Department of Mechanical Engineering

B.Sc. Engineering, Semester 4 (ME & MT)

ME 3062 Mechanics of Materials II
Tutorials/short notes (Fatigue, Creep, Viscoelasticity, Classical Energy Methods)


Introduction to Fatigue
Vast majority of structural and machine elements are subjected to combined (bending, torsion, and
axial loading) repeated or fluctuating loading for many cycles, termed cyclic loading.
E.g. buildings bridges (under earthquake, and wind-induced forces), crankshafts, propeller shafts
aircraft wings, steam or gas turbine blades, ships, offshore platforms, etc)
It is shown by experimental studies, the loads do not cause fracture in a single application can result
in fracture when applied repeatedly. The phenomenon of fracture under cyclic loading is referred to
as fatigue.










Thats, the machine components or structural members subjected to cyclic, fluctuating, or
alternating stresses which are below the ultimate tensile strength or even the yield strength, may
nevertheless show diminished strength and ductility.
Low-cycle fatigue; the fracture of material occurs after a few cycles. High-cycle fatigue; the fracture
occurs after millions of cycles.

Forms of stress cycle
Throughout the working life of a component subjected to cyclical stress the magnitude of the upper
and lower limits of cycles may vary considerably. Generally, it is assumed that the stress cycle is
sinusoidal having constant upper and lower limits, throughout the life. In constant-amplitude
cyclic loading, as shown,












0
+
-
Stress

Time (t)
tension
compression
0


Time (t)

max

min

mean

amp
(or no. of
cycles N)
Constant-amplitude cyclic loading

- 2 -
=stress range =
max
-
min
is constant throughout the entire loading history. Stress amplitude,

amp
= (
max
-
min
)/2 = S remains constant. Stress ratio R = (
min
/
max
)
The S-N diagram can be used to estimate the fatigue life for the specific stress range. The no. of
loading cycles required to cause the failure of a specimen through repeated successive loadings and
reverse loadings may be determined experimentally for any given stress range. As the magnitude of
S is reduced, the no. of cycles required to cause rupture increases, until a stress, known as
endurance limit, is reached.














The Endurance Limit is the stress range for which failure does not occur, even for an infinitely
large number of loading cycles. For low-carbon steel, such as structural steel, the endurance limit is
about one-half of the ultimate strength of the material.
Fatigue Limit; for nonferrous metals, (Al, Cu alloys) a typical S-N curve shows that the stress at
failure continues to decrease as the no. of loading cycles is increased. For such metals, one defines
the fatigue limit as the stress corresponding to failure after a specified no. of loading cycles, such
as 500 millions.

The Mechanisms of fatigue failure
Fatigue failure starts on a microscopic scale as a minute crack or defect in the material and this
gradually grows under the action of the stress fluctuations until-complete fracture occurs.
Fatigue-initiation life; the no. of cycles required to initiate a fatigue crack, N
1

Fatigue-propagation life; the period of fatigue-crack growth from initiation to failure, N
2

Total fatigue life = N
1
+ N
2
. For a given member, total fatigue life is strongly influenced by; Quality
of the surface finish, Possible residual stress within the member, Presence of stress concentrations,
Chemical nature of environment, and the Material itself.

Examination of test specimens, which have failed in fatigue shows that the failure was initiated at a
microscopic crack or at some similar imperfection. At each loading, the crack was very slightly
enlarged. During successive loading cycles, the crack propagated through the material until the
amount of undamaged material was insufficient to carry the maximum load, and an abrupt, brittle
failure occurred. Because fatigue failure may be initiated at any crack or imperfection, the surface
condition of a specimen has an important effect on the value of the endurance limit. This endurance
limit is higher for machined and polished specimens than for rolled or forged components, or for
corroded components. *In applications in or near sea water (similar applications), a reduction upto
50% in the endurance limit may be expected.

N

S
Stress
range
Structural steel
(No. of cycles
to failure)
8
S
-
N
(
o
r
st
r
e
s
s-
f
a
ti
g
u
e
li
f
e
)
d
i
a
g
r
a
m

Aluminum alloy
- 3 -
Its been estimated that at least 75% of all machine and structural failures have been caused by
some form of fatigue.

High-endurance fatigue; relates to endurances about 10
4
cycles to infinity (or 50x10
6
in terms of
laboratory tests)
Low-endurance fatigue; low cycle fatigue, for low-endurance region <3000 cycles.
Low cycles to failure does not necessarily mean a short lifetime, because it is a function of cycle
frequency.
Hence an aircraft fuselage is only pressurized once every flight and so it may take years to
accumulate 1000 cycles and a pressure vessel may work for 25 years before achieving 1000 cycles
of cleaning and inspection.
(In the members subjected to relatively high cyclic loads (e.g. thermal loading, piping subjected to
large cyclic deformations, structures during an earthquake, nuclear pressure-vessel components)
significant amount of plastic strain are induced during each cycle. Thus, short lives resulting in a
small number of cycles.)


Problems

Q1
(a) Write brief notes on the following to demonstrate your understanding of fatigue failure of
engineering components.
(i) The impact of surface condition of a component and the presence of stress concentration on
its fatigue life , (ii) S-N curves for ferrous and nonferrous materials.

(b) A solid cylindrical machine component is subjected to a cyclic bending moment fluctuating
between -300 Nm (sagging) and +300 Nm (hogging) causing a constant-amplitude cyclic
loading having equal maximum amplitudes in tension and compression. The component is
designed to have a fatigue life of 10
8
cycles.

(i) If the machine component is made of structural steel, estimate a suitable minimum
diameter for the component using the data given in Figure Q1.
(ii) What would be the suitable minimum diameter of the component if it was made of an
aluminium alloy? Use the data given in Figure Q1.










- 4 -
































Q2

A solid shaft of 30 mm diameter is subjected to a cyclic bending moment which varies from
+450Nm to -450 Nm. Estimate the fatigue life of this shaft using the data given in the graph of
stress amplitude
amp
vs. number of cycles to fatigue fracture N (both on log scales)

in Figure Q1.













5 6 7 8
S
-
N
(
o
r
st
r
e
s
s-
f
a
ti
g
u
e
li
f
e
)
d
i
a
g
r
a
m

9
0
50
100
150
300
250
200
Figure Q1
Stress amplitude

amp
(MN/m
2
)
Log
10
N
(N = Number of cycles to failure)

Aluminium alloy
Structural steel
3
Log
10

amp
(
amp
in MN/m
2
)
Log
10
400
Log
10
N (N in cycles)
6
Log
10
300
Log
10
110
Figure Q2
- 5 -

Q3

A mild steel solid shaft is subjected to a cyclic bending moment which varies from +600 Nm to -
600 Nm. Use the data given in the graph of stress amplitude
amp
vs. number of cycles to fatigue
fracture N (on a log scale)

in Figure Q2 to estimate a suitable diameter for the shaft to have a fatigue
life of 10
5
cycles.
















Introduction to Creep
The deformation of a material under short time loading (as occurs in a simple tension test) is
simultaneous with the increase in load. Under certain circumstances, deformation may continue
with time while the load remains constant. This deformation, beyond that experienced as the
material is initially loaded, is termed creep. In materials such as lead, rubber, and certain plastics,
creep may occur at ordinary temperatures. Most metals, on the other hand, begin to evidence a loss
of strain hardening and manifest appreciable creep only when the absolute temperature is roughly
35 to 50% of the melting temperature.









The rate at which creep proceeds in a given material is dependent upon the stress, temperature, and
history of loading. A deformation time curve (creep curve), as in Fig.1, typically displays a segment
of decelerating creep rate (stage 0-1), a segment of essentially constant deformation or minimum
creep rate (stage 1-2), and finally a segment of accelerating creep rate (stage 2-3).

Curve A correspond to either a higher stress or higher temperature condition that curve B.
At point 3- fracture. The creep strength refers to the maximum employable strength of the material
at a prescribed elevated temperature. (This value of stress corresponds to a given rate of creep in the
second stage (2-3), e.g., 1% creep in 10,000 hours)
Curve-A (higher stress, or temperature)
Time
Deformation
1 2
3
1
2
3
Curve-B
Stress amplitude

amp
(MN/m
2
)
Figure Q1
200
250
300
150
100
50
9
0
Fig. 1
Log
10
N (N in cycles) 5

amp
(MN/m
2
)
300
6
200

Figure Q3
4
400
0
- 6 -




Introduction to Viscoelasticity

In many elastic materials, the elastic range includes a region throughout which stress and strain bear
a linear relationship. Such materials are linearly elastic. It is not necessary for a material to possess
such linearity for it to be elastic. In a viscoelastic material, the state of stress is a function not only
of the strains, but of the time rates of change of stress and strain as well.

c - The strain rate. For a viscoelastic material, since the stress is a function of both the strain and
the strain rate, ( ) c c o o , = .

The simplest relation among these quantities can be stated as c q c o + = E (first used by W. Voigt
and Lord Kelvin to analyse viscoelastic materials). The idealized material of the above equation is
referred to as the Voigt-Kelvin solid.
The constant is the coefficient of viscosity.

The solution of the above equation, for a constant stress, shows a delayed elastic response by the
material; finally, the elastic core carries the total applied load. This is not the typical behaviour of
most materials. A reasonable approximation of the behaviour of many viscoelastic materials is used
in the following model (for Maxwell solids). If E is constant, ( ) c o q o E / E = +

























- 7 -









Classical Energy Methods


Castiglianos Second Theorem
For a linearly elastic structure, the partial derivative of the strain energy U with respect to an
applied force P is equal to that component of displacement eat the point of application of the force
which is in the direction of the force.




Similarly for a couple, or moment M, the angular displacement is given
by;





The strain energy must be expressed as a function of the load.

Strain energy expression in a straight or curved slender bar subjected to number of common loads;
Axial load N,
Bending moment M,
Shearing force S
Torque T






Integrations carried out over the length of the bar.








i
i
e
P
U
=
c
c
i
i
M
U
u =
c
c
- 8 -
Differentiating U with respect to P under the integral;











Similarly for may be written.





Problems (Energy Methods)

Q1

The strain energy U in a straight or curved slender elastic bar subjected to pure bending moment M
is given by



Where, EI is the relevant flexural rigidity of the bar.

Frame ABCD shown in Figure Q1 is fabricated of solid circular bar of constant diameter d. The
frame is acted upon by equal and opposite horizontal forces of magnitude P at the positions A and D
as shown. Ignoring axial compressions in any of the segments of the frame, use Castiglianos
theorem to show that the reduction in the distance AD is,





Where, E is Youngs modulus of the material of the frame.







dx
EI
M
U
length
}
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
( ) a h
Ed
Ph
3 2
3
64
4
2
+
t
- 9 -

















Figure Q1

Q2
Castiglianos Second Theorem for a linearly elastic structure, with usual notation, can be expressed
as follows.


(a) Figure Q2-(a) shows a bent slender elastic bar ABC, fixed at C and acted upon by a horizontal
force P at A. The bar has a uniform flexural rigidity of EI throughout its length. Using
Castiglianos theorem show that the horizontal displacement at A is given by


Ignore axial compressions and shear stresses in any of the segments of the
bar.
You may assume the expression of the strain energy U in a straight or curved slender elastic bar
subjected to pure bending moment M,



(b) A framework ABCD is formed by a slender elastic strip of rectangular section (w x t) as shown
in Figure Q1-(b). The two ends of the framework A and D are subjected to equal and opposite
vertical loads of magnitude P as shown. If the two ends A and D should not make contact with
each other, make use of the results obtained in part (a) above to show that the maximum load P
m

that can be applied is given by



Where E is Youngs modulus of the material of the frame.
i
i
e
P
U
=
c
c
( ) a b
EI
Pb
3
3
2
+
dx
EI
M
U
length
}
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
( ) h l l
Eh wt
P
m
3 2 4
2
3
+
=
P
P
A
B
C
D
h
a
Diameter d

- 10 -






P
A
a
Figure Q2-(a)
C B
b
Flexural rigidity, EI
Figure Q2-(b)
P
P
l
h
t
Rectangular section, (w x t)
A
B
C
D