion until their funda)ental characteri#tic# are
brought to light.
2ight )indfulne## i# culti(ated through a *ractice called
Lthe four foundation# of )indfulne##M !cattaro #ati*atthana'$ the
)indful conte)*lation of four ob=ecti(e #*here#: the body$ feeling#$
#tate# of )ind$ and *heno)ena.9 -# the Buddha e?*lain#:
9. So)eti)e# the 0ord #ati*atthana i# tran#lated Lfoundation of )indfulne##$M
0ith e)*ha#i# on the ob=ecti(e #ide$ #o)eti)e# La**lication of
)indfulne##$M 0ith e)*ha#i# on the #ub=ecti(e #ide. Both e?*lanation#
are allo0ed by the te?t# and co))entarie#.
-nd 0hat$ )onk#$ i# right )indfulne##K ;erein$ a )onk
d0ell# conte)*lating the body in the body$ ardent$ clearly co)*rehending
and )indful$ ha(ing *ut a0ay co(etou#ne## and
grief concerning the 0orld. ;e d0ell# conte)*lating feeling#
in feeling#E #tate# of )ind in #tate# of )indE *heno)ena in
*heno)ena$ ardent$ clearly co)*rehending and )indful$ ha(ing
*ut a0ay co(etou#ne## and grief concerning the 0orld.97
The Buddha #ay# that the four foundation# of )indfulne##
for) Lthe only 0ay that lead# to the attain)ent of *urity$ to the
o(erco)ing of #orro0 and la)entation$ to the end of *ain and
grief$ to the entering u*on the right *ath and the realiCation
of Nibbana.M 93 They are called Lthe only 0ayM !ekayano )aggo'$
not for the *ur*o#e of #etting forth a narro0 dog)ati#)$ but
to indicate that the attain)ent of liberation can only i##ue fro)
the *enetrating conte)*lation of the field of e?*erience undertaken
in the *ractice of right )indfulne##.
5f the four a**lication# of )indfulne##$ the conte)*lation
of the body i# concerned 0ith the )aterial #ide of e?i#tence@ the
other three are concerned *rinci*ally !though not #olely' 0ith
the )ental #ide. The co)*letion of the *ractice reBuire# all four
conte)*lation#. Though no fi?ed order i# laid do0n in 0hich
they are to be taken u*$ the body i# generally taken fir#t a# the
ba#ic #*here of conte)*lation@ the other# co)e into (ie0 later$
0hen )indfulne## ha# gained in #trength and clarity. <i)itation#
of #*ace do not allo0 for a co)*lete e?*lanation of all four
foundation#. ;ere 0e ha(e to #ettle for a brief #yno*#i#.
!' +onte)*lation of the Body !kayanu*a##ana'
The Buddha begin# hi# e?*o#ition of the body 0ith conte)*lation
of the )indfulne## of breathing !ana*ana#ati'. Though not
reBuired a# a #tarting *oint for )editation$ in actual *ractice
)indfulne## of breathing u#ually #er(e# a# the Lroot )editation
97. >N 77@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 3.
93. .bid. Word of the Buddha$ *. 3.
#ub=ectM !)ulaka))atthana'$ the foundation for the entire cour#e
of conte)*lation. .t 0ould be a )i#take$ ho0e(er$ to con#ider
thi# #ub=ect )erely an e?erci#e for neo*hyte#. By it#elf )indfulne##
of breathing can lead to all the #tage# of the *ath cul)inating
in full a0akening. .n fact it 0a# thi# )editation #ub=ect
that the Buddha u#ed on the night of hi# o0n enlighten)ent.
;e al#o re(erted to it throughout the year# during hi# #olitary
retreat#$ and con#tantly reco))ended it to the )onk#$ *rai#ing
it a# L*eaceful and #ubli)e$ an unadulterated bli##ful abiding$
0hich bani#he# at once and #till# e(il un0hole#o)e thought# a#
#oon a# they ari#eM !8N 8'.
8indfulne## of breathing can function #o effecti(ely a# a #ub=ect
of )editation becau#e it 0ork# 0ith a *roce## that i# al0ay#
a(ailable to u#$ the *roce## of re#*iration. What it doe# to turn
thi# *roce## into a ba#i# for )editation i# #i)*ly to bring it into
the range of a0arene## by )aking the breath an ob=ect of ob#er(ation.
The )editation reBuire# no #*ecial intellectual #o*hi#tication$
only a0arene## of the breath. 5ne )erely breathe# naturally
through the no#tril# kee*ing the breath in )ind at the
contact *oint around the no#tril# or u**er li*$ 0here the #en#ation
of breath can be felt a# the air )o(e# in and out. There
#hould be no atte)*t to control the breath or to force it into
*redeter)ined rhyth)#$ only a )indful conte)*lation of the
natural *roce## of breathing in and out. The a0arene## of breath
cut# through the co)*le?itie# of di#cur#i(e thinking$ re#cue# u#
fro) *ointle## 0andering in the labyrinth of (ain i)agining#$
and ground# u# #olidly in the *re#ent. /or 0hene(er 0e beco)e
a0are of breathing$ really a0are of it$ 0e can be a0are of it only
in the *re#ent$ ne(er in the *a#t or the future.
The Buddha1# e?*o#ition of )indfulne## of breathing in(ol(e#
four ba#ic #te*#. The fir#t t0o !0hich are not nece##arily #eBuential'
reBuire that a long inhalation or e?halation be noted a# it
occur#$ and that a #hort inhalation or e?halation be noted a#
it occur#. 5ne #i)*ly ob#er(e# the breath )o(ing in and out$
ob#er(ing it a# clo#ely a# *o##ible$ noting 0hether the breath i#
long or #hort. -# )indfulne## gro0# #har*er$ the breath can be
follo0ed through the entire cour#e of it# )o(e)ent$ fro) the
beginning of an inhalation through it# inter)ediary #tage# to it#
end$ then fro) the beginning of an e?halation through it# inter)ediary
#tage# to it# end. Thi# third #te* i# called Lclearly *ercei(ing
the entire !breath' body.M The fourth #te*$ Lcal)ing the bodily
function$M in(ol(e# a *rogre##i(e Buieting do0n of the breath
and it# a##ociated bodily function# until they beco)e e?tre)ely
fine and #ubtle. Beyond the#e four ba#ic #te*# lie )ore ad(anced
*ractice# 0hich direct )indfulne## of breathing to0ard# dee*
concentration and in#ight.9&
-nother *ractice in the conte)*lation of the body$ 0hich
e?tend# )editation out0ard# fro) the confine# of a #ingle fi?ed
*o#ition$ i# )indfulne## of the *o#ture#. The body can a##u)e
four ba#ic *o#ture# D 0alking$ #tanding$ #itting$ and lying do0n
D and a (ariety of other *o#ition# )arking the change fro) one
*o#ture to another. 8indfulne## of the *o#ture# focu#e# full
attention on the body in 0hate(er *o#ition it a##u)e#: 0hen
0alking one i# a0are of 0alking$ 0hen #tanding one i# a0are
of #tanding$ 0hen #itting one i# a0are of #itting$ 0hen lying
do0n one i# a0are of lying do0n$ 0hen changing *o#ture# one
i# a0are of changing *o#ture#. The conte)*lation of the *o#ture#
illu)inate# the i)*er#onal nature of the body. .t re(eal#
that the body i# not a #elf or the belonging of a #elf$ but )erely a
configuration of li(ing )atter #ub=ect to the directing influence
of (olition.
The ne?t e?erci#e carrie# the e?ten#ion of )indfulne## a #te*
further. Thi# e?erci#e$ called L)indfulne## and clear co)*rehen#ionM
!#ati#a)*a=aNNa'$ add# to the bare a0arene## an ele)ent
of under#tanding. When *erfor)ing any action$ one *erfor)#
it 0ith full a0arene## or clear co)*rehen#ion. :oing and co)ing$
looking ahead and looking a#ide$ bending and #tretching$
9&. /or detail#$ #ee 6i#). 6...$ &9P7&&.
dre##ing$ eating$ drinking$ urinating$ defecating$ falling a#lee*$
0aking u*$ #*eaking$ re)aining #ilent D all beco)e occa#ion#
for the *rogre## of )editation 0hen done 0ith clear co)*rehen#ion.
.n the co))entarie# clear co)*rehen#ion i# e?*lained
a# fourfold: !' under#tanding the *ur*o#e of the action$ i.e.$ recogniCing
it# ai) and deter)ining 0hether that ai) accord# 0ith
the >ha))a@ !7' under#tanding #uitability$ i.e.$ kno0ing the
)o#t efficient )ean# to achie(e one1# ai)@ !3' under#tanding the
range of )editation$ i.e.$ kee*ing the )ind con#tantly in a )editati(e
fra)e e(en 0hen engaged in action@ and !&' under#tanding
0ithout delu#ion$ i.e.$ #eeing the action a# an i)*er#onal
*roce## de(oid of a controlling egoAentity.99 Thi# la#t a#*ect 0ill
be e?*lored )ore thoroughly in the la#t cha*ter$ on the de(elo*)ent
of 0i#do).
The ne?t t0o #ection# on )indfulne## of the body *re#ent
analytical conte)*lation# intended to e?*o#e the body1# real
nature. 5ne of the#e i# the )editation on the body1# unattracti(ene##$
already touched on in connection 0ith right effort@ the
other$ the analy#i# of the body into the four *ri)ary ele)ent#.
The fir#t$ the )editation on unattracti(ene##$93 i# de#igned to
counter infatuation 0ith the body$ e#*ecially in it# for) of #e?ual
de#ire. The Buddha teache# that the #e?ual dri(e i# a )anife#tation
of cra(ing$ thu# a cau#e of dukkha that ha# to be reduced
and e?tricated a# a *recondition for bringing dukkha to an end.
The )editation ai)# at 0eakening #e?ual de#ire by de*ri(ing
the #e?ual urge of it# cogniti(e under*inning$ the *erce*tion
of the body a# #en#ually alluring. Sen#ual de#ire ri#e# and fall#
together 0ith thi# *erce*tion. .t #*ring# u* becau#e 0e (ie0 the
body a# attracti(e@ it decline# 0hen thi# *erce*tion of beauty i#
re)o(ed. The *erce*tion of bodily attracti(ene## in turn la#t#
99. See So)a Thera$ The Way of 8indfulne##$ **. 98P%4.
93. -#ubhaAbha(ana. The #a)e #ub=ect i# al#o called the *erce*tion of re*ul#i(ene##
!*atikkula#aNNa' and )indfulne## concerning the body !kayagata
#ati'.
only #o long a# the body i# looked at #u*erficially$ gra#*ed in
ter)# of #elected i)*re##ion#. To counter that *erce*tion 0e
ha(e to refu#e to #to* 0ith the#e i)*re##ion# but *roceed to
in#*ect the body at a dee*er le(el$ 0ith a *robing #crutiny
grounded in di#*a##ion.
Preci#ely thi# i# 0hat i# undertaken in the )editation on
unattracti(ene##$ 0hich turn# back the tide of #en#uality by *ulling
a0ay it# *erce*tual *ro*. The )editation take# one1# o0n
body a# ob=ect$ #ince for a neo*hyte to #tart off 0ith the body
of another$ e#*ecially a )e)ber of the o**o#ite #e?$ )ight fail
to acco)*li#h the de#ired re#ult. I#ing (i#ualiCation a# an aid$
one )entally di##ect# the body into it# co)*onent# and in(e#tigate#
the) one by one$ bringing their re*ul#i(e nature to light.
The te?t# )ention thirtyAt0o *art#: headAhair#$ bodyAhair#$
nail#$ teeth$ #kin$ fle#h$ #ine0#$ bone#$ )arro0$ kidney#$ heart$
li(er$ dia*hrag)$ #*leen$ lung#$ large inte#tine#$ #)all inte#tine#$
#to)ach content#$ e?cre)ent$ brain$ bile$ *hleg)$ *u#$ blood$
#0eat$ fat$ tear#$ grea#e$ #not$ #*ittle$ #ino(ial fluid$ and urine.
The re*ul#i(ene## of the *art# i)*lie# the #a)e for the 0hole:
the body #een clo#eu* i# truly unattracti(e$ it# beautiful a**earance
a )irage. But the ai) of thi# )editation )u#t not be )i#a**rehended.
The ai) i# not to *roduce a(er#ion and di#gu#t but
detach)ent$ to e?tingui#h the fire of lu#t by re)o(ing it# fuel.94
The other analytical conte)*lation deal# 0ith the body in
a different 0ay. Thi# )editation$ called the analy#i# into ele)ent#
!dhatu(a(atthana'$ #et# out to counter our innate tendency
to identify 0ith the body by e?*o#ing the body1# e##entially
i)*er#onal nature. The )ean# it e)*loy#$ a# it# na)e indicate#$
i# the )ental di##ection of the body into the four *ri)ary ele)ent#$
referred to by the archaic na)e# earth$ 0ater$ fire$ and
air$ but actually #ignifying the four *rinci*al beha(ioral )ode#
of )atter: #olidity$ fluidity$ heat$ and o#cillation. The #olid ele)ent
i# #een )o#t clearly in the body1# #olid *art# D the organ#$
94. /or detail#$ #ee 6i#). 6...$ &7P&&.
ti##ue#$ and bone#@ the fluid ele)ent$ in the bodily fluid#@ the
heat ele)ent$ in the body1# te)*erature@ the o#cillation ele)ent$
in the re#*iratory *roce##. The break 0ith the identification of
the body a# L.M or L)y #elfM i# effected by a 0idening of *er#*ecti(e
after the ele)ent# ha(e co)e into (ie0. ;a(ing analyCed
the body into the ele)ent#$ one then con#ider# that all
four ele)ent#$ the chief a#*ect# of bodily e?i#tence$ are e##entially
identical 0ith the chief a#*ect# of e?ternal )atter$ 0ith
0hich the body i# in con#tant interchange. When one (i(idly
realiCe# thi# through *rolonged )editation$ one cea#e# to identify
0ith the body$ cea#e# to cling to it. 5ne #ee# that the body i#
nothing )ore than a *articular configuration of changing )aterial
*roce##e# 0hich #u**ort a #trea) of changing )ental *roce##e#.
There i# nothing here that can be con#idered a truly e?i#tent
#elf$ nothing that can *ro(ide a #ub#tantial ba#i# for the #en#e
of *er#onal identity.98
The la#t e?erci#e in )indfulne## of the body i# a #erie# of
Lce)etery )editation#$M conte)*lation# of the body1# di#integration
after death$ 0hich )ay be *erfor)ed either i)aginati(ely$
0ith the aid of *icture#$ or through direct confrontation
0ith a cor*#e. By any of the#e )ean# one obtain# a clear )ental
i)age of a deco)*o#ing body$ then a**lie# the *roce## to
one1# o0n body$ con#idering: LThi# body$ no0 #o full of life$ ha#
the #a)e nature and i# #ub=ect to the #a)e fate. .t cannot e#ca*e
death$ cannot e#ca*e di#integration$ but )u#t e(entually die and
deco)*o#e.M -gain$ the *ur*o#e of thi# )editation #hould not
be )i#under#tood. The ai) i# not to indulge in a )orbid fa#cination
0ith death and cor*#e#$ but to #under our egoi#tic clinging
to e?i#tence 0ith a conte)*lation #ufficiently *o0erful to
break it# hold. The clinging to e?i#tence #ub#i#t# through the
i)*licit a##u)*tion of *er)anence. .n the #ight of a cor*#e 0e
)eet the teacher 0ho *roclai)# una)biguou#ly: LE(erything
for)ed i# i)*er)anent.M
98. /or detail#$ #ee 6i#). O.$ 74P4.
!7' +onte)*lation of /eeling !(edananu*a##ana'
The ne?t foundation of )indfulne## i# feeling !(edana'. The 0ord
LfeelingM i# u#ed here$ not in the #en#e of e)otion !a co)*le? *heno)enon
be#t #ub#u)ed under the third and fourth foundation#
of )indfulne##'$ but in the narro0er #en#e of the affecti(e tone
or Lhedonic BualityM of e?*erience. Thi# )ay be of three kind#$
yielding three *rinci*al ty*e# of feeling: *lea#ant feeling$ *ainful
feeling$ and neutral feeling. The Buddha teache# that feeling
i# an in#e*arable conco)itant of con#ciou#ne##$ #ince e(ery
act of kno0ing i# colored by #o)e affecti(e tone. Thu# feeling
i# *re#ent at e(ery )o)ent of e?*erience@ it )ay be #trong or
0eak$ clear or indi#tinct$ but #o)e feeling )u#t acco)*any the
cognition.
/eeling ari#e# in de*endence on a )ental e(ent called LcontactM
!*ha##a'. +ontact )ark# the Lco)ing togetherM of con#ciou#ne##
0ith the ob=ect (ia a #en#e faculty@ it i# the factor by (irtue
of 0hich con#ciou#ne## Ltouche#M the ob=ect *re#enting it#elf
to the )ind through the #en#e organ. Thu# there are #i? kind#
of contact di#tingui#hed by the #i? #en#e facultie# D eyeAcontact$
earAcontact$ no#eAcontact$ tongueAcontact$ bodyAcontact$ and
)indAcontact D and #i? kind# of feeling di#tingui#hed by the
contact fro) 0hich they #*ring.
/eeling acBuire# #*ecial i)*ortance a# an ob=ect of conte)*lation
becau#e it i# feeling that u#ually trigger# the latent defile)ent#
into acti(ity. The feeling# )ay not be clearly regi#tered$
but in #ubtle 0ay# they nouri#h and #u#tain the di#*o#ition# to
un0hole#o)e #tate#. Thu# 0hen a *lea#ant feeling ari#e#$ 0e
fall under the influence of the defile)ent greed and cling to
it. When a *ainful feeling occur#$ 0e re#*ond 0ith di#*lea#ure$
hate$ and fear$ 0hich are a#*ect# of a(er#ion. -nd 0hen a neutral
feeling occur#$ 0e generally do not notice it$ or let it lull u#
into a fal#e #en#e of #ecurity D #tate# of )ind go(erned by delu#ion.
/ro) thi# it can be #een that each of the root defile)ent#
i# conditioned by a *articular kind of feeling: greed by *lea#ant
feeling$ a(er#ion by *ainful feeling$ delu#ion by neutral feeling.
But the link bet0een feeling# and the defile)ent# i# not a
nece##ary one. Plea#ure doe# not al0ay# ha(e to lead to greed$
*ain to a(er#ion$ neutral feeling to delu#ion. The tie bet0een
the) can be #na**ed$ and one e##ential )ean# for #na**ing it
i# )indfulne##. /eeling 0ill #tir u* a defile)ent only 0hen it i#
not noticed$ 0hen it i# indulged rather than ob#er(ed. By turning
it into an ob=ect of ob#er(ation$ )indfulne## defu#e# the feeling
#o that it cannot *ro(oke an un0hole#o)e re#*on#e. Then$
in#tead of relating to the feeling by 0ay of habit through attach)ent$
re*ul#ion$ or a*athy$ 0e relate by 0ay of conte)*lation$
u#ing the feeling a# a #*ringboard for under#tanding the nature
of e?*erience.
.n the early #tage# the conte)*lation of feeling in(ol(e#
attending to the ari#en feeling#$ noting their di#tincti(e Bualitie#:
*lea#ant$ *ainful$ neutral. The feeling i# noted 0ithout identifying
0ith it$ 0ithout taking it to be L.M or L)ineM or #o)ething
ha**ening Lto )e.M -0arene## i# ke*t at the le(el of bare attention:
one 0atche# each feeling that ari#e#$ #eeing it a# )erely a
feeling$ a bare )ental e(ent #horn of all #ub=ecti(e reference#$ all
*ointer# to an ego. The ta#k i# #i)*ly to note the feeling1# Buality$
it# tone of *lea#ure$ *ain$ or neutrality.
But a# *ractice ad(ance#$ a# one goe# on noting each feeling$
letting it go and noting the ne?t$ the focu# of attention #hift#
fro) the Bualitie# of feeling# to the *roce## of feeling it#elf. The
*roce## re(eal# a cea#ele## flu? of feeling# ari#ing and di##ol(ing$
#ucceeding one another 0ithout a halt. Within the *roce## there
i# nothing la#ting. /eeling it#elf i# only a #trea) of e(ent#$ occa#ion#
of feeling fla#hing into being )o)ent by )o)ent$ di##ol(ing
a# #oon a# they ari#e. Thu# begin# the in#ight into i)*er)anence$
0hich$ a# it e(ol(e#$ o(erturn# the three un0hole#o)e
root#. There i# no greed for *lea#ant feeling#$ no a(er#ion for
*ainful feeling#$ no delu#ion o(er neutral feeling#. -ll are #een
a# )erely fleeting and #ub#tancele## e(ent# de(oid of any true
en=oy)ent or ba#i# for in(ol(e)ent.
!3' +onte)*lation of the State of 8ind !cittanu*a##ana'
With thi# foundation of )indfulne## 0e turn fro) a *articular
)ental factor$ feeling$ to the general #tate of )ind to 0hich
that factor belong#. To under#tand 0hat i# entailed by thi# conte)*lation
it i# hel*ful to look at the Buddhi#t conce*tion of
the )ind. I#ually 0e think of the )ind a# an enduring faculty
re)aining identical 0ith it#elf through the #ucce##ion of e?*erience#.
Though e?*erience change#$ the )ind 0hich undergoe#
the changing e?*erience #ee)# to re)ain the #a)e$ *erha*#
)odified in certain 0ay# but #till retaining it# identity. ;o0e(er$
in the Buddha1# teaching the notion of a *er)anent )ental
organ i# re=ected. The )ind i# regarded$ not a# a la#ting #ub=ect
of thought$ feeling$ and (olition$ but a# a #eBuence of )o)entary
)ental act#$ each di#tinct and di#crete$ their connection#
0ith one another cau#al rather than #ub#tantial.
- #ingle act of con#ciou#ne## i# called a citta$ 0hich 0e #hall
render La #tate of )ind.M Each citta con#i#t# of )any co)*onent#$
the chief of 0hich i# con#ciou#ne## it#elf$ the ba#ic e?*eriencing
of the ob=ect@ con#ciou#ne## i# al#o called citta$ the na)e
for the 0hole being gi(en to it# *rinci*al *art. -long 0ith con#ciou#ne##
e(ery citta contain# a #et of conco)itant# called ceta#ika#$
)ental factor#. The#e include feeling$ *erce*tion$ (olition$
the e)otion#$ etc.@ in #hort$ all the )ental function# e?ce*t the
*ri)ary kno0ing of the ob=ect$ 0hich i# citta or con#ciou#ne##.
Since con#ciou#ne## in it#elf i# =u#t a bare e?*eriencing of an
ob=ect$ it cannot be differentiated through it# o0n nature but
only by 0ay of it# a##ociated factor#$ the ceta#ika#. The ceta#ika#
color the citta and gi(e it it# di#tincti(e character@ thu# 0hen 0e
0ant to *in*oint the citta a# an ob=ect of conte)*lation$ 0e ha(e
to do #o by u#ing the ceta#ika# a# indicator#. .n hi# e?*o#ition of
the conte)*lation of the #tate of )ind$ the Buddha )ention#$
by reference to ceta#ika#$ #i?teen kind# of citta to be noted: the
)ind 0ith lu#t$ the )ind 0ithout lu#t$ the )ind 0ith a(er#ion$
the )ind 0ithout a(er#ion$ the )ind 0ith delu#ion$ the )ind
0ithout delu#ion$ the cra)*ed )ind$ the #cattered )ind$ the
de(elo*ed )ind$ the unde(elo*ed )ind$ the #ur*a##able )ind$
the un#ur*a##able )ind$ the concentrated )ind$ the unconcentrated
)ind$ the freed )ind$ the unfreed )ind. /or *ractical
*ur*o#e# it i# #ufficient at the #tart to focu# #olely on the fir#t
#i? #tate#$ noting 0hether the )ind i# a##ociated 0ith any of the
un0hole#o)e root# or free fro) the). When a *articular citta
i# *re#ent$ it i# conte)*lated )erely a# a citta$ a #tate of )ind.
.t i# not identified 0ith a# L.M or L)ine$M not taken a# a #elf or
a# #o)ething belonging to a #elf. Whether it i# a *ure #tate of
)ind or a defiled #tate$ a lofty #tate or a lo0 one$ there #hould
be no elation or de=ection$ only a clear recognition of the #tate.
The #tate i# #i)*ly noted$ then allo0ed to *a## 0ithout clinging
to the de#ired one# or re#enting the unde#ired one#.
-# conte)*lation dee*en#$ the content# of the )ind beco)e
increa#ingly rarefied. .rrele(ant flight# of thought$ i)agination$
and e)otion #ub#ide$ )indfulne## beco)e# clearer$ the )ind
re)ain# intently a0are$ 0atching it# o0n *roce## of beco)ing.
-t ti)e# there )ight a**ear to be a *er#i#ting ob#er(er behind
the *roce##$ but 0ith continued *ractice e(en thi# a**arent
ob#er(er di#a**ear#. The )ind it#elf D the #ee)ingly #olid$ #table
)ind D di##ol(e# into a #trea) of citta# fla#hing in and out
of being )o)ent by )o)ent$ co)ing fro) no0here and going
no0here$ yet continuing in #eBuence 0ithout *au#e.
!&' +onte)*lation of Pheno)ena !dha))anu*a##ana'
.n the conte?t of the fourth foundation of )indfulne##$ the )ulti(alent
0ord dha))a !here intended in the *lural' ha# t0o interconnected
)eaning#$ a# the account in the #utta #ho0#. 5ne
)eaning i# ceta#ika#$ the )ental factor#$ 0hich are no0 attended
to in their o0n right a*art fro) their role a# coloring the #tate
of )ind$ a# 0a# done in the *re(iou# conte)*lation. The other
)eaning i# the ele)ent# of actuality$ the ulti)ate con#tituent#
of e?*erience a# #tructured in the Buddha1# teaching.To con(ey
both #en#e# 0e render dha))a a# L*heno)ena$M for lack of
a better alternati(e. But 0hen 0e do #o thi# #hould not be taken
to i)*ly the e?i#tence of #o)e nou)enon or #ub#tance behind
the *heno)ena.The *oint of the Buddha1# teaching of anatta$
egole##ne##$ i# that the ba#ic con#tituent# of actuality are bare
*heno)ena !#uddhaAdha))a' occurring 0ithout any nou)enal
#u**ort.
The #utta #ection on the conte)*lation of *heno)ena i#
di(ided into fi(e #ubA#ection#$ each de(oted to a different #et
of *heno)ena: the fi(e hindrance#$ the fi(e aggregate#$ the #i?
inner and outer #en#e ba#e#$ the #e(en factor# of enlighten)ent$
and the /our Noble Truth#. -)ong the#e$ the fi(e hindrance#
and the #e(en enlighten)ent factor# are dha))a in the narro0er
#en#e of )ental factor#$ the other# are dha))a in the broader
#en#e of con#tituent# of actuality. !.n the third #ection$ ho0e(er$
on the #en#e ba#e#$ there i# a reference to the fetter# that ari#e
through the #en#e#@ the#e can al#o be included a)ong the )ental
factor#.' .n the *re#ent cha*ter 0e #hall deal briefly only 0ith
the t0o grou*# that )ay be regarded a# dha))a in the #en#e
of )ental factor#. We already touched on both of the#e in relation
to right effort !+ha*ter 6'@ no0 0e #hall con#ider the) in
#*ecific connection 0ith the *ractice of right )indfulne##. We
#hall di#cu## the other ty*e# of dha))a D the fi(e aggregate#
and the #i? #en#e# D in the final cha*ter$ in relation to the de(elo*)ent
of 0i#do).
The fi(e hindrance# and #e(en factor# of enlighten)ent
reBuire #*ecial attention becau#e they are the *rinci*al i)*edi)ent#
and aid# to liberation. The hindrance# D #en#ual de#ire$ ill
0ill$ dullne## and dro0#ine##$ re#tle##ne## and 0orry$ and doubt
D generally beco)e )anife#t in an early #tage of *ractice$ #oon
after the initial e?*ectation# and gro## di#turbance# #ub#ide and
the #ubtle tendencie# find the o**ortunity to #urface. Whene(er
one of the hindrance# cro*# u*$ it# *re#ence #hould be noted@
then$ 0hen it fade# a0ay$ a note #hould be )ade of it# di#a**earance.
To en#ure that the hindrance# are ke*t under control
an ele)ent of co)*rehen#ion i# needed: 0e ha(e to under#tand
ho0 the hindrance# ari#e$ ho0 they can be re)o(ed$ and ho0
they can be *re(ented fro) ari#ing in the future.9%
- #i)ilar )ode of conte)*lation i# to be a**lied to the #e(en
factor# of enlighten)ent: )indfulne##$ in(e#tigation$ energy$
ra*ture$ tranBuillity$ concentration$ and eBuani)ity. When any
one of the#e factor# ari#e#$ it# *re#ence #hould be noted. Then$
after noting it# *re#ence$ one ha# to in(e#tigate to di#co(er ho0
it ari#e# and ho0 it can be )atured.30 When they fir#t #*ring u*$
the enlighten)ent factor# are 0eak$ but 0ith con#i#tent culti(ation
they accu)ulate #trength. 8indfulne## initiate# the conte)*lati(e
*roce##. When it beco)e# 0ellAe#tabli#hed$ it arou#e#
in(e#tigation$ the *robing Buality of intelligence. .n(e#tigation in
turn call# forth energy$ energy gi(e# ri#e to ra*ture$ ra*ture lead#
to tranBuillity$ tranBuillity to oneA*ointed concentration$ and
concentration to eBuani)ity. Thu# the 0hole e(ol(ing cour#e
of *ractice leading to enlighten)ent begin# 0ith )indfulne##$
0hich re)ain# throughout a# the regulating *o0er en#uring
that the )ind i# clear$ cogniCant$ and balanced. H
9%. /or a full account$ #ee So)a Thera$ The Way of 8indfulne##$ **. 3P74.
30. .bid.$ **. 3P&3.
+ha*ter 6..
2ight +oncentration
!Sa))a Sa)adhi'
The eighth factor of the *ath i# right concentration$ in Pali
#a))a #a)adhi. +oncentration re*re#ent# an inten#ification
of a )ental factor *re#ent in e(ery #tate of con#ciou#ne##. Thi#
factor$ oneA*ointedne## of )ind !citt1ekaggata'$ ha# the function
of unifying the other )ental factor# in the ta#k of cognition. .t i#
the factor re#*on#ible for the indi(iduating a#*ect of con#ciou#ne##$
en#uring that e(ery citta or act of )ind re)ain# centered on
it# ob=ect. -t any gi(en )o)ent the )ind )u#t be cogniCant of
#o)ething D a #ight$ a #ound$ a #)ell$ a ta#te$ a touch$ or a )ental
ob=ect. The factor of oneA*ointedne## unifie# the )ind and
it# other conco)itant# in the ta#k of cogniCing the ob=ect$ 0hile
it #i)ultaneou#ly e?erci#e# the function of centering all the con#tituent#
of the cogniti(e act on the ob=ect. 5neA*ointedne## of
)ind e?*lain# the fact that in any act of con#ciou#ne## there i# a
central *oint of focu#$ to0ard# 0hich the entire ob=ecti(e datu)
*oint# fro) it# outer *eri*herie# to it# inner nucleu#.
;o0e(er$ #a)adhi i# only a *articular kind of oneA*ointedne##@
it i# not eBui(alent to oneA*ointedne## in it# entirety. - gour)et
#itting do0n to a )eal$ an a##a##in about to #lay hi# (icti)$ a #oldier
on the battlefield D the#e all act 0ith a concentrated )ind$
but their concentration cannot be characteriCed a# #a)adhi.
Sa)adhi i# e?clu#i(ely 0hole#o)e oneA*ointedne##$ the concentration
in a 0hole#o)e #tate of )ind. E(en then it# range i# #till
narro0er: it doe# not #ignify e(ery for) of 0hole#o)e concentration$
but only the inten#ified concentration that re#ult# fro)
a deliberate atte)*t to rai#e the )ind to a higher$ )ore *urified
le(el of a0arene##.
The co))entarie# define #a)adhi a# the centering of the
)ind and )ental factor# rightly and e(enly on an ob=ect. Sa)adhi$
a# 0hole#o)e concentration$ collect# together the ordinarily
di#*er#ed and di##i*ated #trea) of )ental #tate# to induce an
inner unification. The t0o #alient feature# of a concentrated
)ind are unbroken attenti(ene## to an ob=ect and the con#eBuent
tranBuillity of the )ental function#$ Bualitie# 0hich di#tingui#h
it fro) the unconcentrated )ind. The )ind untrained
in concentration )o(e# in a #cattered )anner 0hich the Buddha
co)*are# to the fla**ing about of a fi#h taken fro) the 0ater
and thro0n onto dry land. .t cannot #tay fi?ed but ru#he# fro)
idea to idea$ fro) thought to thought$ 0ithout inner control.
Such a di#tracted )ind i# al#o a deluded )ind. 5(er0hel)ed
by 0orrie# and concern#$ a con#tant *rey to the defile)ent#$ it
#ee# thing# only in frag)ent#$ di#torted by the ri**le# of rando)
thought#. But the )ind that ha# been trained in concentration$
in contra#t$ can re)ain focu#ed on it# ob=ect 0ithout di#traction.
Thi# freedo) fro) di#traction further induce# a #oftne##
and #erenity 0hich )ake the )ind an effecti(e in#tru)ent for
*enetration. <ike a lake unruffled by any breeCe$ the concentrated
)ind i# a faithful reflector that )irror# 0hate(er i# *laced
before it e?actly a# it i#.
The >e(elo*)ent of +oncentration
+oncentration can be de(elo*ed through either of t0o )ethod#
D either a# the goal of a #y#te) of *ractice directed e?*re##ly
to0ard# the attain)ent of dee* concentration at the le(el of
ab#or*tion or a# the incidental acco)*ani)ent of the *ath
intended to generate in#ight. The for)er )ethod i# called the
de(elo*)ent of #erenity !#a)athaAbha(ana'$ the #econd the de(elo*)ent
of in#ight !(i*a##anaAbha(ana'. Both *ath# #hare certain
*reli)inary reBuire)ent#. /or both$ )oral di#ci*line )u#t be
*urified$ the (ariou# i)*edi)ent# )u#t be #e(ered$ the )editator
)u#t #eek out #uitable in#truction !*referrably fro) a *er#onal
teacher'$ and )u#t re#ort to a d0elling conduci(e to *ractice.
5nce the#e *reli)inarie# ha(e been di#*en#ed 0ith$ the
)editator on the *ath of #erenity ha# to obtain an ob=ect of
)editation$ #o)ething to be u#ed a# a focal *oint for de(elo*ing
concentration.3
.f the )editator ha# a Bualified teacher$ the teacher 0ill *robably
a##ign hi) an ob=ect =udged to be a**ro*riate for hi# te)*era)ent.
.f he doe#n1t ha(e a teacher$ he 0ill ha(e to #elect an
ob=ect hi)#elf$ *erha*# after #o)e e?*eri)entation. The )editation
)anual# collect the #ub=ect# of #erenity )editation into a
#et of forty$ called L*lace# of 0orkM !ka))atthana' #ince they are
the *lace# 0here the )editator doe# the 0ork of *ractice. The
forty )ay be li#ted a# follo0#:
ten ka#ina#
ten unattracti(e ob=ect# !da#a a#ubha'
ten recollection# !da#a anu##atiyo'
four #ubli)e #tate# !cattaro brah)a(ihara'
four i))aterial #tate# !cattaro aru**a'
one *erce*tion !eka #aNNa'
one analy#i# !eka (a(atthana'.
The ka#ina# are de(ice# re*re#enting certain *ri)ordial Bualitie#.
/our re*re#ent the *ri)ary ele)ent# D the earth$ 0ater$
fire$ and air ka#ina#@ four re*re#ent color# D the blue$ yello0$ red$
and 0hite ka#ina#@ the other t0o are the light and the #*ace ka#ina#.
Each ka#ina i# a concrete ob=ect re*re#entati(e of the uni(er#al
Buality it #ignifie#. Thu# an earth ka#ina 0ould be a circular
di#k filled 0ith clay. To de(elo* concentration on the earth
ka#ina the )editator #et# the di#k in front of hi)$ fi?e# hi# gaCe
on it$ and conte)*late# Learth$ earth.M - #i)ilar )ethod i# u#ed
for the other ka#ina#$ 0ith a**ro*riate change# to fit the ca#e.
The ten Lunattracti(e ob=ect#M are cor*#e# in different #tage# of
deco)*o#ition. Thi# #ub=ect a**ear# #i)ilar to the conte)*lation
3. .n 0hat follo0# . ha(e to re#trict )y#elf to a brief o(er(ie0. /or a full
e?*o#ition$ #ee 6i#).$ +ha*ter# ...PO..
of bodily decay in the )indfulne## of the body$ and in fact in
olden ti)e# the cre)ation ground 0a# reco))ended a# the
)o#t a**ro*riate *lace for both. But the t0o )editation# differ
in e)*ha#i#. .n the )indfulne## e?erci#e #tre## fall# on the a**lication
of reflecti(e thought$ the #ight of the decaying cor*#e #er(ing
a# a #ti)ulu# for con#ideration of one1# o0n e(entual death
and di#integration. .n thi# e?erci#e the u#e of reflecti(e thought
i# di#couraged. The #tre## in#tead fall# on oneA*ointed )ental
fi?ation on the ob=ect$ the le## thought the better.
The ten recollection# for) a )i#cellaneou# collection. The
fir#t three are de(otional )editation# on the Bualitie# of the Tri*le
:e) D the Buddha$ the >ha))a$ and the Sangha@ they u#e
a# their ba#i# #tandard for)ula# that ha(e co)e do0n in the
Sutta#. The ne?t three recollection# al#o rely on ancient for)ula#:
the )editation# on )orality$ genero#ity$ and the *otential
for di(ineAlike Bualitie# in one#elf. Then co)e )indfulne## of
death$ the conte)*lation of the unattracti(e nature of the body$
)indfulne## of breathing$ and la#tly$ the recollection of *eace$ a
di#cur#i(e )editation on Nibbana.
The four #ubli)e #tate# or Ldi(ine abode#M are the out0ardly
directed #ocial attitude# D lo(ingAkindne##$ co)*a##ion$ #y)*athetic
=oy$ and eBuani)ity D de(elo*ed into uni(er#al radiation#
0hich are gradually e?tended in range until they enco)*a## all
li(ing being#. The four i))aterial #tate# are the ob=ecti(e ba#e#
for certain dee* le(el# of ab#or*tion: the ba#e of infinite #*ace$ the
ba#e of infinite con#ciou#ne##$ the ba#e of nothingne##$ and the
ba#e of neitherA*erce*tionAnorAnonA*erce*tion. The#e beco)e
acce##ible a# ob=ect# only to tho#e 0ho are already ade*t in concentration.
The Lone *erce*tionM i# the *erce*tion of the re*ul#i(ene##
of food$ a di#cur#i(e to*ic intended to reduce attach)ent
to the *lea#ure# of the *alate. The Lone analy#i#M i# the
conte)*lation of the body in ter)# of the four *ri)ary ele)ent#$
already di#cu##ed in the cha*ter on right )indfulne##.
When #uch a (ariety of )editation #ub=ect# i# *re#ented$ the
a#*iring )editator 0ithout a teacher )ight be *er*le?ed a# to
0hich to choo#e. The )anual# di(ide the forty #ub=ect# according
to their #uitability for different *er#onality ty*e#. Thu# the
unattracti(e ob=ect# and the conte)*lation of the *art# of the
body are =udged to be )o#t #uitable for a lu#tful ty*e$ the )editation
on lo(ingAkindne## to be be#t for a hating ty*e$ the )editation
on the Bualitie# of the Tri*le :e) to be )o#t effecti(e
for a de(otional ty*e$ etc. But for *ractical *ur*o#e# the beginner
in )editation can generally be ad(i#ed to #tart 0ith a #i)*le
#ub=ect that hel*# reduce di#cur#i(e thinking. 8ental di#traction
cau#ed by re#tle##ne## and #cattered thought# i# a co))on *roble)
faced by *er#on# of all different character ty*e#@ thu# a )editator
of any te)*era)ent can benefit fro) a #ub=ect 0hich *ro)ote#
a #lo0ing do0n and #tilling of the thought *roce##. The
#ub=ect generally reco))ended for it# effecti(ene## in clearing
the )ind of #tray thought# i# )indfulne## of breathing$ 0hich
can therefore be #ugge#ted a# the #ub=ect )o#t #uitable for beginner#
a# 0ell a# (eteran# #eeking a direct a**roach to dee* concentration.
5nce the )ind #ettle# do0n and one1# thought *attern#
beco)e ea#ier to notice$ one )ight then )ake u#e of other
#ub=ect# to deal 0ith #*ecial *roble)# that ari#e: the )editation
on lo(ingAkindne## )ay be u#ed to counteract anger and
ill 0ill$ )indfulne## of the bodily *art# to 0eaken #en#ual lu#t$
the recollection of the Buddha to in#*ire faith and de(otion$ the
)editation on death to arou#e a #en#e of urgency. The ability to
#elect the #ub=ect a**ro*riate to the #ituation reBuire# #kill$ but
thi# #kill e(ol(e# through *ractice$ often through #i)*le trialA
andAerror e?*eri)entation.
The Stage# of +oncentration
+oncentration i# not attained all at once but de(elo*# in #tage#.
To enable our e?*o#ition to co(er all the #tage# of concentration$
0e 0ill con#ider the ca#e of a )editator 0ho follo0# the entire
*ath of #erenity )editation fro) #tart to fini#h$ and 0ho 0ill
)ake )uch fa#ter *rogre## than the ty*ical )editator i# likely
to )ake.
-fter recei(ing hi# )editation #ub=ect fro) a teacher$ or #electing
it on hi# o0n$ the )editator retire# to a Buiet *lace. There he
a##u)e# the correct )editation *o#ture D the leg# cro##ed co)fortably$
the u**er *art of the body held #traight and erect$ hand#
*laced one abo(e the other on the la*$ the head ke*t #teady$ the
)outh and eye# clo#ed !unle## a ka#ina or other (i#ual ob=ect i#
u#ed'$ the breath flo0ing naturally and regularly through the
no#tril#. ;e then focu#e# hi# )ind on the ob=ect and trie# to
kee* it there$ fi?ed and alert. .f the )ind #tray#$ he notice# thi#
Buickly$ catche# it$ and bring# it back gently but fir)ly to the
ob=ect$ doing thi# o(er and o(er a# often a# i# nece##ary. Thi# initial
#tage i# called *reli)inary concentration !*arikka))aA#a)adhi'
and the ob=ect the *reli)inary #ign !*arikka))aAni)itta'.
5nce the initial e?cite)ent #ub#ide# and the )ind begin#
to #ettle into the *ractice$ the fi(e hindrance# are likely to ari#e$
bubbling u* fro) the de*th#. So)eti)e# they a**ear a# thought#$
#o)eti)e# a# i)age#$ #o)eti)e# a# ob#e##i(e e)otion#: #urge#
of de#ire$ anger and re#ent)ent$ hea(ine## of )ind$ agitation$
doubt#. The hindrance# *o#e a for)idable barrier$ but 0ith
*atience and #u#tained effort they can be o(erco)e. To conBuer
the) the )editator 0ill ha(e to be adroit. -t ti)e#$ 0hen
a *articular hindrance beco)e# #trong$ he )ay ha(e to lay a#ide
hi# *ri)ary #ub=ect of )editation and take u* another #ub=ect
e?*re##ly o**o#ed to the hindrance. -t other ti)e# he 0ill ha(e
to *er#i#t 0ith hi# *ri)ary #ub=ect de#*ite the bu)*# along the
road$ bringing hi# )ind back to it again and again.
-# he goe# on #tri(ing along the *ath of concentration$ hi#
e?ertion acti(ate# fi(e )ental factor# 0hich co)e to hi# aid.
The#e factor# are inter)ittently *re#ent in ordinary undirected
con#ciou#ne##$ but there they lack a unifying bond and thu#
do not *lay any #*ecial role. ;o0e(er$ 0hen acti(ated by the
0ork of )editation$ the#e fi(e factor# *ick u* *o0er$ link u*
0ith one another$ and #teer the )ind to0ard# #a)adhi$ 0hich
they 0ill go(ern a# the L=hana factor#$M the factor# of ab#or*tion
!=hananga'. Stated in their u#ual order the fi(e are: initial a**lication
of )ind !(itakka'$ #u#tained a**lication of )ind !(icara'$ ra*ture
!*iti'$ ha**ine## !#ukha'$ and oneA*ointedne## !ekaggata'.
.nitial a**lication of )ind doe# the 0ork of directing the )ind
to the ob=ect. .t take# the )ind$ lift# it u*$ and dri(e# it into the
ob=ect the 0ay one dri(e# a nail through a block of 0ood. Thi#
done$ #u#tained a**lication of )ind anchor# the )ind on the ob=ect$
kee*ing it there through it# function of e?a)ination. To clarify
the difference bet0een the#e t0o factor#$ initial a**lication
i# co)*ared to the #triking of a bell$ #u#tained a**lication to the
bell1# re(erberation#. 2a*ture$ the third factor$ i# the delight and
=oy that acco)*any a fa(orable intere#t in the ob=ect$ 0hile ha**ine##$
the fourth factor$ i# the *lea#ant feeling that acco)*anie#
#ucce##ful concentration. Since ra*ture and ha**ine## #hare
#i)ilar Bualitie# they tend to be confu#ed 0ith each other$ but
the t0o are not identical. The difference bet0een the) i# illu#trated
by co)*aring ra*ture to the =oy of a 0eary de#ertAfarer
0ho #ee# an oa#i# in the di#tance$ ha**ine## to hi# *lea#ure 0hen
drinking fro) the *ond and re#ting in the #hade. The fifth and
final factor of ab#or*tion i# oneA*ointedne##$ 0hich ha# the *i(otal
function of unifying the )ind on the ob=ect.37
When concentration i# de(elo*ed$ the#e fi(e factor# #*ring
u* and counteract the fi(e hindrance#. Each ab#or*tion factor
o**o#e# a *articular hindrance. .nitial a**lication of )ind$
through it# 0ork of lifting the )ind u* to the ob=ect$ counter#
dullne## and dro0#ine##. Su#tained a**lication$ by anchoring the
)ind on the ob=ect$ dri(e# a0ay doubt. 2a*ture #hut# out ill 0ill$
ha**ine## e?clude# re#tle##ne## and 0orry$ and oneA*ointedne##
counter# #en#ual de#ire$ the )o#t alluring induce)ent to di#traction.
Thu#$ 0ith the #trengthening of the ab#or*tion factor#$
the hindrance# fade out and #ub#ide. They are not yet eradicated
37. See 6i#). .6$ 88P0%.
D eradication can only be effected by 0i#do)$ the third di(i#ion
of the *ath D but they ha(e been reduced to a #tate of Buie#cence
0here they cannot di#ru*t the for0ard )o(e)ent of
concentration.
-t the #a)e ti)e that the hindrance# are being o(er*o0ered
by the =hana factor# in0ardly$ on the #ide of the ob=ect too certain
change# are taking *lace. The original ob=ect of concentration$
the *reli)inary #ign$ i# a gro## *hy#ical ob=ect@ in the ca#e
of a ka#ina$ it i# a di#k re*re#enting the cho#en ele)ent or color$
in the ca#e of )indfulne## of breathing the touch #en#ation of
the breath$ etc. But 0ith the #trengthening of concentration the
original ob=ect gi(e# ri#e to another ob=ect called the Llearning
#ignM !uggahaAni)itta'. /or a ka#ina thi# 0ill be a )ental i)age
of the di#k #een a# clearly in the )ind a# the original ob=ect
0a# 0ith the eye#@ for the breath it 0ill be a refle? i)age ari#en
fro) the touch #en#ation of the air current# )o(ing around the
no#tril#.
When the learning #ign a**ear#$ the )editator lea(e# off the
*reli)inary #ign and fi?e# hi# attention on the ne0 ob=ect. .n
due ti)e #till another ob=ect 0ill e)erge out of the learning
#ign. Thi# ob=ect$ called the Lcounter*art #ignM !*atibhagaAni)itta'$
i# a *urified )ental i)age )any ti)e# brighter and clearer
than the learning #ign. The learning #ign i# co)*ared to the
)oon #een behind a cloud$ the counter*art #ign to the )oon
freed fro) the cloud. Si)ultaneou#ly 0ith the a**earance of
the counter*art #ign$ the fi(e ab#or*tion factor# #u**re## the
fi(e hindrance#$ and the )ind enter# the #tage of concentration
called u*acaraA#a)adhi$ Lacce## concentration.M ;ere$ in acce##
concentration$ the )ind i# dra0ing clo#e to ab#or*tion. .t ha#
entered the LneighbourhoodM !a *o##ible )eaning of u*acara' of
ab#or*tion$ but )ore 0ork i# #till needed for it to beco)e fully
i))er#ed in the ob=ect$ the defining )ark of ab#or*tion.
With further *ractice the factor# of concentration gain in
#trength and bring the )ind to ab#or*tion !a**anaA#a)adhi'.
<ike acce## concentration$ ab#or*tion take# the counter*art #ign
a# ob=ect. The t0o #tage# of concentration are differentiated neither
by the ab#ence of the hindrance# nor by the counter*art
#ign a# ob=ect@ the#e are co))on to both. What differentiate#
the) i# the #trength of the =hana factor#. .n acce## concentration
the =hana factor# are *re#ent$ but they lack #trength and #teadine##.
Thu# the )ind in thi# #tage i# co)*ared to a child 0ho
ha# =u#t learned to 0alk: he take# a fe0 #te*#$ fall# do0n$ get# u*$
0alk# #o)e )ore$ and again fall# do0n. But the )ind in ab#or*tion
i# like a )an 0ho 0ant# to 0alk: he =u#t get# u* and 0alk#
#traight ahead 0ithout he#itation.
+oncentration in the #tage of ab#or*tion i# di(ided into eight
le(el#$ each )arked by greater de*th$ *urity$ and #ubtlety than
it# *redece##or. The fir#t four for) a #et called the four =hana#$
a 0ord be#t left untran#lated for lack of a #uitable eBui(alent$
though it can be loo#ely rendered L)editati(e ab#or*tion.M 33 The
#econd four al#o for) a #et$ the four i))aterial #tate# !aru**a'.
The eight ha(e to be attained in *rogre##i(e order$ the achie(e)ent
of any later le(el being de*endent on the )a#tery of the
i))ediately *receding le(el.
The four =hana# )ake u* the u#ual te?tual definition of right
concentration. Thu# the Buddha #ay#:
-nd 0hat$ )onk#$ i# right concentrationK ;erein$ #ecluded
fro) #en#e *lea#ure#$ #ecluded fro) un0hole#o)e #tate#$ a
)onk enter# and d0ell# in the fir#t =hana$ 0hich i# acco)*anied
by initial and #u#tained a**lication of )ind and filled 0ith ra*ture
and ha**ine## born of #eclu#ion.
Then$ 0ith the #ub#iding of initial and #u#tained a**lication
of )ind$ by gaining inner confidence and )ental unification$
he enter# and d0ell# in the #econd =hana$ 0hich i# free fro) initial
and #u#tained a**lication but i# filled 0ith ra*ture and ha**ine##
born of concentration.
33. So)e co))on rendering# #uch a# Ltrance$M L)u#ing$M etc.$ are altogether
)i#leading and #hould be di#carded.
With the fading out of ra*ture$ he d0ell# in eBuani)ity$
)indful and clearly co)*rehending@ and he e?*erience# in hi#
o0n *er#on that bli## of 0hich the noble one# #ay: L;a**ily
li(e# he 0ho i# eBuani)ou# and )indfulM D thu# he enter# and
d0ell# in the third =hana.
With the abandoning of *lea#ure and *ain and 0ith the *re(iou#
di#a**earance of =oy and grief$ he enter# and d0ell# in the
fourth =hana$ 0hich ha# neitherA*lea#ureAnorA*ain and *urity of
)indfulne## due to eBuani)ity.
Thi#$ )onk#$ i# right concentration.3&
The =hana# are di#tingui#hed by 0ay of their co)*onent
factor#. The fir#t =hana i# con#tituted by the original #et of fi(e
ab#or*tion factor#: initial a**lication$ #u#tained a**lication$ ra*ture$
ha**ine##$ and oneA*ointedne##. -fter attaining the fir#t
=hana the )editator i# ad(i#ed to )a#ter it. 5n the one hand
he #hould not fall into co)*lacency o(er hi# achie(e)ent and
neglect #u#tained *ractice@ on the other$ he #hould not beco)e
o(erAconfident and ru#h ahead to attain the ne?t =hana. To )a#ter
the =hana he #hould enter it re*eatedly and *erfect hi# #kill in
it$ until he can attain it$ re)ain in it$ e)erge fro) it$ and re(ie0
it 0ithout any trouble or difficulty.
-fter )a#tering the fir#t =hana$ the )editator then con#ider#
that hi# attain)ent ha# certain defect#. Though the =hana i# certainly
far #u*erior to ordinary #en#e con#ciou#ne##$ )ore *eaceful
and bli##ful$ it #till #tand# clo#e to #en#e con#ciou#ne## and i#
not far re)o(ed fro) the hindrance#. 8oreo(er$ t0o of it# factor#$
initial a**lication and #u#tained a**lication$ a**ear in ti)e
to be rather coar#e$ not a# refined a# the other factor#. Then the
)editator rene0# hi# *ractice of concentration intent on o(erco)ing
initial and #u#tained a**lication. When hi# facultie#
)ature$ the#e t0o factor# #ub#ide and he enter# the #econd =hana.
Thi# =hana contain# only three co)*onent factor#: ra*ture$ ha**ine##$
and oneA*ointedne##. .t al#o contain# a )ulti*licity of
3&. >N 77@ Word of the Buddha$ **. 80P8.
other con#tituent#$ the )o#t *ro)inent of 0hich i# confidence
of )ind.
.n the #econd =hana the )ind beco)e# )ore tranBuil and
)ore thoroughly unified$ but 0hen )a#tered e(en thi# #tate
#ee)# gro##$ a# it include# ra*ture$ an e?hilarating factor that
incline# to e?citation. So the )editator #et# out again on hi#
cour#e of training$ thi# ti)e re#ol(ed on o(erco)ing ra*ture.
When ra*ture fade# out$ he enter# the third =hana. ;ere there
are only t0o ab#or*tion factor#$ ha**ine## and oneA*ointedne##$
0hile #o)e other au?iliary #tate# co)e into a#cendency$ )o#t
notably )indfulne##$ clear co)*rehen#ion$ and eBuani)ity. But
#till$ the )editator #ee#$ thi# attain)ent i# defecti(e in that it
contain# the feeling of ha**ine##$ 0hich i# gro## co)*ared to
neutral feeling$ feeling that i# neither *lea#ant not *ainful. Thu#
he #tri(e# to get beyond e(en the #ubli)e ha**ine## of the third
=hana. When he #ucceed#$ he enter# the fourth =hana$ 0hich i#
defined by t0o factor# D oneA*ointedne## and neutral feeling D
and ha# a #*ecial *urity of )indfulne## due to the high le(el of
eBuani)ity.
Beyond the four =hana# lie the four i))aterial #tate#$ le(el#
of ab#or*tion in 0hich the )ind tran#cend# e(en the #ubtle#t
*erce*tion of (i#ualiCed i)age# #till #o)eti)e# *er#i#ting in the
=hana#. The i))aterial #tate# are attained$ not by refining )ental
factor# a# are the =hana#$ but by refining ob=ect#$ by re*lacing
a relati(ely gro## ob=ect 0ith a #ubtler one. The four attain)ent#
are na)ed after their re#*ecti(e ob=ect#: the ba#e of infinite
#*ace$ the ba#e of infinite con#ciou#ne##$ the ba#e of nothingne##$
and the ba#e of neitherA*erce*tionAnorAnonA*erce*tion.39 The#e
#tate# re*re#ent le(el# of concentration #o #ubtle and re)ote a#
to elude clear (erbal e?*lanation. The la#t of the four #tand#
at the a*e? of )ental concentration@ it i# the ab#olute$ )a?i)u)
degree of unification *o##ible for con#ciou#ne##. But e(en
39. .n Pali: aka#anaNcayatana$ (iNNanaNcayatana$ akiNcaNNayatana$ n1e(aA#aNNaA
na#aNNayatana.
#o$ the#e ab#or*tion# reached by the *ath of #erenity )editation$
a# e?alted a# they are$ #till lack the 0i#do) of in#ight$ and #o are
not yet #ufficient for gaining deli(erance.
The kind# of concentration di#cu##ed #o far ari#e by fi?ing
the )ind u*on a #ingle ob=ect to the e?clu#ion of other ob=ect#.
But a*art fro) the#e there i# another kind of concentration
0hich doe# not de*end u*on re#tricting the range of a0arene##.
Thi# i# called L)o)entary concentrationM !khanikaA#a)adhi'. To
de(elo* )o)entary concentration the )editator doe# not deliberately
atte)*t to e?clude the )ulti*licity of *heno)ena fro)
hi# field of attention. .n#tead$ he #i)*ly direct# )indfulne## to
the changing #tate# of )ind and body$ noting any *heno)enon
that *re#ent# it#elf@ the ta#k i# to )aintain a continuou# a0arene##
of 0hate(er enter# the range of *erce*tion$ clinging to nothing.
-# he goe# on 0ith hi# noting$ concentration beco)e# #tronger
)o)ent after )o)ent until it beco)e# e#tabli#hed oneA*ointedly
on the con#tantly changing #trea) of e(ent#. >e#*ite the
change in the ob=ect$ the )ental unification re)ain# #teady$ and
in ti)e acBuire# a force ca*able of #u**re##ing the hindrance# to
a degree eBual to that of acce## concentration. Thi# fluid$ )obile
concentration i# de(elo*ed by the *ractice of the four foundation#
of )indfulne##$ taken u* along the *ath of in#ight@ 0hen
#ufficiently #trong it i##ue# in the breakthrough to the la#t #tage
of the *ath$ the ari#ing of 0i#do). H
+ha*ter 6...
The >e(elo*)ent of Wi#do)
Though right concentration clai)# the la#t *lace a)ong
the factor# of the Noble Eightfold Path$ concentration it#elf
doe# not )ark the *ath1# cul)ination. The attain)ent of concentration
)ake# the )ind #till and #teady$ unifie# it# conco)itant#$
o*en# (a#t (i#ta# of bli##$ #erenity$ and *o0er. But by it#elf it doe#
not #uffice to reach the highe#t acco)*li#h)ent$ relea#e fro)
the bond# of #uffering. To reach the end of #uffering de)and#
that the Eightfold Path be turned into an in#tru)ent of di#co(ery$
that it be u#ed to generate the in#ight# un(eiling the ulti)ate
truth of thing#. Thi# reBuire# the co)bined contribution#
of all eight factor#$ and thu# a ne0 )obiliCation of right (ie0
and right intention. I* to the *re#ent *oint the#e fir#t t0o *ath
factor# ha(e *erfor)ed only a *reli)inary function. No0 they
ha(e to be taken u* again and rai#ed to a higher le(el. 2ight
(ie0 i# to beco)e a direct #eeing into the real nature of *heno)ena$
*re(iou#ly gra#*ed only conce*tually@ right intention$
to beco)e a true renunciation of defile)ent# born out of dee*
under#tanding.
Before 0e turn to the de(elo*)ent of 0i#do)$ it 0ill be
hel*ful to inBuire 0hy concentration i# not adeBuate to the
attain)ent of liberation. +oncentration doe# not #uffice to bring
liberation becau#e it fail# to touch the defile)ent# at their funda)ental
le(el. The Buddha teache# that the defile)ent# are #tratified
into three layer#: the #tage of latent tendency$ the #tage of
)anife#tation$ and the #tage of tran#gre##ion. The )o#t dee*ly
grounded i# the le(el of latent tendency !anu#aya'$ 0here a defile)ent
)erely lie# dor)ant 0ithout di#*laying any acti(ity. The
#econd le(el i# the #tage of )anife#tation !*ariyutthana'$ 0here
a defile)ent$ through the i)*act of #o)e #ti)ulu#$ #urge# u*
in the for) of un0hole#o)e thought#$ e)otion#$ and (olition#.
Then$ at the third le(el$ the defile)ent *a##e# beyond a *urely
)ental )anife#tation to )oti(ate #o)e un0hole#o)e action of
body or #*eech. ;ence thi# le(el i# called the #tage of tran#gre##ion
!(itikka)a'.
The three di(i#ion# of the Noble Eightfold Path *ro(ide the
check again#t thi# threefold layering of the defile)ent#. The
fir#t$ the training in )oral di#ci*line$ re#train# un0hole#o)e
bodily and (erbal acti(ity and thu# *re(ent# defile)ent# fro)
reaching the #tage of tran#gre##ion. The training in concentration
*ro(ide# the #afeguard again#t the #tage of )anife#tation.
.t re)o(e# already )anife#t defile)ent# and *rotect# the )ind
fro) their continued influ?. But e(en though concentration )ay
be *ur#ued to the de*th# of full ab#or*tion$ it cannot touch the
ba#ic #ource of affliction D the latent tendencie# lying dor)ant
in the )ental continuu). -gain#t the#e concentration i# *o0erle##$
#ince to root the) out call# for )ore than )ental cal).
What it call# for$ beyond the co)*o#ure and #erenity of the unified
)ind$ i# 0i#do) !*aNNa'$ a *enetrating (i#ion of *heno)ena
in their funda)ental )ode of being.
Wi#do) alone can cut off the latent tendencie# at their root
becau#e the )o#t funda)ental )e)ber of the #et$ the one 0hich
nurture# the other# and hold# the) in *lace$ i# ignorance !a(i==a'$
and 0i#do) i# the re)edy for ignorance. Though (erbally a negati(e$
Lunkno0ing$M ignorance i# not a factual negati(e$ a )ere
*ri(ation of right kno0ledge. .t i#$ rather$ an in#idiou# and (olatile
)ental factor ince##antly at 0ork in#erting it#elf into e(ery
co)*art)ent of our inner life. .t di#tort# cognition$ do)inate#
(olition$ and deter)ine# the entire tone of our e?i#tence. -# the
Buddha #ay#: LThe ele)ent of ignorance i# indeed a *o0erful
ele)entM !SN &:3'.
-t the cogniti(e le(el$ 0hich i# it# )o#t ba#ic #*here of o*eration$
ignorance infiltrate# our *erce*tion#$ thought#$ and (ie0#$
#o that 0e co)e to )i#con#true our e?*erience$ o(erlaying it
0ith )ulti*le #trata of delu#ion#. The )o#t i)*ortant of the#e
delu#ion# are three: the delu#ion# of #eeing *er)anence in the
i)*er)anent$ of #eing #ati#faction in the un#ati#factory$ and of
#eeing a #elf in the #elfle##.33 Thu# 0e take our#el(e# and our
0orld to be #olid$ #table$ enduring entitie#$ de#*ite the ubiBuitou#
re)inder# that e(erything i# #ub=ect to change and de#truction.
We a##u)e 0e ha(e an innate right to *lea#ure$ and direct
our effort# to increa#ing and inten#ifying our en=oy)ent 0ith an
antici*atory fer(or undaunted by re*eated encounter# 0ith *ain$
di#a**oint)ent$ and fru#tration. -nd 0e *ercei(e our#el(e# a#
#elfAcontained ego#$ clinging to the (ariou# idea# and i)age# 0e
for) of our#el(e# a# the irrefragable truth of our identity.
Wherea# ignorance ob#cure# the true nature of thing#$ 0i#do)
re)o(e# the (eil# of di#tortion$ enabling u# to #ee *heno)ena
in their funda)ental )ode of being 0ith the (i(acity of
direct *erce*tion. The training in 0i#do) center# on the de(elo*)ent
of in#ight !(i*a##anaAbha(ana'$ a dee* and co)*rehen#i(e
#eeing into the nature of e?i#tence 0hich fatho)# the truth of
our being in the only #*here 0here it i# directly acce##ible to u#$
na)ely$ in our o0n e?*erience. Nor)ally 0e are i))er#ed in
our e?*erience$ identified 0ith it #o co)*letely that 0e do not
co)*rehend it. We li(e it but fail to under#tand it# nature. >ue
to thi# blindne## e?*erience co)e# to be )i#con#trued$ 0orked
u*on by the delu#ion# of *er)anence$ *lea#ure$ and #elf. 5f the#e
cogniti(e di#tortion#$ the )o#t dee*ly grounded and re#i#tant i#
the delu#ion of #elf$ the idea that at the core of our being there
e?i#t# a truly e#tabli#hed L.M 0ith 0hich 0e are e##entially identified.
Thi# notion of #elf$ the Buddha teache#$ i# an error$ a )ere
*re#u**o#ition lacking a real referent. Het$ though a )ere *re#u**o#ition$
the idea of #elf i# not incon#eBuential. To the contrary$
it entail# con#eBuence# that can be cala)itou#. Becau#e
0e )ake the (ie0 of #elf the lookout *oint fro) 0hich 0e #ur(ey
the 0orld$ our )ind# di(ide e(erything u* into the dualitie#
of L.M and Lnot .$M 0hat i# L)ineM and 0hat i# Lnot )ine.M Then$
tra**ed in the#e dichoto)ie#$ 0e fall (icti) to the defile)ent#
33. -nicce nicca(i*alla#a$ dukkhe #ukha(i*alla#a$ anattani attaA(i*alla#a. -N &:&%.
they breed$ the urge# to gra#* and de#troy$ and finally to the #uffering
that ine(itably follo0#.
To free our#el(e# fro) all defile)ent# and #uffering$ the illu#ion
of #elfhood that #u#tain# the) ha# to be di#*elled$ e?*loded
by the realiCation of #elfle##ne##. Preci#ely thi# i# the ta#k #et for
the de(elo*)ent of 0i#do). The fir#t #te* along the *ath of
de(elo*)ent i# an analytical one. .n order to u*root the (ie0
of #elf$ the field of e?*erience ha# to be laid out in certain #et#
of factor#$ 0hich are then )ethodically in(e#tigated to a#certain
that none of the) #ingly or in co)bination can be taken a#
a #elf. Thi# analytical treat)ent of e?*erience$ #o characteri#tic
of the higher reache# of Buddhi#t *hilo#o*hical *#ychology$ i#
not intended to #ugge#t that e?*erience$ like a 0atch or car$ can
be reduced to an accidental conglo)eration of #e*arable *art#.
E?*erience doe# ha(e an irreducible unity$ but thi# unity i# functional
rather than #ub#tantial@ it doe# not reBuire the *o#tulate of
a unifying #elf #e*arate fro) the factor#$ retaining it# identity a#
a con#tant a)id#t the cea#ele## flu?.
The )ethod of analy#i# a**lied )o#t often i# that of the fi(e
aggregate# of clinging !*anc1u*adanakkhandha': )aterial for)$
feeling$ *erce*tion$ )ental for)ation#$ and con#ciou#ne##.34
8aterial for) con#titute# the )aterial #ide of e?i#tence: the
bodily organi#) 0ith it# #en#e facultie# and the outer ob=ect# of
cognition. The other four aggregate# con#titute the )ental #ide.
/eeling *ro(ide# the affecti(e tone$ *erce*tion the factor of noting
and identifying$ the )ental for)ation# the (olitional and
e)oti(e ele)ent#$ and con#ciou#ne## the ba#ic a0arene## e##ential
to the 0hole occa#ion of e?*erience. The analy#i# by 0ay
of the fi(e aggregate# *a(e# the 0ay for an atte)*t to #ee e?*erience
#olely in ter)# of it# con#tituting factor#$ 0ithout #li**ing
in i)*licit reference# to an unfindable #elf. To gain thi#
*er#*ecti(e reBuire# the de(elo*)ent of inten#i(e )indfulne##$
34. .n Pali: ru*akkhandha$ (edanakkhandha$ #aNNakkhandha$ #ankharakkhandha$
(iNNanakkhandha.
no0 a**lied to the fourth foundation$ the conte)*lation of the
factor# of e?i#tence !dha))anu*a##ana'. The di#ci*le 0ill d0ell
conte)*lating the fi(e aggregate#$ their ari#ing and *a##ing:
The di#ci*le d0ell# in conte)*lation of *heno)ena$ na)ely$
of the fi(e aggregate# of clinging. ;e kno0# 0hat )aterial for)
i#$ ho0 it ari#e#$ ho0 it *a##e# a0ay@ kno0# 0hat feeling i#$ ho0
it ari#e#$ ho0 it *a##e# a0ay@ kno0# 0hat *erce*tion i#$ ho0 it
ari#e#$ ho0 it *a##e# a0ay@ kno0# 0hat )ental for)ation# are$
ho0 they ari#e$ ho0 they *a## a0ay@ kno0# 0hat con#ciou#ne##
i#$ ho0 it ari#e#$ ho0 it *a##e# a0ay.38
5r the di#ci*le )ay in#tead ba#e hi# conte)*lation on the
#i? internal and e?ternal #*here# of #en#e e?*erience$ that i#$ the
#i? #en#e facultie# and their corre#*onding ob=ect#$ al#o taking
note of the Lfetter#M or defile)ent# that ari#e fro) #uch #en#ory
contact#:
The di#ci*le d0ell# in conte)*lation of *heno)ena$ na)ely$
of the #i? internal and e?ternal #en#e ba#e#. ;e kno0# the eye
and for)#$ the ear and #ound#$ the no#e and odor#$ the tongue
and ta#te#$ the body and tangible#$ the )ind and )ental ob=ect#@
and he kno0# a# 0ell the fetter that ari#e# in de*endence on
the). ;e under#tand# ho0 the unari#en fetter ari#e#$ ho0 the
ari#en fetter i# abandoned$ and ho0 the abandoned fetter doe#
not ari#e again in the future.3%
The (ie0 of #elf i# further attenuated by e?a)ining the factor#
of e?i#tence$ not analytically$ but in ter)# of their relational
#tructure. .n#*ection re(eal# that the aggregate# e?i#t #olely in
de*endence on condition#. Nothing in the #et en=oy# the ab#olute
#elfA#ufficiency of being attributed to the a##u)ed L..M Whate(er
factor# in the bodyA)ind co)*le? be looked at$ they are found
to be de*endently ari#en$ tied to the (a#t net of e(ent# e?tending
beyond the)#el(e# te)*orally and #*atially. The body$ for
e?a)*le$ ha# ari#en through the union of #*er) and egg and
38. >N 77@ Word of the Buddha$ **. 4P47.
3%. >N 77@ Word of the Buddha$ *. 43.
#ub#i#t# in de*endence on food$ 0ater$ and air. /eeling$ *erce*tion$
and )ental for)ation# occur in de*endence on the body
0ith it# #en#e facultie#. They reBuire an ob=ect$ the corre#*onding
con#ciou#ne##$ and the contact of the ob=ect 0ith the con#ciou#ne##
through the )edia of the #en#e facultie#. +on#ciou#ne##
in it# turn de*end# on the #entient organi#) and the entire
a##e)blage of coAari#en )ental factor#. Thi# 0hole *roce## of
beco)ing$ )oreo(er$ ha# ari#en fro) the *re(iou# li(e# in thi#
*articular chain of e?i#tence# and inherit all the accu)ulated
ka))a of the earlier e?i#tence#. Thu# nothing *o##e##e# a #elfA
#ufficient )ode of being. -ll conditioned *heno)ena e?i#t relationally$
contingent and de*endent on other thing#.
The abo(e t0o #te*# D the factorial analy#i# and the di#cern)ent
of relation# D hel* cut a0ay the intellectual adherence to
the idea of #elf$ but they lack #ufficient *o0er to de#troy the
ingrained clinging to the ego #u#tained by erroneou# *erce*tion.
To u*root thi# #ubtle for) of egoAclinging reBuire# a counteracti(e
*erce*tion: direct in#ight into the e)*ty$ corele## nature
of *heno)ena. Such an in#ight i# generated by conte)*lating
the factor# of e?i#tence in ter)# of their three uni(er#al )ark# D
i)*er)anence !aniccata'$ un#ati#factorine## !dukkhata'$ and #elfle##ne##
!anattata'. :enerally$ the fir#t of the three )ark# to be
di#cerned i# i)*er)anence$ 0hich at the le(el of in#ight doe#
not )ean )erely that e(erything e(entually co)e# to an end. -t
thi# le(el it )ean# #o)ething dee*er and )ore *er(a#i(e$ na)ely$
that conditioned *heno)ena are in con#tant *roce##$ ha**ening#
0hich break u* and *eri#h al)o#t a# #oon a# they ari#e.
The #table ob=ect# a**earing to the #en#e# re(eal the)#el(e# to
be #tring# of )o)entary for)ation# !#ankhara'@ the *er#on *o#ited
by co))on #en#e di##ol(e# into a current )ade u* of t0o
intert0ining #trea)# D a #trea) of )aterial e(ent#$ the aggregate
of )aterial for)$ and a #trea) of )ental e(ent#$ the other
four aggregate#.
When i)*er)anence i# #een$ in#ight into the other t0o
)ark# clo#ely follo0#. Since the aggregate# are con#tantly breaking
u*$ 0e cannot *in our ho*e# on the) for any la#ting #ati#faction.
Whate(er e?*ectation# 0e lay on the) are bound to be
da#hed to *iece# by their ine(itable change. Thu# 0hen #een 0ith
in#ight they are dukkha$ #uffering$ in the dee*e#t #en#e. Then$ a#
the aggregate# are i)*er)anent and un#ati#factory$ they cannot
be taken a# #elf. .f they 0ere #elf$ or the belonging# of a #elf$
0e 0ould be able to control the) and bend the) to our 0ill$ to
)ake the) e(erla#ting #ource# of bli##. But far fro) being able
to e?erci#e #uch )a#tery$ 0e find the) to be ground# of *ain
and di#a**oint)ent. Since they cannot be #ub=ected to control$
the#e (ery factor# of our being are anatta: not a #elf$ not the
belonging# of a #elf$ =u#t e)*ty$ o0nerle## *heno)ena occurring
in de*endence on condition#.
When the cour#e of in#ight *ractice i# entered$ the eight *ath
factor# beco)e charged 0ith an inten#ity *re(iou#ly unkno0n.
They gain in force and fu#e together into the unity of a #ingle
cohe#i(e *ath heading to0ard# the goal. .n the *ractice of in#ight
all eight factor# and three training# coAe?i#t@ each i# there #u**orting
all the other#@ each )ake# it# o0n uniBue contribution
to the 0ork. The factor# of )oral di#ci*line hold the tendencie#
to tran#gre##ion in check 0ith #uch care that e(en the thought of
unethical conduct doe# not ari#e. The factor# of the concentration
grou* kee* the )ind fir)ly fi?ed u*on the #trea) of *heno)ena$
conte)*lating 0hate(er ari#e# 0ith i)*eccable *reci#ion$
free fro) forgetfulne## and di#traction. 2ight (ie0$ a#
the 0i#do) of in#ight$ gro0# continually #har*er and dee*er@
right intention #ho0# it#elf in a detach)ent and #teadine## of
*ur*o#e bringing an unruffled *oi#e to the entire *roce## of
conte)*lation.
.n#ight )editation take# a# it# ob=ecti(e #*here the Lconditioned
for)ation#M !#ankhara' co)*ri#ed in the fi(e aggregate#.
.t# ta#k i# to unco(er their e##ential characteri#tic#: the three
)ark# of i)*er)anence$ un#ati#factorine##$ and #elfle##ne##.
Becau#e it #till deal# 0ith the 0orld of conditioned e(ent#$ the
Eightfold Path in the #tage of in#ight i# called the )undane *ath
!lokiya)agga'. Thi# de#ignation in no 0ay i)*lie# that the *ath
of in#ight i# concerned 0ith )undane goal#$ 0ith achie(e)ent#
falling in the range of #a)#ara. .t a#*ire# to tran#cendence$ it
lead# to liberation$ but it# ob=ecti(e do)ain of conte)*lation
#till lie# 0ithin the conditioned 0orld. ;o0e(er$ thi# )undane
conte)*lation of the conditioned #er(e# a# the (ehicle for reaching
the unconditioned$ for attaining the #u*ra)undane. When
in#ight )editation reache# it# cli)a?$ 0hen it fully co)*rehend#
the i)*er)anence$ un#ati#factorine##$ and #elfle##ne## of
e(erything for)ed$ the )ind break# through the conditioned
and realiCe# the unconditioned$ Nibbana. .t #ee# Nibbana 0ith
direct (i#ion$ )ake# it an ob=ect of i))ediate realiCation.
The breakthrough to the unconditioned i# achie(ed by a ty*e
of con#ciou#ne## or )ental e(ent called the #u*ra)undane *ath
!lokuttara)agga'. The #u*ra)undane *ath occur# in four #tage#$
four L#u*ra)undane *ath#$M each )arking a dee*er le(el of realiCation
and i##uing in a fuller degree of liberation$ the fourth and
la#t in co)*lete liberation. The four *ath# can be achie(ed in
clo#e *ro?i)ity to one another D for tho#e 0ith e?traordinarily
#har* facultie# e(en in the #a)e #itting D or !a# i# )ore ty*ically
the ca#e' they can be #*read out o(er ti)e$ e(en o(er #e(eral
lifeti)e#.40 The #u*ra)undane *ath# #hare in co))on the *enetration
of the /our Noble Truth#. They under#tand the)$ not
40. .n the fir#t edition of thi# book . #tated here that the four *ath# ha(e
to be *a##ed through #eBuentially$ #uch that there i# no attain)ent of a
higher *ath 0ithout fir#t ha(ing reached the *ath# belo0 it. Thi# certainly
#ee)# to be the *o#ition of the +o))entarie#. ;o0e(er$ the Sutta#
#o)eti)e# #ho0 indi(idual# *roceeding directly fro) the #tage of
0orldling to the third or e(en the fourth *ath and fruit. Though the
co))entator e?*lain# that they *a##ed through each *receding *ath and
fruit in ra*id #ucce##ion$ the canonical te?t# the)#el(e# gi(e no indication
that thi# ha# tran#*ired but #ugge#t an i))ediate realiCation of the
higher #tage# 0ithout the inter)ediate attain)ent of the lo0er #tage#.
conce*tually$ but intuiti(ely. They gra#* the) through (i#ion$
#eeing the) 0ith #elfA(alidating certainty to be the in(ariable
truth# of e?i#tence. The (i#ion of the truth# 0hich they *re#ent
i# co)*lete at one )o)ent. The four truth# are not under#tood
#eBuentially$ a# in the #tage of reflection 0hen thought i# the
in#tru)ent of under#tanding. They are #een #i)ultaneou#ly: to
#ee one truth 0ith the *ath i# to #ee the) all.
-# the *ath *enetrate# the four truth#$ the )ind e?erci#e# four
#i)ultaneou# function#$ one regarding each truth. .t fully co)*rehend#
the truth of #uffering$ #eeing all conditioned e?i#tence
a# #ta)*ed 0ith the )ark of un#ati#factorine##. -t the #a)e ti)e
it abandon# cra(ing$ cut# through the )a## of egoti#) and de#ire
that re*eatedly gi(e# birth to #uffering. -gain$ the )ind realiCe#
ce##ation$ the deathle## ele)ent Nibbana$ no0 directly *re#ent
to the inner eye. -nd fourthly$ the )ind de(elo*# the Noble
Eightfold Path$ 0ho#e eight factor# #*ring u* endo0ed 0ith tre)endou#
*o0er$ attained to #u*ra)undane #tature: right (ie0
a# the direct #eeing of Nibbana$ right intention a# the )ind1#
a**lication to Nibbana$ the triad of ethical factor# a# the check#
on )oral tran#gre##ion$ right effort a# the energy in the *athA
con#ciou#ne##$ right )indfulne## a# the factor of a0arene##$ and
right concentration a# the )ind1# oneA*ointed focu#. Thi# ability
of the )ind to *erfor) four function# at the #a)e )o)ent i#
co)*ared to a candle1# ability to #i)ultaneou#ly burn the 0ick$
con#u)e the 0a?$ di#*el darkne##$ and gi(e light.4
The #u*ra)undane *ath# ha(e the #*ecial ta#k of eradicating
the defile)ent#. Prior to the attain)ent of the *ath#$ in the
#tage# of concentration and e(en in#ight )editation$ the defile)ent#
0ere not cut off but 0ere only debilitated$ checked and
#u**re##ed by the training of the higher )ental facultie#. Beneath
the #urface they continued to linger in the for) of latent tendencie#.
But 0hen the #u*ra)undane *ath# are reached$ the 0ork
of eradication begin#.
4. See 6i#). OO..$ %7A03.
.n#ofar a# they bind u# to the round of beco)ing$ the defile)ent#
are cla##ified into a #et of ten Lfetter#M !#a)yo=ana' a# follo0#:
!' *er#onality (ie0$ !7' doubt$ !3' clinging to rule# and ritual#$
!&' #en#ual de#ire$ !9' a(er#ion$ !3' de#ire for fineA)aterial
e?i#tence$ !4' de#ire for i))aterial e?i#tence$ !8' conceit$ !%' re#tle##ne##$
and !0' ignorance. The four #u*ra)undane *ath# each
eli)inate a certain layer of defile)ent#. The fir#t$ the *ath of
#trea)Aentry !#ota*attiA)agga'$ cut# off the fir#t three fetter#$ the
coar#e#t of the #et$ eli)inate# the) #o they can ne(er ari#e again.
LPer#onality (ie0M !#akkayaAditthi'$ the (ie0 of a truly e?i#tent
#elf in the fi(e aggregate#$ i# cut off #ince one #ee# the #elfle##
nature of all *heno)ena. >oubt i# eli)inated becau#e one ha#
gra#*ed the truth *roclai)ed by the Buddha$ #een it for one#elf$
and #o can ne(er again hang back due to uncertainty. -nd clinging
to rule# and rite# i# re)o(ed #ince one kno0# that deli(erance
can be 0on only through the *ractice of the Eightfold Path$
not through rigid )orali#) or cere)onial ob#er(ance#.
The *ath i# follo0ed i))ediately by another #tate of #u*ra)undane
con#ciou#ne## kno0n a# the fruit !*hala'$ 0hich re#ult#
fro) the *ath1# 0ork of cutting off defile)ent#. Each *ath i# follo0ed
by it# o0n fruit$ 0herein for a fe0 )o)ent# the )ind
en=oy# the bli##ful *eace of Nibbana before de#cending again to
the le(el of )undane con#ciou#ne##. The fir#t fruit i# the fruit
of #trea)Aentry$ and a *er#on 0ho ha# gone through the e?*erience
of thi# fruit beco)e# a L#trea)AentererM !#ota*anna'. ;e ha#
entered the #trea) of the >ha))a carrying hi) to final deli(erance.
;e i# bound for liberation and can no longer fall back
into the 0ay# of an unenlightened 0orldling. ;e #till ha# certain
defile)ent# re)aining in hi# )ental )akeu*$ and it )ay
take hi) a# long a# #e(en )ore li(e# to arri(e at the final goal$
but he ha# acBuired the e##ential realiCation needed to reach it$
and there i# no 0ay he can fall a0ay.
-n enthu#ia#tic *ractitioner 0ith #har* facultie#$ after reaching
#trea)Aentry$ doe# not rela? hi# #tri(ing but *ut# forth energy
to co)*lete the entire *ath a# #0iftly a# *o##ible. ;e re#u)e#
hi# *ractice of in#ight conte)*lation$ *a##e# through the a#cending
#tage# of in#ightAkno0ledge$ and in ti)e reache# the #econd
*ath$ the *ath of the onceAreturner !#akadaga)iA)agga'. Thi#
#u*ra)undane *ath doe# not totally eradicate any of the fetter#$
but it attenuate# the root# of greed$ a(er#ion$ and delu#ion. /ollo0ing
the *ath the )editator e?*erience# it# fruit$ then e)erge#
a# a LonceAreturnerM 0ho 0ill return to thi# 0orld at )o#t only
one )ore ti)e before attaining full liberation.
But our *ractitioner again take# u* the ta#k of conte)*lation.
-t the ne?t #tage of #u*ra)undane realiCation he attain#
the third *ath$ the *ath of the nonreturner !anaga)iA)agga'$
0ith 0hich he cut# off the t0o fetter# of #en#ual de#ire and ill
0ill. /ro) that *oint on he can ne(er again fall into the gri* of
any de#ire for #en#e *lea#ure$ and can ne(er be arou#ed to anger$
a(er#ion$ or di#content. -# a nonreturner he 0ill not return to
the hu)an #tate of e?i#tence in any future life. .f he doe# not
reach the la#t *ath in thi# (ery life$ then after death he 0ill be
reborn in a higher #*here in the fineA)aterial 0orld !ru*aloka'
and there reach deli(erance.
But our )editator again *ut# forth effort$ de(elo*# in#ight$
and at it# cli)a? enter# the fourth *ath$ the *ath of arahat#hi*
!arahattaA)agga'. With thi# *ath he cut# off the fi(e re)aining
fetter# D de#ire for fineA)aterial e?i#tence and de#ire for i))aterial
e?i#tence$ conceit$ re#tle##ne##$ and ignorance. The fir#t i#
the de#ire for rebirth into the cele#tial *lane# )ade acce##ible
by the four =hana#$ the *lane# co))only #ub#u)ed under the
na)e Lthe Brah)aA0orld.M The #econd i# the de#ire for rebirth
into the four i))aterial *lane# )ade acce##ible by the achie(e)ent
of the four i))aterial attain)ent#. +onceit !)ana' i# not
the coar#e ty*e of *ride to 0hich 0e beco)e di#*o#ed through
an o(erAe#ti)ation of our (irtue# and talent#$ but the #ubtle re#idue
of the notion of an ego 0hich #ub#i#t# e(en after conce*tually
e?*licit (ie0# of #elf ha(e been eradicated. The te?t# refer to
thi# ty*e of conceit a# the conceit L. a)M !a#)i)ana'. 2e#tle##ne##
!uddhacca' i# the #ubtle e?cite)ent 0hich *er#i#t# in any )ind
not yet co)*letely enlightened$ and ignorance !a(i==a' i# the funda)ental
cogniti(e ob#curation 0hich *re(ent# full under#tanding
of the /our Noble Truth#. -lthough the gro##er grade# of
ignorance ha(e been #coured fro) the )ind by the 0i#do) faculty
in the fir#t three *ath#$ a thin (eil of ignorance o(erlay# the
truth# e(en in the nonreturner.
The *ath of arahat#hi* #tri*# a0ay thi# la#t (eil of ignorance
and$ 0ith it$ all the re#idual )ental defile)ent#. Thi# *ath i##ue#
in *erfect co)*rehen#ion of the /our Noble Truth#. .t fully fatho)#
the truth of #uffering@ eradicate# the cra(ing fro) 0hich
#uffering #*ring#@ realiCe# 0ith co)*lete clarity the unconditioned
ele)ent$ Nibbana$ a# the ce##ation of #uffering@ and con#u))ate#
the de(elo*)ent of the eight factor# of the Noble
Eightfold Path.
With the attain)ent of the fourth *ath and fruit the di#ci*le
e)erge# a# an arahant$ one 0ho in thi# (ery life ha# been liberated
fro) all bond#. The arahant ha# 0alked the Noble Eightfold
Path to it# end and li(e# in the a##urance #tated #o often in
the for)ula fro) the Pali +anon: L>e#troyed i# birth@ the holy
life ha# been li(ed@ 0hat had to be done ha# been done@ there i#
no co)ing back to any #tate of being.M The arahant i# no longer
a *ractitioner of the *ath but it# li(ing e)bodi)ent. ;a(ing
de(elo*ed the eight factor# of the *ath to their con#u))ation$
the <iberated 5ne li(e# in the en=oy)ent of their fruit#$ enlighten)ent
and final deli(erance. H
E*ilogue
Thi# co)*lete# our #ur(ey of the Noble Eightfold Path$ the
0ay to deli(erance fro) #uffering taught by the Buddha.
The higher reache# of the *ath )ay #ee) re)ote fro) u# in
our *re#ent *o#ition$ the de)and# of *ractice )ay a**ear difficult
to fulfill. But e(en if the height# of realiCation are no0 di#tant$
all that 0e need to reach the) lie# =u#t beneath our feet.
The eight factor# of the *ath are al0ay# acce##ible to u#@ they
are )ental co)*onent# 0hich can be e#tabli#hed in the )ind
#i)*ly through deter)ination and effort. We ha(e to begin by
#traightening out our (ie0# and clarifying our intention#. Then
0e ha(e to *urify our conduct D our #*eech$ action$ and li(elihood.
Taking the#e )ea#ure# a# our foundation$ 0e ha(e to a**ly
our#el(e# 0ith energy and )indfulne## to the culti(ation of concentration
and in#ight. The re#t i# a )atter of gradual *ractice
and gradual *rogre##$ 0ithout e?*ecting Buick re#ult#. /or #o)e
*rogre## )ay be ra*id$ for other# it )ay be #lo0$ but the rate at
0hich *rogre## occur# #hould not cau#e elation or di#courage)ent.
<iberation i# the ine(itable fruit of the *ath and i# bound
to blo##o) forth 0hen there i# #teady and *er#i#tent *ractice.
The only reBuire)ent# for reaching the final goal are t0o: to
#tart and to continue. .f the#e reBuire)ent# are )et there i# no
doubt the goal 0ill be attained. Thi# i# the >ha))a$ the unde(iating
la0. H
-**endi?
- /actorial -naly#i# of the Noble Eightfold Path
!Pali and Engli#h'
.. Sa))a ditthiE 2ight (ie0
dukkhe NanaE under#tanding #uffering
dukkha#a)udaye NanaE under#tanding it# origin
dukkhanirodhe NanaE under#tanding it# ce##ation
dukkhanirodhaga)ini*ati*adaya NanaE under#tanding the 0ay
leading to it# ce##ation
... Sa))a #anka**aE 2ight intention
nekkha))aA#anka**aE intention of renunciation
abya*adaA#anka**aE intention of good 0ill
a(ihi)#aA#anka**aE intention of har)le##ne##
.... Sa))a (acaE 2ight #*eech
)u#a(ada (era)aniE ab#taining fro) fal#e #*eech
*i#unaya (acaya (era)aniE ab#taining fro) #landerou# #*eech
*haru#aya (acaya (era)aniE ab#taining fro) har#h #*eech
#a)*ha**ala*a (era)aniE ab#taining fro) idle chatter
.6. Sa))a ka))antaE 2ight action
*anati*ata (era)aniE ab#taining fro) taking life
adinnadana (era)aniE ab#taining fro) #tealing
ka)e#u )icchacara (era)aniE ab#taining fro) #e?ual )i#conduct
6. Sa))a a=i(aE 2ight li(elihood
)iccha a=i(a) *ahayaE gi(ing u* 0rong li(elihood$
#a))a a=i(ena =i(ita) ka**etiE one earn# one1# li(ing by a right
for) of li(elihood
6.. Sa))a (aya)aE 2ight effort
#a)(ara**adhanaE the effort to re#train defile)ent#
*ahana**adhanaE the effort to abandon defile)ent#
bha(ana**adhanaE the effort to de(elo* 0hole#o)e #tate#
anurakkhana**adhanaE the effort to )aintain 0hole#o)e
#tate#
6... Sa))a #atiE 2ight )indfulne##
kayanu*a##anaE )indful conte)*lation of the body
(edananu*a##anaE )indful conte)*lation of feeling#
cittanu*a##anaE )indful conte)*lation of the )ind
dha))anu*a##anaE )indful conte)*lation of *heno)ena
6.... Sa))a #a)adhiE 2ight concentration
*atha)a==hanaE the fir#t =hana
dutiya==hanaE the #econd =hana
tatiya==hanaE the third =hana
catuttha==hanaE the fourth =hana
2eco))ended 2eading#
.. :eneral treat)ent# of the Noble Eightfold Path:
H <edi Sayada0. The Noble Eightfold Path and .t# /actor#
E?*lained. !Wheel 7&9/7&4'.
H Nyanatiloka Thera. The Word of the Buddha. !BPS &th ed.$
%38'.
H Piyada##i Thera. The Buddha1# -ncient Path. !BPS 3rd ed.$
%4%'.
... 2ight 6ie0:
H Gana)oli$ Bhikkhu. The >i#cour#e on 2ight 6ie0. !Wheel
344/34%'.
H Nyanatiloka Thera. "ar)a and 2ebirth. !Wheel %'.
H Story$ /ranci#. The /our Noble Truth#. !Wheel 3&/39'.
H Wi=e#ekera$ 5.;. de -. The Three Signata. !Wheel 70'.
.... 2ight .ntention#:
H Gana)oli Thera. The Practice of <o(ingAkindne##. !Wheel 4'.
H Nyana*onika Thera. The /our Subli)e State#. !Wheel 3'.
H Prince$ T. 2enunciation. !Bodhi <eaf B 33'.
.6. 2ight S*eech$ 2ight -ction$ F 2ight <i(elihood:
H Bodhi$ Bhikkhu. :oing for 2efuge and Taking the Prece*t#.
!Wheel 787/78&'.
H Narada Thera. E(ery)an1# Ethic#. !Wheel &'.
H 6a=iraNana(arora#a. The /i(e Prece*t# and the /i(e Ennobler#.
!Bangkok: 8aha)akuta$ %49'.
6. 2ight Effort:
H Nyana*onika Thera. The /i(e 8ental ;indrance# and Their
+onBue#t. !Wheel 73'.
H Piyada##i Thera. The Se(en /actor# of Enlighten)ent. !Wheel '.
H So)a Thera. The 2e)o(al of >i#tracting Thought#. !Wheel 7'.
6.. 2ight 8indfulne##:
H Nyana*onika Thera. The ;eart of Buddhi#t
8editation.!<ondon: 2ider$ %37@ BPS$ %%7'.
H Nyana*onika Thera. The Po0er of 8indfulne##. !Wheel
7/77'.
H Nyana#atta Thera. The /oundation# of 8indfulne## !Sati*atthana
Sutta'. !Wheel %'.
H So)a Thera. The Way of 8indfulne##. !BPS$ 3rd ed.$ %34'.
6... 2ight +oncentration F The >e(elo*)ent of Wi#do):
H Buddhagho#a$ Bhadantacariya. The Path of Purification
!6i#uddhi)agga'. Tran#lated by Bhikkhu Gana)oli$ &th ed.
!BPS$ %4%'.
H "hanti*alo$ Bhikkhu. +al) and .n#ight. !<ondon: +urCon$
%80'.
H <edi Sayada0. - 8anual of .n#ight. !Wheel 3/37'.
H Nyanatiloka Thera. The Buddha1# Path to >eli(erance. !BPS$
%87'.
H SoleA<eri#$ -)adeo. TranBuillity and .n#ight. !<ondon: 2ider$
%83@ BPS %%7'.
H 6a=iraNana$ Para(ahera. Buddhi#t 8editation in Theory
and Practice. 7nd ed. !"uala <u)*ur$ 8alay#ia: Buddhi#t
8i##ionary Society$ %49'.
-ll Wheel *ublication# and Bodhi <ea(e# referred to abo(e are
*ubli#hed by the Buddhi#t Publication Society. H
-bout the -uthor
Bhikkhu Bodhi i# a Buddhi#t )onk of -)erican nationality$
born in Ne0 Hork +ity in %&&. -fter co)*leting a doctorate
in *hilo#o*hy at the +lare)ont :raduate School$ he ca)e to
Sri <anka for the *ur*o#e of entering the Sangha. ;e recei(ed
no(ice ordination in %47 and higher ordination in %43$ both
under the e)inent #cholarA)onk$ 6en. Balangoda -nanda
8aitreya$ 0ith 0ho) he #tudied Pali and >ha))a. ;e i# the
author of #e(eral 0ork# on Thera(ada Buddhi#)$ including four
tran#lation# of )a=or Pali #utta# along 0ith their co))entarie#.
Since %8& he ha# been the Editor for the Buddhi#t Publication
Society$ and #ince %88 it# Pre#ident.
The Buddhi#t Publication Society i# an a**ro(ed charity
dedicated to )aking kno0n the Teaching of the Buddha$ 0hich
ha# a (ital )e##age for *eo*le of all creed#.
/ounded in %98$ the BPS ha# *ubli#hed a 0ide (ariety of
book# and booklet# co(ering a great range of to*ic#. .t# *ublication#
include accurate annotated tran#lation# of the Buddha1#
di#cour#e#$ #tandard reference 0ork#$ a# 0ell a# original conte)*orary
e?*o#ition# of Buddhi#t thought and *ractice. The#e
0ork# *re#ent Buddhi#) a# it truly i# D a dyna)ic force 0hich
ha# influenced rece*ti(e )ind# for the *a#t 7$900 year# and i#
#till a# rele(ant today a# it 0a# 0hen it fir#t aro#e.
Buddhi#t Publication Society
P.5. Bo? 3
9&$ Sanghara=a 8a0atha
"andy
Sri <anka
htt*://000.b*#.lk
2e(i#ed: Sunday 7009A7A0&
htt*://000.acce##toin#ight.org/lib/author#/bodhi/0aytoend.ht)l