Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Batch: 20XX-20YY
Rakia Kamran
Talha Jawed
Syed Taha Shahid
Syed Maisam Mehdi
ME-08158
ME-08160
ME-08181
ME-08153
Internal Advisor:
External Advisor:
Reference#: XX/20XX
CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that the following students have completed their project Your project
title in italics satisfactorily.
Group: 24
Name
Batch: 2008-2009
Seat No.
Rakia Kamran
Talha Jawed
Syed Taha Shahid
Syed Maisam Mehdi
ME-08158
ME-08160
ME-08181
ME-08153
Internal Advisor
External Advisor
Lecturer
XYZ
Projects Coordinator
Mr. NVD RHM
Department of Mechanical Engineering
NED University of Engg. & Tech.
DEDICATION
(optional)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(1 page only)
II
ABSTRACT
KW & SB is the biggest consumer of electricity supplied by KESC, resulting in high
electricity bills. The availability of high flow rate of water makes it a possibility that
KW & SB can develop a mechanism to lessen its dependency on KESC. It has also
been noticed that on a number of occasions the KW & SB has to suffer huge financial
loss due to sudden power failure, as its biggest pumping station, Dhabeji, requires
electricity 24/7 and such sudden failures lead to back flow of water which damage the
water distribution pipes.
Hence, the basic idea behind this project is to make a suitable mechanism for
extraction of power utilizing the water distribution system of KW & SB, so that it can
make use of its flowing water for the production of electricity at a lower rate.
III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
Introduction................................................................................................1
1.2
Water Supply..............................................................................................1
1.2.1
Water Management.................................................................................1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.3
1.3.1
Karachi was the first capital city of the country after its birth in 1947. It also
became the most important industrial and commercial centre. The older system of
water supply could not cope up with the growing demand. In order to meet
shortages in supply and to cater to future demands of the expanding city, the
Greater Karachi Bulk Water Supply Scheme was designed in 1953 for supply of
280 MGD potable water to the city. On the basis of a population projection of 3
million by the year 2000, the scheme was designed and divided into four equal
phases, each of 70 MGD. It comprises of open canals, covered conduits, a tunnel,
siphons, pumping stations, and draws water from Keenjhar Lake.............................2
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.4
1.5
Water Contamination..................................................................................9
IV
2.
Availability of water.................................................................................12
3.2
Criteria Evaluation:..............................................................................19
3.2.1
Dhabeji:....................................................................................................24
Criteria Evaluation:..............................................................................24
..........................................................................................................................27
3.3
3.3.1
C.O.D.......................................................................................................29
3.4
Criteria Evaluation:..............................................................................29
4.
Velocity....................................................................................................34
4.2
Cross-Sectional Area:...............................................................................34
4.3
Flow Rate:................................................................................................35
4.3.1
4.4
4.4.1
Head Measurement:..................................................................................36
4.5
5.
6.
Further Improvement...............................................................................38
Reaction turbines......................................................................................39
5.2
Impulse turbines.......................................................................................39
5.3
Classification of Turbines:.......................................................................40
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.4
Comparison of turbines............................................................................42
5.5
Net Head...................................................................................................44
Head losses:..........................................................................................44
6.2
Specific Speed:.........................................................................................47
6.3
Range Of Discharge:................................................................................50
V
7.
Spiral Case:..............................................................................................51
7.2
Stay Ring/Vanes:......................................................................................51
7.3
Wicket Gates:...........................................................................................51
7.4
Runner:.....................................................................................................52
7.5
Draft Tube................................................................................................52
7.6
Turbine Shaft............................................................................................52
7.7
Guide Bearing:.........................................................................................53
7.8
7.9
7.10
The discharge ring serves as the steel housing of the runner which is the
transitional piece to the expanding draft tube......................................................54
Conclusion
References
Appendix
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1:
A cup of tea................................................................................................1
Figure 2:
asdad..........................................................................................................2
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1:
ii
CHAPTER #1
1. Karachi Water & Sewerage Board
1.1 Introduction
Karachi Water and Sewerage Board (KW & SB) is the agency responsible for supplying
water to Karachi. There are two major sources of water. One is Keenjhar Lake and the other
one is the Hub dam. KW & SB pumps about 650 MGD of water to the city from both of its
sources, 550 MGD from Keenjhar Lake and 100 MGD from the Hub Dam.
The quota of 450 cusecs (242 MGD 1089ml/day for Ruby season) and 520 cusecs (280
MDG 1260ml/day for Kharif season) from Indus river was sanctioned on May 11, 1957.
In 1988, the same quota was increased to 1200 cusecs (2880 ml/day) by Presidential
decree, which has been exhausted in 2006 with implementation of K-III Project.
The present supply to Karachi from Indus and Hub source is approx. 650MGD (2925
ml/day).
The per capita water demand @ 54 GPCD for population 20 Million is estimated as
1080 MDG.
First Phase of K-IV Project may take up to 5 years to complete i.e. by the year 2015.
By the year 2015, projected population of Karachi will be 23 Million and @ 54 gallons
per capita per day, the demand of water shall be 1242 MGD.
By the year 2015 there will be a short fall of 600 MGD (2700 ml/day) water.
100 MGD (450 ml/day) additional water is required after every 5 years to bridge the
gap of demand and supply.
1st Phase:
The first phase of the scheme for bringing 70 MGD Keenjhar Lake water to the city with
raw-water pumping at Dhabeji, a 70 MGD water treatment plant at COD Hills, Karachi and
complete water conveyance system comprising of a 280 MGD lined canal, a conduit of
equal capacity up to Pipri and of 140 MGD capacity up to Karachi, a 10 MG reservoir at
COD Hills along with the distribution net-work was started in 1954 and completed in 1961
at a total cost of Rs.18.5 Crores.
2nd Phase:
Contracts for the 2nd phase works were awarded in 1969. The main works included
construction of a 70 MGD pump house at Dhabeji, laying of 84 dia pre-stressed pipe
siphons a 25 MGD pump house at pipri and two water treatment plants of 25 and 45 MGD
along with 10 MG reservoirs at Pipri and COD Hills respectively. Some additional truck
mains were also laid for improving the distribution system. The 2 nd phase works were
completed in early 1971 at a total cost of Rs.20.0 Crores.
3rd Phase:
The 3rd phase works were taken up in 1975 and were commissioned in 1978. The works
completed under this phase include construction of a 70 MGD pumping station at Dhabeji,
two pumping stations along with water treatment plants of 25 MGD capacity each at North
East Karachi and pipri, 84 dia pipe syphone, three balancing reservoirs and the distribution
mains. Total cost of these works in Rs.75 crores. A reservation for supply of 22 MGD of
un-filtered water to Karachi Steel has also been made under this phase.
4th Phase:
Due to financial constraints, 4th Phase works have been divided into two parts. Under stage
I, improvement of lined canal, modifications of the present Dhabeji Pumping Stations,
laying of 84 dia pipe syphons, construction of a 25 MGD pump house and clarification
units at Pipri, improvement of the secondary distribution net-work and installation of
domestic meters in K.D.A. Scheme No.1 & 5 have been taken up with the World Bank
assistance and are due for completion by June, 1987. After completion of these projects at a
total cost of Rs.360 million, the city water supply will be augmented by 50 MGD.
5th Phase
A master study for identification of water supply requirements of the city during short,
medium and long term plans (up to 2025) and for preparing feasibility studies, including
costing of projects during various plan periods have been assigned to a consortium of
consultants. Implementation actions on the consultants proposals will be taken after their
approval by the Board and after allocation of funds by the Government.
Greater Karachi
Gharo
K-II
Additional
K-III
Steel mill
PQA
Hub dam
Dumlotee wells
Total
Water lose reduction 35%
(-)
280
MGD
28
MGD
100
MGD
40
MGD
100
MGD
22
MGD
8
MGD
90
MGD
2
MGD
670
MGD
234.50 MGD
435.50 MGD
At Present a total 640 Approx MGD of water is being supplied to the city of Karachi
(except Steel Mill & PQA) out of which 440 MGD is being filtered at the following
filtration plants.
115MGD
50MGD
50MGD
25MGD
100MGD
80MGD
20MGD
440MGD
Description
670 MGD
402 MGD
Treatment Capacity
Present Treatment
Deficiency in Optimal
Capacity
Shortfall in Treatment Capacity
TOTAL
1
51 MGD
25 MGD
II
46 MGD
30 MGD
III
54 MGD
35 MGD
151 MGD
90 MGD
26 MGD
16 MGD
19 MGD
61 MGD
402-151=251 MGD
Sewerage System:
Sewerage generated in City (70% of Water Supplied)
472 MGD
151 MGD
55 MGD
321 MGD
Untreated Sewage
417 MGD
6
8
32
23
5670 Km
Number of Manholes
250,000
MGD
51.00
20
46.50
54.00
35
Total
151.50
55
Mehmoodabad
Cross connections
Damaged hydrants
In 1984 WHO introduced a new set of "drinking water quality recommendation". These are
not presented as standards but rather guideline criteria which can serve as a basis for
preparation of local standards.
The KW & SB immediately after its creation has taken a number of measures to ensure
supply hygienically fit water to the city of Karachi as follows.
The minimum requirements of free chlorine in the distribution system according to WHO
standards are 0.25 to 0.50 ppm. However, KW & SB maintains 2.00 ppm residual (free)
chlorine at the reservoir outlets in order to ensure that the minimum of free chlorine
requirement is maintain throughout the distribution network, this is the best guard against
contamination.
One thousand water samples are now being collected every month for bacteriological
analysis. The testing for quality of water is regularly carried out in KW & SB laboratory at
COD Hills Filtration Plant.
The Board has introduced a system of 'counter check' and periodically samples are tested at
the Karachi University and Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR).
The complaints of contamination are given priority and immediate remedial measures are
adopted by expositing the line to locate the cause.
10
removed by mechanical, rakes under hydrostatic pressure. The Decrement plants have
pulsators for removal of settle able matter where the heavy flock is not allowed to settle at
the bottom but is kept in suspension up to 2/3rd of the height of the water column by means
of regular intermittent pulsations applied to the water body.
The upward flow of water, also assists in the connections by hydro-static pressure through
automatically operated and controlled sluice valves. The clarified water is then provided
further treatment in rapid send filter beds.
The water collected at the bottom of the filter is potable and according to WHO standards.
How-ever, post chlorination is applied before storage in reservoirs for distribution in the
city.
For effective treatment and quality control, during the treatment processes and for ensuring
a safe and potable water supply to the city KW & SB is maintaining chemical laboratories
at all treatment plants. Extensive check on the sanitary quality of the city water supply is
made. In addition further monitoring is carried out by independent agencies like KMC,
Karachi University, PCSIR and EPA.
11
CHAPTER #2
2. Criteria for site Selection
Before we can begin planning our systems or estimating how much power we shall
produce, we shall need to make some essential measurements:
In this section, we'll discuss how to make these measurements and how they affect the
design and efficiency of the given hydro system.
Some points which should be given importance while selecting a site for Hydro-electric
power station are given below.
12
There are three popular methods for measuring FLOW: using a Container, Float, Weir or
recently Electronic Transducers. Each will be described in detail below. Once again,
accuracy is important to ensure correct system design and optimum power generation.
Method 1: Measuring Time to Fill Container
The Container Fill method works only for very small systems.
Build a temporary dam that forces all the water to flow through a single outlet pipe, Using a
bucket or larger container of a known volume, use a stopwatch to time how long it takes to
fill the container. Then, divide the container size by the number of seconds.
Example:
Container = 5 gallon paint bucket
Time to fill = 8 seconds
13
STEP 3: Measure the Speed. A good way to measure speed is to mark off about a 10-foot
length of the stream that includes the point where you measured the cross section.
Remember, you only want to know the speed of the water where you measured the cross
section, so the shorter the length of stream you measure, the better.
Using a weighted float that can be clearly seen (an orange works well), place it in the
stream well upstream of your measurement area, and then use a stopwatch to time how long
it takes to cover the length of your measurement section (e.g. 10 feet). The stream speed
probably varies across its width, so record the times for various locations and average them.
With these time and distance measurements, you can now compute the water speed.
For example, lets assume it took 5 seconds for your float to travel 10 feet:
You can then compute FLOW by multiplying the feet traveled by the cross section area.
Using our cross section area and speed examples:
120 feet per minute x 9 square feet = 1,080 cubic feet per minute (cfm) FLOW
STEP 4: Correct for Friction. Because the stream bed creates friction against the moving
water, the bottom of the stream tends to move a little slower than the top. This means actual
flow is a little less than what we computed. By multiplying our result by 0.83, we get a
closer approximation of actual flow:
Design Flow
Even though your Flow may be very high after exceptionally rainy periods, it
probably wont be cost effective to design your turbine system to handle all that
water for just a few days of the year. Instead, it makes sense to build a system that
uses Flow you can count on for much of the year. This is called Design Flow, and it
is the maximum Flow your hydro system is designed to accommodate.
Design Flow, along with Net Head, determines everything about your hydro system,
from pipeline size to power output.
14
Accuracy is critical when measuring HEAD. It not only affects power, but also determines
the type of turbine to use (such as a Francis or Pelton design), as well as the hydrodynamic
design of the turbine buckets or blades. An altimeter can be useful in estimating Head for
preliminary site evaluation, but should not be used for the final measurement. It is quite
common for low-cost barometric altimeters to reflect errors of 150 feet or more, even when
calibrated.
There are two accurate methods for measuring HEAD: direct distance measurement, and
water pressure.
15
You can use a surveyors transit, a contractor's level on a tripod, or a level taped to a
straight board to measure head. You will also require a pole with graduated measurements.
(A measuring tape affixed to a 20' section of PVC pipe works well.) Direct measurement
requires an assistant.
As shown in the diagram, make a series of vertical measurements using the transit level and
the vertical measuring pole. Make sure each transit setup is exactly level, and ensure the
measuring pole is vertical. Keep detailed notes at each step, and then add up the series of
measurements (A,B,C,D,etc.) to find total HEAD.
16
quantity of water at a certain period of the year can be made available during times of very
low flow in the river. This leads to the conclusion that site selected for hydroelectric plant
should provide adequate facilities for erecting a dam and storage of water.
But in our case this criteria is rather not important. This is due to two major reasons:
a) The proposed project is a run of the river project.
b) Flow of water is nearly constant throughout the year.
Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity (ROR) is a type of hydroelectric generation whereby little
or no water storage is provided. Run-of-the-river power plants may either have no storage
at all, or a limited amount of storage, in which case the storage reservoir is referred to as
pondage. A plant without pondage has no storage and is, therefore, subject to seasonal river
flows and serves as a peaking power plant while a plant with pondage can regulate water
flow and serve either as a peaking or base load power plant.
17
18
CHAPTER #3
3. Sites Visited
In order to find the perfect location for this project, a number of sites were visited. Each of
them was critically evaluated. All the merits and demerits were discussed and analyzed
before the selection of the most feasible site.
A brief description of the visited sites is as follows.
3.1.Gharo
Our team visited Gharo to look for the potential of that site related to our project. Situated
at about 10 km from Dhabeji pumping station, Gharo is the point where the open canals are
transformed into closed conduits. The availability of land and a constant high flow rate of
water make this site best suited for a micro hydro power project.
One of them is the G.K Canal, which has a flow rate of about 300 MGD, while the other is
the K-II/K-III canal which has a capacity of 250 MGD.
Availability of Water:
Gharo receives 550 MGD of water from Gujjo Headwork located at 20 km ( 12 Miles from
Gujjo. Just before Gharo there is an interconnection and the main canal is divided into two
parallel canals flowing in the same direction towards Dhabeji Pumping Station. One of
them is GK Canal, which has a flow rate of about 330 MGD, while the other one is K II/K
III canal which has a capacity of 250 MGD. The flow rate of 550 MGD is maintained
through out the year.
Availability of Head:
The elevation of Gharo is 10 m (32 ft) above sea level, wgile the elevation of Gujjo
headworks is 53 m (173.88 ft) above sea level. The total head estimated by KW & SB is 43
m (141.076ft).
19
Storage of Water:
On consulting the local constructors and KW & SB Bulk Division, it has been found that
the type of land at Gharo is marshy with water level approximately 10 ft close to the
surface. Therefore it is not a suitable place for heavy construction as the bearing capacity of
soil is very low.
Transportation facilities:
Transportation facilities at Gharo are very poor. Although this place is located along the
National highway but its broke condition and zero maintenance has made it unfeasible for
heavy traffic. That is the reason why it would be difficult to approach and the transportation
of our heavy equipment from the sea port to this site would result in severe inconvenience
and hassle.
Transmission Facilities:
The nearest grid line near Gharo is located at Dhabeji which is approximately 8 km away.
This makes it a slightly considerable location with respect to transmission facilities. But
even then we would be required to include the initial cost and maintenance cost of setting
up this facility and taking it to Dhabeji in order to feed it in the already existing grid, if
required.
20
21
22
23
2.2 Dhabeji:
Dhabeji Pumping Station is situated on the National Highway, approximately 60 km from
Karachi. This mega project is the heart of the entire water supply system to Karachi. It is a
mega project which helps KW & SB to pump nearly 550 MGD of water to Karachi.
Water coming from Gharo enters the premises of Dhabeji Pumping Station. Here fifteen
(15) mega pumping units are used to pump the incoming water to the next location Forebay,
which is an elevated spot, 210 feet high above the sea level. At Forebay the incoming water
from Dhabeji is released which then flows by the action of gravity to Karachi. This
pumping station is one of the largest water pumping station of the world.
The pumps installed at Dhabeji Pumping Station consume a huge amount of electricity. As
KW & SB buys electricity from KESC, it has to pay about Rs.33 Crore monthly for running
its water pumps working round the clock at Dhabeji. As stated earlier, this pumping station
is of immense importance and failure of these pumps would result in ultimate disaster as
there is no method of containing the bulk water coming from Gharo.
Availability Of water:
On daily basis, Dhabeji receives nearly 550 million gallons of water. This is a huge quantity
and can be of immense importance when it comes to micro hydro power plants.
5 Pumps at Dhabeji pumps nearly 550 MGD of water to Forebay. Forebay is n elevated
spot, about 210 feet above the sea level. from here water flows by the action of gravity up
to Karachi. There are currently three phases of Dhabeji Pumping Station. One is used feed
the old water supply system, the Greater Karachi Project, whereas the other two are used to
supply water to the K-II and K-III projects. Another phase is being developed for the K-IV
project.
Availabilty of Head:
24
As there is no storage facility between Gharo and Dhabeji aswell, therefore the required
head is again estimated on the basis of elevation differene between Gujjo Headwork and
Dhabeji. The elevation of Dhabeji is 15m (49 ft) above sea level. The total head difference
is 38 m (124.67 ft).
Storage Facility:
Water from Gujjo to gharo, and then Gharo to Dhabeji flows under the action of gravity and
momentum of water, therefore athere is o storage facility built in between.
The Land at Dhabeji is usuitable for heavy construstion as it is a hilly area. But the major
dificulty is the existing infrastucture i.e the pump setups and the water transmission lines
which cannot be disturbed. Therefore, limitation of space and danger of hindrance in water
supply makes it unsuitable for any type of water turbine installation.
Transportation facility:
This site has a developed infrastructure, mainly due to the presence of an important
pumping station. It is connected through the National Highway (N5) and the main KarachiLahore Railway track. Port Qasim is also easily accessible.
Transmission Facility:
Dhabeji has a developed transmission facility, as it has the heart of the entire water
distribution system of KW & SB, making it a suitable site with respect to this particular
facility, because the already developed system will cut down our cost in setting up a brand
new infrastructure of electricity distribution.
25
26
27
28
2.3 C.O.D
C.O.D Filtration plant is located at COD Hills, Gulshan-e-Iqbal area of Karachi. This Plant
supplies 120 million gallons a day (MGD). Water from Dhabeji is pumped to COD
filtration plant with the help of three 72 inch diameter pipes from where it flows under the
action of gravity. This plant has the capacity of treating 120 MGD of raw water. After the
complete treatment of the incoming raw water, it is supplied to various parts of the city.
This water is ready to drink and has been found free of diseases and other harmful
microorganisms.
Availability Of Water:
Approximately 120 MGD of water is pumped from Dhabeji Pumping station to COD Hills
from where it flows to various areas of Karachi under the action of gravity. This huge
availability of water makes this site a feasible one for the installation of micro hydro
system. Three 72 inch diameter pipes with the flows of 35 MGD, 35 MGD and 45 MGD
respectively supply water to COD Filter Plants. It is to be noted here that currently there are
two separate divisions working at COD. On is supplied with 45 MGD of water with only
one pipe line while the other is supplied with two separate pipes each carrying 35 MGD of
water.
Availability of Head:
The elevation of COD is 21.336m (70 ft) above sea level. The available head is
approximated by calculating the elevation difference from Forebay (elevated spot at
Dhabeji) to COD which is found to be 42.67 m (140ft). Also there will be no hindrance to
the water supply in the filter plants as COD is only able to filter ________ of water while
the rest is supplied unfiltered.
29
Storage of Water:
As mentioned earlier, Dhabeji Pumps Water to Forebay from where it flows under the
action of gravity to Karachi, therefore there is no storage facility built in between by KW &
SB.
COD is located at a hilly area in Karachi and it is also the highest spot in Karachi as it was
designed in such a way that the water would be able to flow to the rest of the city under the
action of gravity but now with the expansion of the city, several booster pumps have been
installed to keep the flow up to requirements. Its suitable for civil construction as the
bearing capacity of the soils is also high, which can be easily seen by the already installed
large filter plants at COD.
Transportation Facilities:
Transmission Facilities:
If this location is selected then we need to only fulfill the load requirements of the COD
offices, which in turn will considerably reduce our transmission lines cost as the turbine
itself will be installed in the premises of the filter plant.
30
31
32
Factor Rating:
Constru
Sites
Availab
Availabi
Storage
ction
Transpo
Transmi
ility of
lity of
of
and
rtation
ssion
Head
Water
Water
Type of
facilities
facilities
Total
Land
Gharo
16
Dhabeji
15
COD
25
It can be seen from the above factor rating that COD is the most suitable site for installation
of hydro turbine.
33
CHAPTER # 4
3. Methods of determining head, velocity and flow used
by KW & SB:
During our visits to these three locations, we have studied and inquired the methods used
by KW & SB to obtain the values of head, velocity and flow at various locations. These
methods are described below.
3.1 Velocity
Pick a representative segment of river or stream close to the expected water diversion point.
Place two stakes 50 feet apart along the bank, marking the upper and lower limits of this
segment. Drop a ping-pong ball (or other lightweight, floating object) into the current
opposite the upper stake. Time (a wrist watch with a second hand works great!) how long it
takes for the ping-pong ball to travel the 50 feet.
Take this measurement several times and calculate the average time (add all times and
divide by the number of trials). This is the speed of the water through the segment at the
surface. Not all water moves as fast as the surface because there is friction at the bottom
and along the banks. To calculate the overall average speed of the water, multiply the
surface speed with 0.83.
0.83 is multiplied to obtain the actual velocity due to the friction produced by the particles
in the bed of the river.
34
depth at one foot increments along a cross section (water-edge to water-edge) of the river or
stream at this spot.
Laying a log or plank across the river or stream from which you can take these
measurements is convenient. You can also wade (or boat) across but take care that you are
measuring the actual water depth and not the depth of water affected by your presence in
the water. Calculate the average depth of the water (as explained above during water
speed).
Measure and record the width of the river or stream (in feet and from water-edge to wateredge). Multiply the average depth X the width. You now have the cross-sectional area (in
square feet) of that slice of the river or stream
The cross sectional areas at Dhabeji and COD were determined with the help of the
diameters of the pipes transporting water.
35
d) Convert the flow in cubic feet per second to flow in gallons per minute by multiplying
by the flow in ft3/s X 450.
Water Speed (ft/sec) X Cross Sectional Area (sqft) = Flow (cu ft per second)
Flow (cubic feet per second) X 450 = Flow (gallons per minute)
Calculate the flow in cubic feet/second first by multiplying the average speed (in feet per
second) X the cross-sectional area (in square feet). Then convert the flow from cubic feet
per second to gallons per minute (GPM) by multiplying the cubic feet per second with 450.
3.4.1
You can use a surveyors transit, a contractor's level on a tripod, or a level taped to a
straight board to measure head. You will also require a pole with graduated measurements.
(A measuring tape affixed to a 20' section of PVC pipe works well.) Direct measurement
requires an assistant.
As shown in the diagram, make a series of vertical measurements using the transit level and
the vertical measuring pole. Make sure each transit setup is exactly level, and ensure the
measuring pole is vertical. Keep detailed notes at each step, and then add up the series of
measurements (A,B,C,D,etc.) to find total HEAD.
36
37
38
CHAPTER # 4
4. Types of Hydraulic Turbines:
Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure (potential energy) is converted to
kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused on the turbine. No pressure change occurs at the
turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require housing for operation. Impulse turbines are
most often used in very high head applications.
39
Tangential flow turbines (Pelton turbine) the water strikes the runner tangential to the
path of rotation.
Radial flow turbine (no more used)
Axial flow turbine (Kaplan turbine) water flows parallel to the axis of the turbine shaft.
40
Mixed (radial and axial) flow turbine (Francis turbine) the water enters the blades
radially and comes out axially, parallel to the turbine shaft. Modem Francis turbines
have mixed flow runners.
Where
N = the normal working speed,
P = power output of the turbine,
H = the net or effective head in meters.
Turbines with low specific speed turbines works under high head and low discharge
conditions, while high specific speed turbines works under low head and high discharge
conditions.
41
PELTON
FRANCIS
KAPLAN
500 up to 2000
30 to 1500
Up to 400
Output (MW)
55
40
30
Best Efficiency
93
94
94
Guide Vanes,
Guide Vanes,
deflector Plate
Surge Tank
Surge Tank
Operating Head
(m)
Maximum Power
Regulation
Mechanism
Type Of
Head H
Specific
Speed
Max
Turbine
(m)
Speed (Ns)
Ratio (Ku)
Hydraulic
0.43 to 0.48
Efficiency %
89
Pelton
Remarks
Employed for
high heads
1 Jet
Up to
12 to 30
2 Jet
2000
Up to
17 to 50
4 Jet
1500
Up to
24 to 70
500
42
Francis:
High
Upto
Head
1500
Medium
Head
80 to 150
0.6 to 0.9
93
Full load
efficiency
high,
part load
150 to 250
50 to
efficiency
150
Low Head
3
250 to 400
Propeller
30 to 60
Up to
300 to
and
400
1000
lower than
1.4 to 2
93
Pelton
High part
load
Kaplan
efficiency;
high
discharge
with low head
43
CHAPTER # 5
5.
The type, geometry and dimensions of the turbine will be fundamentally conditioned by the
following criteria:
V = Q/A=
Re =
Re =
= 0.7011 m/s
> 2300
44
f = 0.02238
hL=
45
When Q = 45 MGD
= 1.8514x10
f = 0.02235
hL=
= 29.358 m
46
Pelton
Francis
Kaplan
47
`
Using the above correlations, we calculated the specific spends of different turbines.
According to the range given, only the calculated specific speeds of Francis and Kaplan
turbine falls into their respective ranges.
Pelton
Francis
48
0.7214
Kaplan
49
According to the above graph, the net head of 6.79 m and the discharge of 3.6831
satisfies the selection of Kaplan turbine.
Kaplan Turbine fulfills all three criteria of selection. Hence it is our selected turbine.
50
CHAPTER #7
6. Kaplan Turbine Components
Performance and reliability related components of a Propeller/Kaplan turbine consist of a
reaction type axial-flow runner with adjustable-blade mechanism, wicket gates and
controlling mechanism, spiral case, stay ring/stay vanes, and draft tube.
51
possible. The wicket gates also function as a closure valve to minimize leakage through the
turbine while it is shut down.
6.4 Runner:
The function of the runner is to convert the potential energy of pressure (head) and flow of
water into mechanical energy or rotational horsepower. The Kaplan runner is comprised of
a hub, nosecone, blades, and an internal blade tilting mechanism - typically a hydraulicallydriven piston with linkage and seals. Oil pressure is provided by the governor hydraulic
system.
52
lubricated hydrodynamic guide bearings on the turbine runner end or wearing sleeve for
water lubricated guide bearings. Shafts are usually manufactured from forged steel, but
some of the largest shafts can be fabricated.
seal surface for the wicket gate vanes, and a carrier for the bottom runner stationary seal
ring.
54
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Cai Y., Xiao J., Zhao W., Tang X., Zhang Q. (2011), A General
Model for the Electric Power and Energy Efficiency of a Solar
Thermoelectric Generator, Journal of Electronic Materials, Vol.
40, No. 5, pp. 140-150
[5]
Author
N.,
(Year).
Title
of
web
page.
Retrieved
from
Retrieved
http://www.virtualsalt.com/evalu8it.htm
from
APPENDIX
(section for appendix material)