Cashew

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CASHEW
- A Monograph
M. Abdul Salam
Professor & Chairman
Department of Agronomy
and Cashew Expert
College of Agriculture, Kerala Agricultural University
Vellayani - 695 522 Kerala
K.V. Peter
Former Vice Chancellor
KeralaAgricultural University, Vellanikkara
Thrissur - 680 656 Kerala
2010
Studium Press (India) Pvt. Ltd.
--_._: = : ~ --"
-_.
CASHEW
- A Monograph
Copyright 2010
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly
regarded sources. Reprinted material from authentic sources which are
acknowledged and indicated. A wide variety of references are listed.
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and
information, but the authors and the publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of
their use.
All rights are reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright
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Act, 1956, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means-electronic,
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otherwise-without the prior permission ofthe copyright owner.
ISBN: 978-93-80012-08-7
Citation: M. Abdul Salam and K V. Peter (2010). Cashew -A Monograph, pp: 257
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FOREWORD
Cashew nut is one of the most nutritious and delicious tree nuts of the
world. More than 20 countries are engaged in cashew nut production,
processing and export. India was the first country exporting cashew kernels
and cashew nut shell liquid. Even today, India continues to be the largest
producer, processor, exporter and consumer of cashew kernels in the world.
India is the pioneer in cashew research and de'Velopment. Intensive
research carried out in the country, particularly during the past three decades
leading to the development of 40 high-yielding varieties and efficient
technologies capable of yielding 2 to 3.5 tonnes of raw nuts per hectare.
Cashew nut processing is a difficult job due to the presence of corrosive
Cashew Nut Shell Liquid. Mannual processing continues to be the main
method, although mechanised processing also exists. Information regarding
the science and techniques of cashew nut production, processing and
marketing remains scattered.
This pUblication assumes great significance in the above context. The
authors have made earnest efforts to compile all aspects of cashew nut
production and processing in a comprehensive manner. This publication
will serve as a valuable reference material to all those who wish to take up
cashew nut production, processing and marketing. This will also benefit the
students of agriculture, horticulture, processing and plantation science.
r am sure this book will go a long way to increase the production,
processing, marketing, consumption and export of cashew nuts in the world
as a whole.
r congratulate the authors for bringing out this excellent publication.
Dr M.S. Swaminathan
Place: Channai
Date: 5
Lh
August 2009
PREFACE
Cashew cultivation in the world is concentrated to the tropical portion of the
globe involving 300N and 30
0
S from the equator. India? Brazil,
Tanzania and Vietnam are the major producers. IndIa was the plOneenng
country in production, processing and export of cashew till 2001.
Vietnam stands first with respect to cashew nut productlOn and productiVity.
Cashew industry in India provide employment to nearly three lakhs people. It
also helps to earn considerable amount offoreign exchange to the country. In
the recent years, cashew nut production and processing gains considerable
momentum in many Asian, African and South American countries as well.
According to Food and Agriculture Organisation (F AO) statistical data
base, the global cashew area is 3.054 million ha with a production of 2.034
million tonnes, in 2003. Cashew area in India is around 0.73 million ha with
a production of about 0.46 million tonnes (2003). India imports large quantity
of raw nuts every year to meet industrial requirement.
Cashew nut processing in India started decades ago, concentrating
around Kollam district of Kerala. Now the industry involves over 1,000
processing units spread over the southern India. The processing factories
range from small units of home-scale nature to most modern factories with
sophisticated techniques.
Large amount of information generated by research on cashew nut
production and processing remain scattered. P\lblications covering all aspects
of production and processing techniques are rare. In this context, an attempt
is made to bring all the available information on cashew nut production and
processing in a single volume. We have made an earnest effort to integrate the
science and techniques of cashew nut production, processing and marketing to
benefit all persons concerned with cashew. Photographs and illustrations are
adequately used to make the information as simple and easily understandable.
This book is primarily intended to meet the requirement of students of
Agriculture, Horticulture, Processing and Plantation Science, cashew
planters, cashew nut processors, exporters, factory workers, factory owners,
researchers and extension workers.
It is hoped that this book will be received well by all those interested in
cashew.
vi
Dr M. Abdul Salam
Dr K.V. Peter
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
wish to place on record our deep sense of gratitude to the following
anisations for providing valuable information for the preparation of this book.
Directorate of Cashew and Cocoa Development, Cochin, India
Cashew Export Promotion Council of India, Chittoor Road, Cochin,
Kerala, India
Oltremare SPA- Via Piemonte 5 - 40069 Zola Predosa (BO), Italy
National Research Centre for Cashew, ICAR, Puttur, Karnataka, India
I am grateful to many persons who have helped me in many ways to
g out this publication. To name a few:
Sri P.P. Balasubramanian (Director, DCCD, Cochin, Kerala), Dr E.v.V.
skara Rao (Director, NRCC, Puttur, Karnataka), Mr Sasi Varma
retary, CEPCI, Cochin), Sri P. Gangadharan Pillai (Former Chairman,
'CI, Cochin), Sri Krishna Pillai (Chairman, CEPCI, Cochin), Drs K.G.
:rr (Former Secretary, CEPCI, Cochin), A.1. Jose (Director of Extention
r, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Sally K Mathew (KAU, Vellanikkara,
ssur, Kerala), Augustin (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala),
lnhamma Kurian (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Sam T.
Imthottikal (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Indira, (KAU,
nikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Prasada Rao (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur,
la), Pushpalatha (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Nalini (KAU,
nikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Meagle Joseph (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur,
la), Jayalakshmi (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Mr Anu S.Pillai
Cashews Kollam, Kerala), Mr Girdhar Prabhu (Achal Industries,
:alore, Karnataka), Mr Sadananda Prabhu (Achal Industries, Mangalore,
ataka), Mr P. Rajendran (Former Chairman, KSDC, Kollam, Kerala),
:urali Madanthakode (Former chairman, KSDC, Kollam., Kerala), Drs
11 (KKV, Dapoli, Maharashtra), P.C. Lenka (OUAT, Bhubaneswar,
a), L.N. Reddi (ANGRAU, Bapatala, Andhra Pradesh), Yadukumar
C, Puttur, Karnataka), K.R.M. Swamy (NRCC, Puttur, Karnataka),
Bhat (NRCC, Puttur, Karnataka), Thimmapaiaha (NRCC, Puttur,
ltaka), Sundar Raju (NRCC, Puttur, Karnataka), Desh Pande (KKV,
i, Maharashtra), Mr Francesco Massari (Oltremare SPA- Via Piemonte
169 Zola Predosa (BO)- Italy), Dr Mahapatro and Mr Ramesha (Asstistant
;sors, KAU, Padannakkad).
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to place on record our deep sense of gratitude to the following
organisations for providing valuable information for the preparation of this book
Directorate of Cashew and Cocoa Development, Cochin, India
Cashew Export Promotion Council of India, Chitto or Road, Cochin,
Kerala, India
Oltremare SPA- Via Piemonte 5 - 40069 Zola Predosa (BO), Italy
National Research Centre for Cashew, ICAR, Puttur, Karnataka, India
I am grateful to many persons who have helped me in many ways to
bring out this publication. To name a few:
Sri P.P. Balasubramanian (Director, DCCD, Cochin, Kerala), Dr E.V.V.
Bhaskara Rao (Direct<?r, NRCC, Puttur, Karnataka), Mr Sasi Varma
(Secretary, CEPCI, Cochin), Sri P. Gangadharan Pillai (Former Chairman,
CEPCI, Cochin), Sri Krishna Pillai (Chairman, CEPCI, Cochin), Drs K.G.
Nayar (Former Secretary, CEPCI, Cochin), A.1. Jose (Director of Extention
KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Sally K Mathew (KAU, Vellanikkara,
Thrissur, Kerala), Augustin (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala),
Susanilamma Kurian (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Sam T.
Kurumthottikal (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Indira, (KAU,
Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Prasada Rao (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur,
Kerala), Pushpalatha (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), N alini (KAU,
Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Meagle Joseph (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur,
Kerala), Jayalakshmi (KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala), Mr Anu S.Pillai
(Anu Cashews Kollam, Kerala), Mr Girdhar Prabhu (Achal Industries,
Mangalore, Karnataka), Mr Sadananda Prabhu (Achal Industries, Mangalore,
Karnataka), Mr P. Rajendran (Former Chairman, KSDC, Kollam, Kerala),
Mr Murali Madanthakode (Former chairman, KSDC, Kollam, Kerala), Drs
Sabkal (KKV, Dapoli, Maharashtra), P.C. Lenka (OUAT, Bhubaneswar,
Orissa), L.N. Reddi (ANGRAU, Bapatala, Andhra Pradesh), Yadukumar
(NRCC, Puttur, Karnataka), KR.M. Swamy (NRCC, Puttur, Karnataka),
M.G. Bhat (NRCC, Puttur, Karnataka), Thimmapaiaha (NRCC, Puttur,
Karnataka), Sundar Raju (NRCC, Puttur, Karnataka), Desh Pande (KKV,
Dapoli, Maharashtra), Mr Francesco Massari (Oltremare SPA- Via Piemonte
5 - 40069 Zola Predosa (BO)- Italy), Dr Mahapatro and Mr Ramesha (Asstistant
Professors, KAU, Padannakkad).
vii
We are indebted to many others who have been helpful in many ways
during the preparation ofthis book. The support received from and sacrifices
made by Shameem Abdul Salam, Anooja Abdul Salam, Amrutha Abdul Salam
and Vimala Peter, deserve special mention.
viii
Dr M. Abdul Salam
Dr K.V. Peter
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dr M. Abdul Salam, an international cashew Eli:pert
and a well known Agricultural Scientist from I ndia, is
currently working as Head Department of Agronomy,
Kerala Agricultural University, College of Agriculture,
Vellayani, Trivandrum. Born on the lOll> May 1952, Dr
Salam took his Bachelor's degree in Agriculture from
Kerala University (1973), Masters Degree in Agriculture
(Agronomy) from the Kerala Agricultural University
(1976) and Doctorate in Agriculture (Agronomy) from
the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India (1984).
He has a brilliant academic record throughout his career. With Common
Wealth Academic Staff Fellowship, he completed his Post Doctoral Research
at the University of Aberdeen, UK (1992). Dr Salam has work experience
in several countries (UK, USA, Suriname, Brazil, Mozambique, Malawi,
Saudi Arabia, Oman, UAE, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Angola
& Kuwait), as an agricultural Advisor/Cashew ConsultantlEducationist. He
was working as a cashew researcher and development specialist over the
past two decades. With 33 years of experience in teaching, research and
extension in the field of agriculture, with specialization in cashew, he
Published 12 books, 154 reseach papers, 15 review articles, 8 extension
bulletins and 3 book chapters. In addition, he has made substantial
contributions to popular science and extension in agriculture. He received
several awards and scientific recognitions for his contributions to
agricultural science. He is recipient of the Honorable Vice president Dr.
G.S. Pathak's prize (for his Ph.D. research) and the best Agricultural Scientist
award (Krishi Viingyan Award) of the government of Kerala (1999-2000).
He guided 23 students at Masters Level and 7 students at Doctorate level.
As a teacher, he offered 17 courses at under graduate level and 10 courses
at masters and doctoral level. Dr Salam is a well known international cashew
consultant who made substantial contributions to cashew research and
development. His research areas include irrigation water management,
Plant nutrition, Soil fertility management, and development of varieties
and technolOgies for tropical crops. His current research areas are cashew
nut production, bio-ethanol production, organic fa r ming, and water
management and stress physiology.
Prof. K.V. Peter, basically a horticulturist and a plant breeder is an
acknowledged research manager. He was associated with development of
several varieties in tomato, brinjaJ, chilli, bittergourd, snake gourd, oriental
pickling melon, amaranth and cowpea. Breeding for resistance to bacterial
wilt initiated in 1979 led to release of popular varieties like Pant C1 and
Pant C-2 in chilli, Sakthi in tomato and Surya in brinjal. Sources of resistance
to aphids in cowpea and viral leaf curl in chilli were
located. Prof. Peter established a spices biotechnology
facility at Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut
and nurtured an active team of scientists who worked
out protocols for rapid multiplication of 32 spices
including black pepper and cardamom. Prof. Peter
provided effective managerial support to the Indian
Institute of Spices Research (IlSR), Calicut to possess
the world's largest collection of black pepper and
cardamom germplasm. Prof. Peter edited 40 books and
is author/co-author of 26 bookslbulletins and 125 research papers. Prof.
Peter edited 3 volumes of 'Handbook of Herbs and Spices' published by
Woodhead Publishing Company, UK and CRC, USA. He co-eaited Handbook
of Industrial Crops published by Haworth Press, USA. The National Book
Trust of India published the books Plantation Crops and Tuber Crops
authored by him. He is a Fellow of National Academy of Agricultural
Sciences, New Delhi, Fellow National Academy of Sciences, Allahabad and
Fellow National Academy of Biological Sciences, Chennai. He was awarded
the "Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Award
H
by Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi. The National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi
conferred 'Recognition Award 2000' and 'The Dr K Ramiah Memorial Award-
2008' to him. The University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore bestowed
'Dr M.R. Marigowda Award' for outstanding contributions to Horticultural
Sciences. He is the recipient of Silver Jubilee Medal for outstanding
contributions in vegetable research, instituted by the Indian Society of
Vegetable Science, Varanasi, U.P. He received the Dr PNSF Gold Medal-
2009 for outstanding contribution to advancement of Horticultural Science.
During 1991-2000, he got the then National Research Centre of Spices
elevated into Indian Institute of Spices Research. Indian Council of
Agricultural Research New Delhi conferred 'The Best Institute Award on
IISR' for its research contributions to spices. Dr Peter is Chairman, Tea
Research and Extension Council, Valparai, India, Trustee Federal Akshaya
Trust Federal Bank, Aluva, Member Academic Council and Board of Studies,
IGNOU New Delhi, and Chairman, NAIP-Cashew, CEPC, Quilon. He did
post doctoral training at USDA, BARC-W, Maryland. He attended scientists
meet at Bangladesh, Taiwan, Goudeloupe (FWI) and USA. The Research
Team led by him received the National Award for Processing and Product
Development given by The Department of Biotechnology, GOI. During his
Vice-Chancellorship at Kerala Agricultural UniverSity (June, 2001 to June
2006), the University received I- prize in 2001-2002, 2002-2003 and 2003-
2004 and 30;1 prize in 2004-2005 in academic performance on all India basis
from ICAR, New Delhi. The ICAR New Delhi conferred 'The Sardar PatH
Award' for the Best ICAR Institution 2003 to Kerala Agricultural University
for all round performance. He is now Director World Noni Research
Foundation, Chennai. He edited the much read Monograph on Noni and
Compendium of Noni Research.
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
1. Cashew - Origin and Distribution
v
vi
vii
1
Origin Nomenclature Cytology and floral biology Inflorescence and
flowers Anthesis of flowers Distribution Cashew in India Cashew
Research in India.
2. Growth and Development 13
Height Girth Tree size. Flushing and leaf development Leaf colour
Leaf shape. Panicle development Growth habits of trees Cashew apple
Phenological phases Development of cashew nut Apple colour Apple
size Root system Root distribution pattern Soil type Age of the plant
Planting material. Cashew - a crop plough.
3. Crop Improvement 26
Hybridization Performance of hybrids High yielding cashew varieties
Cashew varieties from Kerala Agricultural University Cashew varieties
from Kongan Krishi Vidyapeeth Cashew varieties from Acharya NG Ranga
Agricultural University. Cashew varieties from Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University Cashew varieties from University of Agricultural Sciences
Cashew varieties from National Research Centre for Cashew Cashew
varieties from Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya Cashew varieties
from Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology Cashew varieties
from ICAR Research Complex, Goa Special types-CNSL free varieties
Purple cashew Dwarf cashew Drought tolerant varieties Variation in
flowering time Performance of cashew varieties.
4. Climate and Soil 52
Climate Temperature Rainfall Environmental ratings for cashew
Soils.
xi
5. Propagation
57
Vegetative propagation Selection of seed nuts Raising root stocks
Selection of root stocks Selection of scions Pre curing Collection of
scions. Preparation of root stock Preparation of scion Grafting. Care in
the nursery Best season for grafting Effect of Trichoderma on growth of
grafts. Top working Tissue culture techniques.
6. Planting and Management 66
Planting material Season and method of planting Watering Protection
from animals Planting density. System of planting. High density planting
Varieties suitable for high density planting Irrigation Weed control
Chemical weed control Training and pruning Intercropping Soil and
Water conservation Technology for flower induction Harvesting.
7. Nutrition
78
Nitrogen nutrition Leaf N content Response Foliar nutrition of
nitrogen Phosphorus nutrition Leaf P content Response Foliar
nutrition ofP Potassium. nutrition. LeafKcontent Response Nutrient
interaction Nutrient removal Relative requirement of nutrients
Nutrient ratios Zinc nutrition Varietal variation on growth and nutrient
uptake Nutrient recommendations Organic manuring Nutrient recycling
Nutrition in relation to age Time of fertilizer application Method of
fertilizer application Need for site - specific recommendations.
8. Crop Protection 87
Insect pests Tea mosquito bug Management of Tea mosquito bug
Resistant varieties Root and stem borer Management Other pests
Apple and nut borer Bark eating cater pillars Leaf miner Thrips
Aphids Mealy bugs Mites Cashew diseases Diseases in the nursery
Damping off Seedling blight Root rot. Leaf blight Diseases in
plantation Anthracnose Pink disease Gummosis Sooty mold Red
rust Leaf blight Algal growth on trunklbranches.
9. Cashew nut Production Technology for Indian States 98
Kerala Maharashtra Tamil N adu Andhra Pradesh Karnataka
West Bengal. Orissa. Organic Cashews. Varieties Spacing. Planting
material and planting. Systems of planting High density planting. Season
of planting Method of planting Post-planting care Irrigation. Soil and
water conservation. Training and pruning. Intercropping Crop protection
Tea mosquito management Resistant varieties Stem borer management
Management practices to check stem borer. Nutrition. Manure
xii
application Vertical mulching Cover cropping Green leaf manuring
Compost preparation and addition Compo sting Vermi-composting
Precautions Pollination support Harvesting raw cashew nuts.
10. Cashew nut Processing
144
Nut characters Nut quality Desirable characters of good nut Methods
to judge the quality of raw nuts Cutting test Floating test. Count test
Moisture content Drying raw nuts Storage of raw nuts Methods of
cashew nut processing Constraints in processing Processing system in
India Kerala Karnataka Tamil Nadu Mrica Brazil. Methods of
processing. Manual method of processing Cleaning Roasting Open pan
roasting Drum roasting Sun roasting Oil bath roasting Conditioning
Cooling Shelling Methods to prevent personal hazruods Shelling hazards
Hot chamber treatment (Borma) Cooling Peeling Grading Semi
mechanical methods of processing Grading of raw nuts Steam roasting
Cooling Cutting Fully automatic method of processing (Oltremare
system) Steps in Oltremare mechanical processing Components of
Oltremare mechanical processing system Calibrator Roaster Charging
hoppers and elevator tIopper-dosing - unit - kiln Roasting unit CNSL
Level control Supplementary equipment for the kiln Aspirations and
fumes circulation in the kiln Centrifuge Automatic shelling and separation
system Dryers Peeling of machine Rocket peeler Air peeling machine
Grading machine Colour sorting and grading machine Vacuum packing
machine Home scale processing Terminologies in Cashew nut processing
Shelling out turn Shelling percentage (kernel out turn) Count
Establishment of a cashew nut processing factory Processing factory - a
model.
11. Processing Equipment and Packaging 175
Equipment requirements Packaging Rehumidiftcation of kernels
Packing kernels Tin packing Flexible packing Commercial information
for exports Packing and standard weight International clearance and
shipping agency Shipping specifications Major buyers of kernels.
12. Export Specifications and Quality 181
Grade specifications of India Grade specifications of America Grading
based on size Tolerance for defects and damage in raw cashew kernels
UNIECE specifications Minimum requirements Classification Grades
based on size Method to maintain quality standards Problem related to
quality Pest problems Control measures Pesticide residues Microbial
contamination Personal and premises hygiene Non awareness regarding
quality specifications Personal hazards Nutritional aspects of cashew
kernels.
xiii
13. By products of cashew industry 197
Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) Specification of CNSL Cashew nut
shell cake Cashew testa Cashew kernel oil.
14. Cashew Apple Utilization
200
Apple yield. Juice content Juice yield Apple weight Apple to nut
ratios Vitamins and minerals Utilization of cashew apple Products
from cashew apple Extraction of cashew apple juice Preparation of cashew
apple syrup Preparation of cashew apple squash Preparation of cashew
apple juice. Cashew liquor Other products from cashew plantations.
15. Cashew nut Recipes 210
Chinese dish French German Indian Italian Japanese Middle
East Russian Spanish Thai.
REFERENCES 230
APPENDICES 238
1. Cashew Nut-world Cashew Area, Production and Productivity, 238
1961-2003
2. Area Production and Productivity of Cashew (2007)-country-wise 240
3. Cashew Area, Production and Productivity in India-1961-2007 241
4. Area (A), Production (P) and Average Productivity (APY) of 243
Cashew in India-State wise
5. Pricing (RslKg) Trend of Raw Cashew Nut in Different States 244
6. Cashew Processing Units in India-2005-06 245
7. Import of Raw Cashews to India 246
S. Export of Cashew Kernels from India 247
9. Export of Cashew Nut Shell Liquid from India 248
10. Sources of Processing Equipments 249
11. Institutions Connected with Development of Cashew in India 250
~ X 253
xiv
List of Figures
1.1. Floral and fruit characters
3
1.2. Trend in world cashew area-5-year moving average - from 1961-2007
5
1.3. Trend in world cashew nut production-5-year moving average
for 1961-2007
6
1.4. Cashew area in major producing countries (2007)
6
1.5. Cashew nut production in major producing countries (2007)
7
1.6. Cashew growing states in India
8
1.7. Cashew distribution in Kerala 8
1.8. Trend in cashew area in India (5-year moving average) from 1961-2007 9
1.9. Map of India showing distribution of Research Centres 11
2.1. Increase in tree height up to 13
1h
year after planting 14
2.2. Girth increase pattern in cashew up to 13
th
year after planting 15
2.3. Growth pattern of cashew over years 16
2.4. Cashew apple with nut 18
2.5. Cashew nut 18
2.6. Longitudinal section of cashew nut and apple at different stages
of development 20
2.7. Root distribution pattern (%) of seedling raised cashew tree
in laterite soil 23
3.1. Flowering and fruiting time of cashew (Early, Mid and Late
season varieties) 50
3.2. Yield potential (mean yield) of18 cashew varieties at
Cashew Research Station, Madakkathara, Kerala, India 50
4.1. Rain fall distribution pattern ofKannur, one ofthe best
cashew environments ofKerala 53
5.1 (a-p). Steps in top working 61
6.1. Square system of planting - 7.5 m x 7.5 m (177 plants per hectare) 68
6.2. Triangular system of planting - 7.5 m (204 plants per hectare) 69
6.3 (a-I). Canopy development and selective filling pattern in a high
density plantation 71
6.4. Canopy development pattern in relation to age 74
7.1. The relative nutrient requirement of cashew, compared to nitrogen 83
8.1. Life-cycle of tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis antonii 88
9.1. Cashew production in Kerala 98
9.2. Cashew production in Maharashtra 103
9.3. Cashew production in Tamil Nadu 104
9.4. Cashew production in Andhra Pradesh 105
9.5. Cashew production in Karnataka 108
9.6. Cashew production in West Bengal 110
9.7. Cashew production in Orissa 112
10.1. Cross section of cashew nut 145
10.2. Components (%) of cashew nut 145
10.3. Cashew processing systems in India 150
xv
10.4.
10.5.
10.6.
10.7.
14.1.
14.2.
14.3.
14.4.
- - ~ - - - - = - - -.- ~ ~ - . ~
Cashew processing system followed in Africa
Cashew processing system followed in Brazil
Oltremare calibration system
Layout plan of a model cashew factory
Variation in apple yield (Mean of 11 years harvest-tonneslhalyear)
of 18 cashew varieties
Apple yield pattern ofR 1598 (kg/tree/year) from 4,h to
14th year of planting
Variation in juice yield (mean of 11 years harvest in t/halyear)
of cashew varieties
Variation in apple weight (mean of11 years harvest)
of cashew varieties
xvi
151
152
160
171
203
203
204
204
List of Plates
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
Cashew tree Anacardium occidentale L
Male and bisexual flowers
Stages of nut developments (from flower to full maturity - 50
to 70 days)
2.1. Germination of seed
2.2. Graft Just planted
2.3. Fifteen-year-old tree
2.4a. Trunk development 1
81
year (12-14 cm)
2.4b. Trunk development 20
Lh
year (110-121 cm)
2.5. Growth and development ofleaf
2.6a. Variation in colour of young flush
2.6b. Variation in colour of matured flushes
2.7a. Colour of young leaves (Red)
2.7b. Colour of young leaves (Yellow Red)
2.7c. Colour of young leaves (Green Yellow)
2.7d. Colour of young leaves (Purple)
2.8(a-c). a. Oblong b. Obovate (club-shaped) c. Oval
2.9(a-f). Stages of development of panicle
2.10a. Trees with upright and compact canopy
2.10b. Trees with upright and open canopy
2.10c. Tree with spreading canopy
2.11a. Shapes of cashew apple (cylindrical)
2.11b. Shapes of cashew apple (conical-obovate)
2.11c. Shapes of cashew apple (round)
2.11d. Shapes of cashew apple (pyrifonn)
2.12a. Tender nut stage (20 days after pollination)
2.12b. Tender nut stage (25 days after pollination)
2.12c. Tender nut stage (35 days after pollination)
2.12d. Tender nut stage (45 days after pollination)
2.12e. Tender nut stage (50-55 days after pollination)
2. 12f. Tender nut and fully ripened fruits on same panicle
2.13a. Fully ripe-red
2.13b. Cluster bearing type
2.14(a-d). Developmental stages of cashew nut and apple
2.15a. Red colour of cashew apple
2.15b. Yellow colour of cashew apple
2.16. Root penetration in a forest soil
2.17. Cashew in a wasteland
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
Bisexual and male flowers
Pollination
Flowers after pollination
xvii
121
121
121
121
121
121
121
121
121
121
121
121
121
121
121
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122
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3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.7.
3.B.
3.9.
3.10.
3.11.
3.12.
3.13.
3.14.
3.15.
3.16.
3.17.
3.1B.
3.19.
3.20.
3.21.
3.22.
3.23.
3.24.
3.25.
3.26.
3.27.
3.2B.
3.29.
3.30.
3.3l.
3.32.
3.33.
3.34.
3.35.
3.36.
3.37.
3.3B.
3.39.
3.40.
3.4l.
3.42.
3.43.
3.44.
3.45.
3.46.
3.47.
3.4B.
3.49.
3.50.
3.51.
3.52.
Tender nuts at early stages of development
Anakkayam1
K22-1
Madakkathara
Madakkathara 2 (NDR-2-1)
Kanaka (H 159B)
Dhana (H 160B)
Priyanka (H 1591)
Sulabha (K-10-2)
Dharasree (H3-17)
Amrutha (H 1597)
Akshaya (H7-6)
Anagha(H-B-1)
Vengurla1
Vengurla2
Vengurla3
Vengurla4
Vengurla5
Vengurla6
Vengurla 7
BPP1
BPP2
BPP3
BPP4
BPP5
BPP5
BPP B (H2I16)
Vridhachalam 1
Vridhachalam 2 (M 4413)
Vridhachalam 3 (M 2612)
Ullal1
Ulla12
Ulla13
Ulla14
Chintamani 1
UN 50
NRCC1
NRCC2
Jhargram 1
Bhubaneswar 1
(]Qa 1
Pattanur 1
Purple cashew
KGN 1, a cashew dwarf
Dwarf cashew (Embrapa, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil)
H 1591 Drought tolerant
M 2612 Vridhachalam 3, Drought tolerant
Vengurala 5, Drought tolerant
Drought tolerant Priyanka seedlings-30-day after with holding water
xviii
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4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.
4.7.
4.8.
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
5.6.
5.7.
5.8.
5.9.
5.10.
5.11.
5.12.
5.13.
5.14.
5.15.
5.16.
5.17.
5.18.
5.19.
5.20.
5.21.
5.22.
5.23.
5.24.
5.25.
5.26.
5.27.
5.28.
5.29.
5.30.
5.31.
5.32a.
5.32b.
5.33.
5.34.
5.35.
5.36.
5.37.
5.38.
Cashew in laterite soils
Cashew in eroded laterites
Cashew in rich laterites
Cashew in forest loams
Cashew in rich forest soils
Cashew in coastal sands
Cashew in red soils of Tamil nadu
Cashew in hard laterites
Preparation of potting mixture
Polythene bag 9" 6" (22.5 cm 15 cm) showing holes
Filling polythene bag
Filled polythene bags arranged in nursery
Seed nuts
Sowing seeds
Germinating seed
10-day-after sowing
15-day-after sowing
20-day-after sowing
Stages of growth and development of root stock
Bad seedling and good seedling
Scion bank. containing high yielding varieties
Selected scion
Precured scion
Matured scions
Scions collected
De-topping of rootstock
Making a cleft through the centre of stem
Scions getting-shaped
Wedge shaped scions
Scions inserted in the rootstock
Tying with polythene tape
Scion covered with polythene bag
Grafted seedlings kept under partial shade
Scions covered with sip up tubes
Grafts maintained in partial shade
15-day-after grafting
Sprouting and development of grafts
Two months after grafting
Six months after grafting
Micro sprinkler for irrigation
Micro sprinkler for irrigation
Grafts maintained in the nursery
..
Grafts on "Trichoderma-treated potting mixture". on
the right and control on the left
Top-worked 3-year-old tree
Top-worked 5-year-old tree
Initiation of globular embryoidal structures from
immature cotyledon sections (after 7-8 weeks of culturing)
Development of white cotyledonary structures (90-day-old)
xix
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6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.
6.6.
6.7.
6.8.
6.9.
6.10.
6.11.
6.12.
6.13.
6.14.
6.15.
6.16.
6.17.
6.18.
6.19.
6.20.
6.21.
6.22.
6.23.
6.24.
6.25.
6.26.
6.27.
6.28.
6.29.
7.1.
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
8.1.
8.2.
B.3.
8.4.
8.5.
8.6.
B.7.
8.8.
8.9.
B.10.
8.11.
B.12.
8.13.
8.14.
8.15.
Ideal graft
Planting
Planting of grafts
Staking of grafts
Protection against wind using polythene bags
Watering grafts using pots and tubes
Pitcher irrigation using buried earthen pots
Protection against wild boars using chicken mesh
Grafts flowered (remove early flowers)
Weed infested plantation
Sickle weeding
Tractor mounted slashing. a closer view
Mikania infested plantation
Weeds dried up due to herbicide application
Removing water shoots
Removing low lying branches
Well pruned tree
Applying Bordeaux paste
Cashew+pine apple inter cropping
Cashew+banana intercropping
Cashew+cowpea intercropping
Cashew+pomegranate intercropping
Pepper trailed on cashew
Platform for water conservation
Conservation trenches
Platform to conserve soil and water in sloppy areas
Nut collection
Nut extraction from apples
Dried cashew nuts
Tree showing nitrogen deficiency symptoms
Potassium deficiency symptoms
Fertilizer application in young pl"ants
Fertilizer application in adult plants
Adult tea mosquito bug
Damaged-shoot tip
Panicle dried up due to tea mosquito bug
Tender nuts damaged and dried up due to tea mosquito bug
Flushes and panicle dried up due to tea mosquito infestation
Tree showing dried up shoots due to tea mosquito
Panicle and tender nuts dried up
Developing fruits and apple damaged by tea mosquito bug
Die back symptom by tea mosquito bug
Power sprayer
Spray against tea mosquito bug
Stem borer - Adult
Eggs of stem borer
Stem borer-Egg to adult
Tree base at early stage of infestation
xx
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8.16.
8.17.
8.18.
8.19.
8.20.
8.21.
8.22.
8.23.
8.24.
8.25.
8.26.
8.27.
8.28.
8.29.
8.30.
8.31.
8.32.
8.33a.
8.33b.
8.34.
8.35.
8.36a.
8.36b.
8.36c.
8.37a.
8.37b.
8.37c.
8.37d.
a.37e.
8.38.
a.39.
8.40.
8.41.
8.42.
8.43.
8.44.
9.1.
9.2.
9.3.
9.4.
9.5.
9.6.
9.7.
9.8.
9.9.
10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.
.=
Larvae of stem borer
Tree damaged by stem borer at advanced stage
Tree severely infested by stem-borer showing yellowing
Trees dried up due to stem borer
Tree killed by stem borer
Cleaning of infected portion
Scions inserted in the rootstock
Applying neem oil
Tender nut damaged by apple and nut borer early stage
Infestation of apple and nut borer on tender nut
Indarbela larva
Rope like webbed galleries attached to branches
Trunk showing eaten bark
Damage on tender leaves by leaf miner
Damage to tender nuts by thrips
Flushes affected by aphids
Mealy bug damage
Seed rot
Rotting of seedling
Seedling blight
Root rot
Leafblight due to Collectorichum sp
Leafblight due to Phytophthora sp
Leafblight due to Pestalotia sp
Brown lesions on flushes
Symptoms on young leaves
Drying up ofpanicle
Drying of tender shoots
Drying of tender nuts
Pink coloured fungal infection on branches
White fungal infection on branches
Dried branches due to pink disease
Gummosis
Sooty mold
Red Rust
Leafblight
Organic manuring in cashew
Organically raised plant
Weaver ants are being allowed to spread over cashew trees
Conservation trenches promote tree growth
Glyricedia
Compost
Vermicompost
Earthworms
Honeybees
Fnrits attaining maturity
Matured apple and nuts
Nuts of varying size
Large and small nuts
xxi
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10.5a.
1O.5b.
10.5c.
10.5d.
10.5e.
10.5f.
10.6.
10.7.
10.8.
10.9.
10.10.
10.11.
10.12.
10.13.
10.14.
10.15.
10.16.
10.17.
10.18.
10.19.
10.20.
10.21.
10.22.
10.23.
10.24.
10.25.
10.26.
10.27.
10.28.
10.29.
10.30.
10.31.
10.32.
10.33.
10.34.
10.35.
10.36.
10.37.
10.38.
10.39.
10.40.
10.41.
10.42.
10.43.
10.44.
10.45.
10.46.
Large Nuts
Medium-sized nuts
Small-sized nuts
Long nuts
Bold whole nuts
Bold nuts
Longitudinal section of the nut
Raw nuts of different colour
Immatured nuts dried
Damage due to thrips and tea mosquito bug also
results poor quality nuts
Dried up due to tea mosquito bug
Longitudinal section of dried immature nuts
Dried up immature nuts
Longitudinal section of raw nut
Longitudinal section of bad nuts
Judging nut quality floating test
Gathering nuts after drying
Filling in bags
Weighting nuts
Storing raw nuts in gunny bag in the store room
on donnage involving sandbags
Open pan
The nuts after drum roasting to the shelling yard
Shelling
Kernels in the Borma
Electric Borma
Furnace providing energy to the Borma
Peeling and sorting
Grading kernels to different standards fixed
Removing black spots from kernel
Grades of kernels as per standard fixed
Steam generator
Steam roaster
Putting nuts into steam roaster
Steam roasted nuts
Cutting nuts after steam roasting
Removing kernels after cutting
Raw nut calibrator
Roaster
Centrifuge machine
Shelling machine
Continuous drier
Peeling machine
Colour-sorting machine
Vacuum packing machine
Home scale processing-steaming and roasting
Cashew nut cutter
A cashew processing factory with tiled roof
xxii
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139
.. ..
10.47. A cashew processing factory with concrete roof
139
11.1. Small industrial boiler
139
11.2. Oil bath roaster
139
11.3. Cutting machine
139
11.4. Needles used for extracting kernels from shells
139
11.5. Aluminium containers to carry kernels
140
11.6. Containers (plastic, aluminium) to carry kernels.
140
11.7. Steel stand to hold aluminium containers
140
11.8. Electrical drier (Borma)
140
11.9. Electrical drier (Borma)-opened
140
11.10. Leakage testing of tins
140
11.11. Humidifier
140
11.12. Weighing kernels to standard packing
140
11.13. Vibratory sieve
140
11.14. Sieving machine
140
11.15. Sieving machine
140
11.16. Coating machine
140
11.17. Moisture meter
140
11.18. Filling machine
140
11.19. Vita-packing machine
140
11.20. Packing tins in cartons
141
11.21. Packing filled tins into cartons
141
11.22. Equipment used for spreading and gathering of raw nuts
in the drying yard 141
11.23. Flexipack 141
11.24. Flexi pack in card board cases 141
11.25. Moulded vacuum packing system 141
11.26. In-line moulded vacuum packing system 141
11.27. High speed moulded vacuum packing system 141
11.28. Carousel MVP bulk packing system 141
12.1. White wholes - 180 141
12.2. White wholes - 210 141
12.3. White wholes - 240 141
12.4. White wholes - 320 141
12.5. White wholes - 450 141
12.6. White wholes - 500 141
12.7. Broken kernels 142
13.1. Cashew nut shell liquid stored in under ground drums 142
13.2. Cashew nut shell liquid extracted from expeller 142
13.3. Cashew nut shell liquid stored in above ground drums 142
13.4. Shells from steam-roasted nuts 142
13.5. Shells from drum-roasted nuts 142
13.6. Testa 142
13.7. Tannin in fluid form 142
13.8. Tannin in solid form 142
13.9. Testa waste after tannin extraction 142
14.1. Cashew apple
142
xxiii
15.1.
15.2.
15.3.
15.4.
15.5.
15.6.
15.7.
15.8.
15.9.
15.10.
15.1!.
15.12.
15.13.
15.14.
15.15.
15.16.
15.17.
15.18.
15.19.
Stir fried eggs with cashew
Braised chicken with cashew
Spicy chicken with cashew nuts
Fish 'N' nuts
Chicken Anassu
Mushroom and cashew nut
Rhines goulash
Cashew and mixed fruit strudel.
Chicken and paneer kofta curry
Cashew and khoya barfi
Toasted bread with cashew and crab filling
Rice flour cake with egg and cashew nut
Cashew and cocoa layered cake
Tabouli
Lamb machbous
Semolina cake
Cashew cake
Cashew and custard tart
Coconut pudding
xxiv
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143
Cashew:
Origin and Distrib ution
C
ashew is an evergreen tropical tree. The English name of cashew is
derived from Portuguese name 'caju'. Scientifically cashew is known as
Anacardium occidentale L. It belongs to the family Anacardiaceae (Plate
1.1). Cashew is a hardy, fast growing, drought tolerant tree and can be
cultivated even in less endowed environments with minimum care. The
tree starts blooming from the third year itself and attains yield stability by
seventh year after planting. Cashew nut is its main product.
According to Bailey (1958), Anacardium is a small genus of 8 species
indigenous to South America. All known species of the Anacardium genus
can be found in the American continent. Within Central and South America,
as many as 20 species of Ana cardium are known to exist. Most species ofthe
Anacardium species are found all over Brazil (N omisma, 1994).
ORIGIN
Occurrence oflarge number of wild species suggests that the North-East
Brazil is the site of origin for Anacardium occidentale L. Which is the only
species in the genus, that attained economic importance (Ascenso, 1986).
Here different forms of cashew can be found with a high variability. From
Brazil, it is distributed throughout tropics.
About 21 species of Anacardium are reported to exist, viz. Anacardium
amilcarianum, A. brasiliense, A. ciratellaefolium, A. corymlosum, A.
encardium, A. excelsum, A. gigantum, A. humile, A. kuhlanannianum, A.
mediterraneum, A. microcarpum, A. microsepalum, A. nanum, A. negrense,
A. orthonianum, A. parvifolium, A. pumilum, A. rhinocarpus, A.
rondonianum, A. spruceanum andA. tenuifolium.
Cashew - A Monograph
NOMENCLATURE
Cashew is known by different countries by different names,cMandal,1992),
'B '1' AcaJa.J.'ba United Kingdom: Cashew, France: Acajou, Guatemala,
UlZ, raZl, , . ul G' Ph'l' ,
Jacote maranon, India: Kaju or caju, a: ajus, 1
Kasoy, Porto-Rico: Pajuil, portuguese: CaJu, Spa.J.n: Maranon, Tupl. AcaJu
and Venezuela: Merey.
In India, cashew is known differently in. different
Assamese: Caju badam, Bengali: Hijli badam or KashID.l-Z:,
Marathi and Gujarathi: Caju, Malayalam: ParagI andl or kasu andl, Onya.
Lanka beeja and Tamil: Mundiri.
Normally the trees grow tall and spreading. An adult tree often
exceeds 8 m height and the canopy spread varies from 8 to 12 m.
Flowering lasts for 2 to 3 months. It takes 50 to 70 days from
pollination to maturity of the fruit. The cashew fruit has two distinct parts,
viz, the swollen and pear shaped stalk (cashew apple) and a kidney-shaped
nut attached to the lower end of the apple. The cashew nut is the true fruit,
which contains the edible kernel that is the dearest to many. The apples
(pseudo fruit) in general are yellow or red,
Cashew apple is used for producing alcoholic beverages, juice and other
products. Cashew nut shell liquid obtained from the shells of the nuts is of
great commercial value.
CYTOLOGY AND FLORAL BIOLOGY
Cytology of Anacardium occidentale L. has not been studied in detail. The
chromosome number of A. occidentale was reported to be 2n = 42 (Darlington
and Janaki Ammal, 1945 and Purseglove, 1988).
Inflorescence and Flowers
Cashew i.s pr.edominantly a cross-pollinated crop. The cashew plant comes
to flowermg 10 2 to 3 years of age. Graft-raised trees come to flowering in
3 years whereas seedling-raised trees may take 4 to 5 years for flowering.
Cashew is an .plant with staminate and hermaphrodite
flowers, appeanng 10 the same mflorescence or panicle (Rao and Hassan,
1957;. Damodaran et al., 1965). The hermaphrodite (bisexual flowers) and
stamm ate (male .flowers) occur intermixed in the same panicle (Fig. 1.1).
The hermaphrodIte flowers are bigger in size (Plate 1.2) than the staminate
flowers (Damodaran et al" 1965 and Damodaran, 1966). The flowers produced
early are mostly male (Rao and Hassan, 1957: Damodaran et al., 1965). The
2
Cashew: Origin and Distribution
f
Fig.!.!. Floral and fruit characters
a. Panicle b. Male flower c. Longitudinal section male flower
d. Bisexual flower e. LS of bisexual flower f. Fruit
g. Longitudinal section of nut
petals are white or creamy white at the opening. Both hermaphrodite and
staminate flowers have androecium, which consists of one or two fully
developed stamens and 8-9 staminodes (sterile stamens). The staminodes
have only short filaments and are concealed in the corolla tube. In
hermaphrodite flowers, the anther level is below the level of stigma. These
hermaphrodite flowers have a well-developed gynoecium, which consists of
an ovary, a style and a stigma.
Anthesis of Flowers
Four types offlowers viz., Hermaphrodite Large (HL), Hermaphrodite Small
(HS), Male Large (ML) and Male Small (MS) are found in cashew. Of the four
types, pollens from large anthers of male flowers are more efficient in
germination on stigma and to penetrate the ovule than the other three
types.
The staminate flowers open earlier than the hermaphrodite flowers
(Rao and Hassan 1957; Damodaran et al., 1966 ). The majority of staminate
flowers open between 7 and 9 am while majority of hermaphrodite flowers
open between 8 am and 12 noon in west coast conditions ofIndia characterized
by high rainfall and humid climate. Stigma is receptive throughout the day
after anthesis of the flower (Rao and Hassan, 1957). However, the optimum
period for receptivity is immediately after anthesis. Anther dehiscence
generally commences after 10.30 am, which is influenced by the genotype
and weather conditions, viz. as temperature and humidity during that day.
Dehiscence of anthers is hastened when the staminate flowers are detached
from the panicles for the purpose of hand pollination. The pollen grains of
cashew are sticky which emphasize the importance of insects as pollinating
agents in natural pollination of cashew (Smith, 1958). The nut development
takes 50 to 70 days from flower to full maturity (Plate 1.3).
3
The cashew nuts differ in colour, size and shape depending on the
variety and the growing environment. Cashew kernel is extracted from the
cashew nut. It is highly nutritious, delicious and loved by everyone. Since
cashew kernel is a high value commodity, it remains as a poor man's crop
and as a rich man's food. In most of the countries, it is still grown under
neglected conditions. Cashew received attention of researchers and farmers
during the last few decades. Due to its high economic, ecological and biological
potential, cashew cultivation is being spread in many of the tropical countries.
DISTRmUTION
Cashew tree is grown mainly in the tropics within 27 North and 28 South
of the equator.
Cashew is now distributed all over the tropics and part of warm
sub-tropics. Today, cashew is being grown in more than 26 tropical countries
in the world mainly in the coastal belt (Table 1.1). The Indian and African
continents contribute the major cashew nut production. From its origin in
North-eastern Brazil, cashew spread to South and Central America (Van
Eijnatten, 1991). The spread of cashew within the South American continent
was gradual and spontaneous (Nomisma, 1994). The Portuguese discovered
cashew in Brazil and spread first to Mozambique. They learned of the medicinal
properties of the cashew and value of the juice and wine from cashew apple.
Table 1.1. Cashew growing countries in different sub-continents
Indian Sub
Continent
India *
Bangladesh
Sri Lanka
"'Mojol' producers
Africa
Mozambique '"
Nigeria '"
Kenya '"
Tanzania"'E
Senegal
Angola
Benin
Burkinofaso
Guinea Bissau
Madagascar
Togo
Mali
Latin America
Brazil >I<
Barbados
Dominican Republic
ISalvador
Guadeloupe
Honduras
South East Asia
Vietnam '"
Thailand '"
Indonesia *
Malaysia '"
Philippines
Cashew arrived in Africa during the second half of the 16
th
century,
first on the East Coast followed by on the West Coast. It is believed that the
Portuguese brought the cashew to India, between 1563 and 1578. Following
its introduction in south-western India, the cashew probably diffused through-
4
out the Indian sub-continent 'by means of birds, rats, and human beings.
Cochin served as a dispersal point for the cashew in India, and perhaps for
south-east Asia as well.
Mter India, it was introduced in to South East Asia (Nomisma, 1994).
Cashew later spread in to Australia and some parts ofthe North-American
continent, such as Florida. In the 14
lh
century, the tree spread to a number
of other countries in Mrica, Asia and Latin America, Today, cashew is being
commercially cultivated in Brazil, India, Tanzania, Mozambique, Kenya,
Madagascar, Vietnam, Myanmar and Thailand (Bhaskara Rao, 1996).
India was the major producer, processor, consumer and exporter of
cashew untill2001. Now Vietnam occuppies the first position with respect to
cashew nut production and productivity as per the FAO statistics, but this
data is controversiale cashew in South-East Asia.
The global cashew area is around 3.817 million ha in 2007 with a
production of3.186 million tonnes and productivity 835 kglha (Appendix 1).
The cashew area, nut production and productivity in major producing coun-
tries are given in Appendix 2.
The trend in world cashew area (5-year moving average) from 1961 to
2007 is shown in Fig. 1.2.
40.00 1
35.00
30.00
Fig. 1.2. Trend in world cashew area - 5-year moving average - from 1961-2007
The global cashew area was 0.517 million ha during 1961. The area
increased to 1.916 million ha during 1991 and it further increased to 3.184
million ha during 2001 (Appendix 1). It further increased to 3.817 million
ha during 2007. The cashew area of 1961 increased by 8 fold during
5 decades.
The trend in world cashew nut production (5-year moving average)
from 1961 to 2001 is shown in Fig. 1.3.
5
" ..
SO.OO
JUG

::: illilillilliiililiiillllilliliiiiiiiiililil
! ! ! ! ! 555 ! ! ! ! ! 5 ! fi ! ! ! i
Fig. 1.3. Trend in world cashew nut production-5-year moving average for 1961-2007
The global cashew nut production was 0.288 million tonnes during 1961
and the production doubled to 0.558 million tonnes within 10 years. The
production crossed the level of 0.1 million tonnes during 1994. The global
cashew nut production crossed reached 3.186 million tonnes during 2007
(Appendix 1). The cashew nut production of 1961 increased by more than 10
fold in 5 decades.
India continue to be the country with largest cashew area (0.85 million
hal followed by Brazil, Indonesia, Vietnam and Nigeria (Fig. 1.4). With
respect to cashew nut production as well, India was the first untill 2001
followed by Nigeria, Brazil and Tanzania. But the situation changed
subsequently according to the data provided by FAO. This data is being
questioned now.
9.0 8.S
8.0 7.2
7.0 6.2
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
3.S 3.3
2.1 2.0 1.9
0.0
Fig. 1.4. Cashew area in major producing countries (2007)
6
During the last few years, Vietnam could make substantial break
through in the area of cashew nut production. According to FAO statistical
data base, during 2007, Vietnam produced 0.96 million tonnes of raw cashew
nuts from an area of 0.348 million ha with a mean productivity of2,761 kg/
ha. Ifthis is true, Vietnam has emerged as the major cashew nut producer,
followed by Nigeria (0.66 million tonnes) and then India (0.62 million tonnes).
Adoption of high-yielding varieties and technologies by the hard working
farming community of Vietnam enabled that country to achieve substantial
progress in cashew nut production.
India lost its supremacy with respect to cashew nut production as per
the staistics maintained by FAO. Cashew nut production in major producing
countries is shown in (Fig. 1.5).
10.0
9.6
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.6
6
.
2
6.0
S.O
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
1.8 1.S 13 12
.. 0.90.8
06
. 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.0
Fig. 1.1i. Cashew nut production in major producing countries (2007)
CASHEW IN INDIA
Today, cashew is one of the most important commercial crops in India.
Under Indian Conditions. Cashew flowers from December to April whereas
in Brazil and Africa, flowering occurs between June and December.
Cashew is mostly grown in the coastal belt of India. The important
cashew growing states in India are Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Tamil N adu, Orissa and Goa (Fig. 1.6).
The Indian cashew processing industry provides employment to 0.32
million persons. The internal production of raw cashew nuts meets only less
than half of the requirements of the Indian processing industry.
Among Indian states, Andhra Pradesh stands first in cashew area (0.171
million ha) whereas Maharashtra stands first with respect to cashew nut
production (0.210 million tones) during 2007-08.
7
Area
Slales
AREBIAN
(laiJ1. h3)
SEA
Andhra Pradesh 1.71
Goa 0.55
Karnalaka 1.03
Kerala 0.84
Lokshdwoop
Maharashlra 1.67
Orissa 1.31
Tamil Nadu 1.23
WaslBengal 0.10
Olhers 0.24
. __ .._-----
Tolal 8.68
Fig. 1.6. Cashew growing states in India
Cashew is grown in almost all the districts of Kerala. However, the
major cashew districts are Kannur, Malappuram, Thrissur, Kozhikode and
Palakkad (Fig. 1.7).
Olsl,lcl
ArBs (hn)
AloppUZha
3!:i25
Emakulom
1130
Idukkl
1197
Knnnllr
'500G
K."isumgod
18068
Kollam
~ 2 7
KuzllikkacJ.,
7:131:111
KOllayam
G38
Malappuram 9123
Ploklc.od
4391
POlhanulllthlllH
1048
Trlvandrum
18B9
Thrla8ur
3356
Wayanad
1235
Tulkll 78285
Fig. 1.7. Cashew distribution in Kerala
8
Between 1961 and 2007 there has been trendous increase in cashew
production (0.085 to 0.554 million tonnes), yield (425 kg/ha to 726 kg/ha)
and area (2 to 8.12 ha), Fig. 1.8, Appendix 3.
9.00
Fig. 1.8. Trend in cashew area in India (5-year moving average) from 1961-2007
The major cashew growing states in India and the increases in area,
production and productivity of cashew from 2003-04 to 2007-08 are shown in
Appendix 4.
The pricing trend of raw nut from 1990 to 2008 in different states, is
shown in Appendix 5. During 1990, the raw nut price in India ranged from
Rs 12.30 to Rs 16.80 per kg in different states. But during 2008, raw nut
price ranged between Rs. 30 and 47.2 per kg.
There are 3,650 cashew nut processing factories in the country
distributed in ten states with a processing capacity of 1.5 million tonnes of
raw nuts. The cashew industry in India employs 0.32 million persons for
cashew nut processing (Appendix 6).
India imports raw nuts to meet the requirement of the processing
industry from countries like Tanzania, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Indonesia,
Ivory Coast etc. The details of import of raw cashew to India between
1990-91 to 2007-08 are gtven in Appendix 7. During 1990-91, India imported
0.083 million tonnes of raw nut valued Rs 1,340 million, whereas during
2007-2008, the raw nut import increased to 0.606 million tonnes valued
Rs. 17,468 million.
During 1990-91, India exported 0.050 million tonnes of kernels valued
Rs. 4,422 million whereas during 2007-08, kernel export increased to 0.114
million tonnes valued Rs. 22,889 million (Appendix 8). India exports cashew
nut shell liquid as well. During 90-91, India exported 5,658 tonnes ofCNSL
valued Rs. 56 million whereas during 2007-2008, CNSL export was 7,813
tonnes valued Rs. 120 million (Appendix 9).
9
USA continued to be the major buyer of cashew kernel followed bi.
Netherlands, UK, Japan and UAE. India continues to be the major seller of
cashew kernels followed by Brazil and Vietnam.
CASHEW RESEARCH IN INDIA
In 1951 the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (lCAR) did first attempt
of cashew research in India while it sanctioned an ad-hoc scheme for re'
search on cashew with a central station at Ullal in Karnataka and regional
stations at Kottarakkara in Kerala and at Vengurla in Maharashtra. Anothef
station was started at Bapatla in Andhra Pradesh and J orhat in Assam, in
1955. Subsequently in 1962, the participation of the ICAR in financing the
regional station at Kottarakkara was terminated when the State
Government started a research station at Anakkayam in Malappuram district.
In 1970, the All India Co-ordinated Spices and Cashew nut Improvement
Project was sanctioned by the ICAR under which a co-ordinating centre was
established at the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod
with participating centres at AnakkayamlMadakkathara in Kerala,
Vridhachalam at Tamil Nadu, Vengurla in Maharashtra and Bapatla in
Andhra Pradesh (Damodaran, 1979). Currently, there are 10 Cashew Research
Centres in the country (Fig. 1.9). The complete addresses of these 10 research
centers of the country are enumerated here:
1. National Research Center for Cashew, Puttur - 574202, DK, Karnataka.
2. Cashew Research Station (Acharaya NG Ranga Agricultural University),
Bapatla - 522 101, Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh.
3. Cashew Research Station, Department of Horticulture (Orissa
University of Agriculture and Technology), Bhubaneswar - 751 003,
Orissa.
4. Agricultural Research Station (University of Agricultural Sciences),
Chinthamani - 563 125, Kolar District, Karnataka.
5. Zonal Agricultural Research Station (Indira Gandhi Krishi Viswa
Vidayalaya), Jagdalpur - 494005, Kumharawand, Bastar District,
Madhya Pradesh.
6. Regional Research Station (Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya),
Jhargram Farm, PO Jhargram - 721 507, Midnapore District, West
Bengal.
7. Cashew Research Station (Kerala Agricultural University),
Madakkathara - 680 651, Thrissur District, Kerala.
10
_ 2W!
Cashew: Origin and Distriblltion
INDIA
,--:,
N
A
~ ~
.,
Fig. 1.9. Map of India showing distribution of Research Centres
... National Research Centre for Cashew, Puttur-574202, D.K Karnataka
1. Cashew Research Station, Bapatla
2. Cashew Research Station, Bhubaneswar
3. Agricultural Research Station, Chintamani
4. Zonal Agricultural Research Station, Jagdalpur
5. Regional Research Station, Jhargram Farm, Jhargram
6a. Cashew Research Station, Madakkathara
6b. Regional Agricultural Research Station, Pilicode
7. Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurle
8. Regional Research Station, Vridhachalam
8. Regional Agricultural Research Station (Kerala Agricultural
University), Pilicode - 671353, Kasaragode District, Kerala.
9. Regional Fruit Research Station (Konkan Krishi Vidayapeeth),
Vengurla - 416516, Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra.
10. Regional Research Station (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University),
Vridhachalam - 606 001, South Arcot District, Tamil N adu.
11
The main objectives of the cashew research and development in the
country were to evolve high-yielding varieties of cashew capable of yielding
good quality kernels, to identify varieties resistant/tolerant to pests, to
develop suitable production technologies for achieving higher production
and productivity, to standardise suitable vegetative propagation techniques,
to evolve effective control measures against the major pests of cashew, to
transfer technology to farmers and extension agencies and to distribute
quality planting materials of elite varieties to farming community. The
cashew research during the last 3 decades contributed substantially to the
development of varieties and technologies capable of enhancing cashew nut
production in a big way.
12
Growth and Development
C
ashew follows an indeterminate growth pattern. It flowers and fruits
once in every year and this process continues for many years.
Traditionally, cashew is propagated through seeds (Plate 2.1) but now-a-day
propagation is done through grafts. Seeds normally take 7 to 10 days for
germination during summer and 10 to 15 days during rainy season for
germination.
Six-month-old soft wood grafts are the ideal planting materials in this
crop. An ideal graft may have 2 to 3 cm stem girth and 30 to 40 cm height
with 10 to 12 green leaves (Plate 2.2). Normally, grafts are planted coinciding
with the beginning of the rainy season.
Plants establish well within a month and starts developing new flushes.
The rate of growth depends on the climate, soil fertility, irrigation, fertilizer
application and the level of care and management.
Within 6 months, grafts grow to a height of 50 to 60 cm, with 6 to 8
branches. Sometimes, the grafts produce panicles at young age and they are
to be removed to encourage better vegetative growth. By the time the grafts
complete nine months of age, they may have a height of about 90 cm with 8
to 10 branches.
One year after planting, the stem girth at the base may range from
10 to 12 cm. The plants may show a height oflOO to 120 em with 10 to 12 branches.
Under good soil and climatic conditions, the plant growth and
development is fast. A 2-year-old plant, on an average, may show 2 to 2.5 m
height, 20 to 25 cm stem girth and 2 m canopy spread.
A 2-year-old 'graft - raised plantation' on a hilly slope shows more or
less uniform size and growth whereas trees in the seedling raised plantations
show considerable variability in growth habits and tree size.
Table 2.1. Mean height. girth and canopy spread of cashew at different age
2 yap 3 yap 4 yap 5 yap 6 yap 7 yap 8 yap 9 yap 10 yap 11 yap 12 yap 13 yap
Height 2.26 2.88 3.70 4.23 4.93 5.40 5.83 6.31 6.77 7.21 7.68 7.93
(m)
Girth 20.34 27.58 40.42 52.8864.78 70.79 77.77 83.29 88.93 92.85 97.89 102.33
(em)
Canopy 2.06 3.04 4.43 4.92 5.46 6.06 6.71 7.41 8.46 9.07 9.85 10.46
spread
(m)
(yap = year after planting)
The data on tree height. girth and canopy spread of cashew in relation
to age is given in Table 2.1.
A 3-year-old plant. on an average, shows 2.88 m height, 27.58 cm of
stem girth and 3 m of canopy spread.
A 4-year-old plant, on an average shows 3.7 m height, 40.42 cm of
stem girth and 4.43 m of canopy spread.
A 5-year-old plant, on an average, shows 4.23 m height, 52.88 cm of
A 7-year-old plant, on an average, shows 5.4 m height, 70.79 cm of
Height
The vertical growth pattern of cashew in relation to age is shown in
Fig. 2.1. The height of an adult tree after 9 year can exceed 6 m. The height
may be 10 to 12 m or even more as age exceeds 15 years.
1.00
7.10
.. 10
! 5.10
} ....
= 3.l1O
z.ot
1.10
0.10
I:: ::i
~
:;j
...
~ 9
iuiill
1 3 J , , 9 10 " 11 JJ
~ .. n
~
Fig. 2.1. Increase in tree height up to 13th year after planting
14
Girth
The pattern of girth (cross-section of main stem) increases in cashew tree in
relation to the age, Fig. 2.2. A 2-year-old tree may have a stem girth of 20 em
at the base. The stem girth may exceed 100 cm during 13
th
year after planting.
: ..... __
12345 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Fig. 2.2. Girth increase pattern in cashew up to 13
th
year after planting
Graft raised cashew plants start flowering and fruiting from the second
or third year of planting. Growth, flowering and productivity depends on the
soil, climate and care and management. In the west coast environments of
India, nut yield ranging from 1 to 2.5 kg/plant were obtained during the
third year of planting. During fourth year, nut yield increases to 2 to 4 kg/
plant.
A 5-year-old tree on an average yields 5 kg of raw nut per tree. The nut
yield may vary from 4 to 6 kg per tree. In exceptional cases more than 7 kg
nut per tree were also noticed even during 5
th
year.
The trees normally attain yield stability from 7th year. High-yielding
varieties under good management yield 7 to 10 kg raw nuts/tree, from the
7th year onwards. At a plant population of 200 treeslha, raw nut yield ranging
from 2.4 to 3.4 tonneslha is common in the west coast ofIndia when grafts of
high yielding varieties planted and managed scientifically.
The height, stem girth and canopy spread of a 15-year-old plant, on an
average, may be around 8 m, 110 cm and 11 m respectively (Plate 2.3). The
nut yield exceeds 15 kg.
The canopy size is one of the major factors deciding the nut yield of
cashew. Canopy size depends on the plant spacing and age. Cashew is a sun
loving tree, performs well in the lateritic soils ofKerala. The average annual
rainfall of this region is around 3,500 mm. Here, the flushing, flowering and
fruiting coincides with hot and dry days and cool nights. The productivity of
cashew is relatively high in this environment. The quality of nut weight,
shelling percentage and kernel colour is also high. We have observed many
trees (more than 40-year-old) in this area, which are tall and spreading, are
capable of yielding 100 kg raw nuts/tree. Such trees are called 'quintal trees'
as they yield more than 100 kg nuts/tree. These giant trees occupy about
150 to 200 sq m ofland and therefore per tree out put is also quite high.
15
--- - - ""-
The pattern of increase in girth (vertical view) of a cashew tree ip
relation to age is shown in Plate 2.4 (a-b).
In young age, the tree trunk surface is smooth. Gradually, the outet
surface becomes rough. An l-year-old tree may show a stem girth of 12 to 14-
cm where as a tree of 20 years of age may show a girth of 110 to 120 Crn ot
even more, depending on the growing environment and level of nutrition.
Tree Size
The tree canopy expansion pattern in relation to age is shown in Fig. 2.3. It
is evident that height, stem girth and canopy spread of cashew increases
steadily with age. The trees grow fast under irrigated conditions. In the
west coast ofIndia where rainfall is relatively high (above 3000 mm/year),
the growth as well as yield of cashew is higher when compared with east
coast. The low soil fertility and low rainfall coupled with the existence of soil
related problems such as alkalinity, poor soil condition etc. are responsible
for this low yield in the east coast of India.
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Fig. 2.3. Growth pattern of cashew over years
Flushing and Leaf Development
Cashew comes to flushing, 2 to 3-fold/year, depending on the availability of
rainfall. But the flushing that occurs before flowering (productive flush) is
the most important. Flushing starts with a bud break in the matured shoot
and small leaves are pushed out. These small leaves grow and mature within
a month. A study, conducted at Cashew Research Station, Madakkathara,
showed that it takes 24-30 days from bud break to full development of leaf
(matured leaf). On 3
rd
day after bud break, the leaf length may be around 0.5
cm. At full maturity (after 25-30 days from bud break), the leaflength may
be 13-15 cm and leaf width may be around 7-8 cm. Leaf size is a varietal
character. The pattern of growth and development of cashew leafis shown
in Plate 2.5.
In general, young leaves are red in colour (Plate 2.6 a-b). From bud
break it takes 25-35 days for the full maturity of the flush.
16
Growth and Deuelopment
Leaf Colour
This differs among varieties. Young leaves may be red, yellow red, green yellow
or purple (Plate 2.7 a-d). But young leaves are red in most of the varieties.
Leaf Shape
This differs considerably amongst varieties (Plate 2.8 a-c). Cashew leaves
can be broadly classified in to oblong, obovate or oval. The frequently observed
leaf shape is obovate or oval. Leaf shape is a varietal character.
Panicle Development
Flushing and flowering is a process that occurs and continues simultaneously
in cashew. Some of the flushes that emerge before the flowering season
putforth panicle. A p ~ i l e primordia breaks first, gradually grows and
develop into a full panicle. It takes 23 to 30 days from panicle break to flower
opening. The panicle length on 3
rd
day after panicle break. will be around 3
cm. With in a month, it grows and develops into a complete panicle, bearing
staminate and bisexual flowers. A full grown panicle, on an average, will
have 15 cm height and an equal width at the base. The stages of development
of a panicle are shown in Plate 2.9 (a-f).
Growth Habits of Trees
The growth habits of cashew trees differ with varieties and eco-types. Broadly
tree growth habits can be classified into three:- trees with upright and compact
canopy (Plate 2.10 a), tree with upright and open canopy (Plate 2.10 b), tree
with spreadig conopy (Plate 2.10 c).
In varieties with upright and compact canopy, it is possible to
accommodate more number of trees per unit area. Such types are suitable
for high density planting. The productivity per unit ofland area will be more
in high density plantation.
Upright and open canopy facilitates better penetration of solar radiation
within the canopy. Trees with spreading canopy may cause interlocking of
canopies of adjacent trees. Varieties with spreading habit may not be suitable
for high density planting. On a per tree basis, the productivity may be high,
but on a per hectare basis the productivity may not be high.
Cashew Apple
The shape of cashew apple varies with the variety. Apples can be of
cylindrical, conical-obovate, round or pyriform in shape (Plate 2.11 a-d)
depending on the variety.
17
--"]
1

-g
1
00

11
JI
'"

..
I"

1

t.-
_Wuilh- -'
Fig. 1.4.. Cashew apple with nut
Fig. 2.5. Cashew nut
parts of the cashew apple and cashew nut are shown in Fig. 2.4
-'.Fig. !.5 respoetivcJy.
'ftw,c\sbcw fipple has n base at the pointofatiachme nt tothepeduncle.
a cavity attached theuut. Thenutamain:ssnugly at
pedicel, knOWD as thecashcw" apple. 'Iheappleamtains
which Is sweet and ncb in vitamins and minerals.
The nut consists of shell, testa and kernel . The shell has an outer
epicarp, a mesocarp containi ng acorrossive cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL)
and an endocarp. Within the shell, there is a membrane like testa which
forms a protective cover to the kerneL The kernel is white, highly nutritious
and tasty_ The embryo is attached to the broad end of the kernel.
The shape of cashew nut differs with variety. The normal shape of nut
is that of kidney. Nuts with oblong-ellipsoid shape is also observable.
Phenological phases
Theimportant phenological phases ofcashew are flushing, flowering and fruit
deve.lopment. Normnlly, cashew flushes 23 times in a year in the west coast
oflndin depending upon the occurrence. of monsoons. The flushes that appear
during SeptemberOctober season are productive and they can bE'!ar panicle.
18
Three to four weeks after flushing, flowering will commence. From Kerala,
Mini et al. (1995) reported that the pre-harvest flushes occur during November
are extremely important in cashew, both quantitatively and qualitatively.
Large amount of younger leaves produced by the tree during November to
December period are potential absorber offoliar applied nutrients and it would
be beneficial, ifnutrient sprays are directed to them at this phase.
In the west coast of India, early varieties start flowering during
November-December. Mid-season varieties start flowering during December-
January and late season varieties flower from January to February. The
occurrence of phenotic events depends largely on the rainfall. The
phenophases may shift either side (early or late) by 2-4 weeks, depending a
shift in the rainfall pattern, during different years.
In cashew flushing, flowering and fruit development stages are critical
phases that decide the nut yield. Any form of stress, (biotic or abiotic) during
these phases can decrease crop yield substantially which cannot be
compensated by adoption of corrective measures later. During flushing phase
(prior to flowering) there will be heavy internal demand for nutrients as the
tree is preparing to enter into the reproductive phase. Therefore adequate
nutrients through fertilizer application is essential at this time. Similarly
intervention of biotic stress in pests and diseases at this stage can also cause
substantial decline in nut yield. Therefore, proper plant-protection practices
should not be missed during this phase. Extreme levels of moisture stress
during critical phases also decrease nut yield considerably. Cashew does not
warrant continuous irrigation to offer better yield. However, in extremely
stressed condition, irrigation once in 15 days during summer increases the
nut yield considerably.
Development of Cashew Nut
The stages of nut development from flower to full maturity of fruit are in
Plate 2.12 (a-f).
The duration of nut maturity from flowering depends on the season
and variety. Under the tropical conditions of southern India, it takes 50 to
70 days from pollination to nut maturity. In a week after pollination, it may
attain the peanut stage. Within a month it will develop in to a tender nut
and in another 30 to 40 days the nuts will mature.
Cashew nut is typically reniform. At 3 week., after pollination, the nut
length will be approximately 3 cm and nut width around 2.5 cm. About 33%
of the available space inside the nut will be fIlled with kernel, at this stage of
nut development.
19
Cashew- A Monoguph
The developing tender nut is green. The shell of the immature nut
contains a volatile liquid called cashew nut shell liquid in abundance. About
six weeks after pollination, the nut length will be 4.0 cm and nut width
around 3.5 em. The immature nuts at this stage will he filled with white
kernel with lot of moisture. The nut size will be reduced thereafter due to
desiccation and shrinlcing. Similar shrinkage occurs in the kernel also.
The matured nut will be grey, strong and sturdy. The matured kernels
will be white and hard with relatively less moisture compared to the earli er
stages of development.
The apple colour varies with variety. The appl es at fully ripe stage may
be red or yell ow (Plate 2.13 a-b). The nuts will be grey. The nut size also
varies witb the variety. Certain vari eties are cluster bearing with large
number of fruits in a single panicle.
The stages of deveiopmentof cashew nut and apple are shown in Plate
2.14 (a-d).
From fertilisation to nut set it takes about seven days. Nuts attain
maximum size in about 35 days after fertilisation. Grey nut stage is attained
in about 47 days after fertilisation. Fruits attain full matUrity within 60-70
days after fertilization.
The longitudinal section of nut and apple at different stages of
development is shown in Fig. 2.6.
Fi.2.8. LoogitudinallJeCtion ocubew nut and apple at different ltages odevelopmeol
The fillage of kernel is slow during inital stages of development. The
green nuts will be full between 5 and 6 weeks after fertilization. Kernel
development becomes faster thereafter. At grey nut stage, kernel becomes
more firm. The nuts attain physiological maturity between 8 and 10 weeks,
after rcrtilization. During advanced stage of maturity, the nut size decreases
due to shrinkage and apple size increases due to enlargement. Apple becomes
sweet. The stalk end of the apple becomes soft. Due to
Increase In weIght of the apple, stalk end fail to hold the apple and nut. At
Growth and Deuelopment
this stage, even a mild wind will result detachment of fruit from the stalk.
Thus the fruits falloff.
Apple colour
By and large, the cashew apples falls under two colours: red and yellow,
although apples with intermediate colours also exist. The tannin content
of red apples is relatively more compared to that in yellow apples (Plate
2.15 a and b).
Apple size
The apples of cashew differ in their size as well. Apples of the variety V5 are
very small whereas M 33/2 and H-1608 produce big apples.
Root System
Cashew being a perennial tree, has to remain continuously in a specific soil
environment over a long period of time. It has a deep and spreading root
system. Root distribution pattern of cashew depends on the age, the type of
planting material, the soil environment in which it is grown, level of crop
nu,trition, irrigation etc. Majority of feeding roots normally reside in the
surface layer ofthe soil.
Cashew is propagated vegetatively as well as through seeds. The type
of root system depends on the type of planting material. While seedlings
develop a typical tap root system, the trees develop from air layers develop
fibrous root system.
Upon germination of the nut, the radicle develops rapidly into a
tap-root, which further produces laterals. AE, the lateral roots elongate, fibrous
roots develop on the tap root (Adams, 1975). The simple and fragile tap root
system, developed in the first phase of growth of the young plant, takes up a
complex structure of strong and extensive roots with considerable lateral
and vertical spread.
Seedlings with good tap root and a number oflaterals normally withstand
transplantation shock and drought whereas young seedlings, with poorly
developed root system fail to establish during summer. Adams (1975)
advocated retention of sufficient number of active lateral roots on cashew
seedlings for their establishment in the field. Poor establishment of
vegetatively propagated planting materials in the field is also believed to be
due to inadequate root development.
Seed treatment with gibberellic acid (GA) or chi oro phenoxy acetic acid
(CPA) was not effective in inducing root growth in cashew seedlings. However,
21
substantial root growth could be obtained by treatment with naphthalene
acetic acid (NAA) at 100 ppm (Shanmughavelu, 1979). Foliar spray with
butyric acid (IBA) at concentrations upto 100 ppm, enhances growth of
primary and secondary roots in seedlings. The effect of Azotobacter
inoculant, either alone or in combination with plant growth regulators, on
rooting of cashew seedlings has also been reported (Oblisami, 1979).
Root activity offour cashew varieties tree) was studied in
relation to four Phenological phases employing 32p technique.
Highest root activity and peak absorption of N, P and K were noticed
.during the "flushing and early flowering" phase, which extended from
September to December. It is suggested that the onset of this phase is the
most appropriate time for fertilizer application in a cashew orchard. Root
activity was the lowest during "maturity and harvesting" phase (March to
June). However, irrigation during this period enhanced 32p uptake by the
roots (Beena et aZ., 1995).
Root Distribution Pattern
The young cashew trees grown on soils ofloamy to sandy loam texture was
reported by Tsakiris and Northwood (1967). They found that the tap root of
a 42 month old tree extended to a depth of over 3.2 m. This root had a dia of
8.8 cm at a soil depth of 46 cm and tapered gradually to 1.9 cm thickness at
a depth of 1.4 m. The :roots of seedling raised trees go to a depth of 4 to 4.5
m in deep soil.
Khader (1986) studied the root distribution pattern of seedling-raised
cashew trees, grown on a laterite soil, by escavation method. He expressed
the distribution of roots at different lateral distances and depths on dry
weight basis. Over 67% ofthick roots secondary root and tertiary
branches) and 26% of the fine roots (fibrous roots developed from tap root
and secondary and tertiary branches) were found within a radius of 50 cm
from the base of the tree. In the 51 to 100 cm radial distance from the base,
about 16% ofthe thicker roots and 20% of the fine roots were found. There
was a sharp decline in the quantum of thick roots at a lateral distance of
1 m beyond which the decrease was gradual up to 2 m. The region beyond
2 m distance from the tree did not support many thick roots. In contrast,
the fine roots were mostly concentrated within 25 to 200 cm area around
the tree. Even beyond 2 m radial distance, the preponderance of fine roots
was apparently more than that of the thick roots.
The roots penetrate vertically down even to a depth of 9.5 m.
Nevertheless, in the surface 50 cm soil layer, over 85% of the thick roots
and 45% of the fine roots could be extracted. Root penetration below 50 cm
22
.- -- ... --.:
but within 1 m depth was accounted for by about 5% ofthe thick and 8% of
the fine roots. Beyond 2 m depth, the root penetration decreased considerably.
These results indicated that the thick roots were mainly confined upto 50
cm depth. On volume basis, 512.73 g of thick roots and 43.73 g of fine roots
were present per m
3
soil. Perhaps, the extensive branching and ramification
of the roots coupled with deep penetrating ability might account for the
drought tolerance and hardy nature of the crop.
According to Wahid et aZ. (1989), the lateral root activity of adult cashew
tree was traced upto 4 m and to a depth of 60 cm. Using 32p soil injection
technique, they found that absorption was mostly from 0 to 15 cm soil layer
than from deeper zone, suggesting that cashew is a surface feeder. They
explained that an area of 2 m radially around the tree accounted for above
72% of total active roots.
In shallow laterite soils, cashew tree develops an extensive root system
and the majority of roots (89.3%) occur 300 cm laterally around the tree
and 100 cm vertically (Fig. 2.7). The pattern of decrease in root density in
relation to lateral distance suggests that fertilizer application is to be done
within 300 cm laterally around the cashew tree (Abdul Salam and
Mohanakumaran, 1995).

0
50
.S
oS
100
r:l.
II)
150
't:I
'5
.f:
200

0 100 200 300 400
Lateral distance in cm.
Fig. 2.7. Root distribution pattern (%) of seedling raised cashew tree in laterite soil
Root system development in cashew is influenced by atleast 4 factors
viz., soil type, age of the plant, type of the planting material and planting
method.
Soil Type
Harishu Kumar and Khader (1985) examined the root system development
in cashew seedling raised on loamy sand, sandy loam, clay loam, clay, laterite,
laterite brick powder and pure sand. The deepest penetration of the tap root
23
occurred in medium textured soils and in media viz. sandy loam, loa:
sand, laterite and laterite brick powder. The fibrous root emanating fr,
the base of the stem were concentrated within a depth of 0-15 cm. In he;:
soils like clay and clay loam, the proliferation of roots was comparativ,
slow. The impeded root growth in these soils could be primarily due to f
compaction. The studies indicated that very light texture, such as that
sand, also did not favour development of a prominent taproot.
Vidyadharan and Peethambaran (1979) observed that the vertical spn:
of cashew roots was considerably restricted by the shallow soil. The taprl
was found to grow only to the depth of the soil and stopped its growth frl
30 to 40 cm depth while coming into contact with the hard sub soil. Accordl
to Tsakiris and Northwood (1967), vertical roots follow a different COUl
due to soil compaction.
Age of the Plant
The extent of lateral spread of the roots found to differ with the age of t
tree (Tsakiris and Northwood, 1967). In 18-month-old plants, the late:
spread of the roots did not exceed 1.2 m distance from the tree while
30-month-old, 42-month-old and 72-month-old trees, the roots could be tra<
upto 4.6,5.6,7.3 m, respectively.
Planting Material
Vidhyadaran and Peethambaran (1979) reported a positive correlati
between the root spread and the canopy spread as they said that the spre
of the canopy could be considered as a criterion for determining the area
fertilizer application around the plant as well as for spacing the cash
plants during planting. Canopy measurement taken by Tsakiris a:
Northwood (1967), however, indicated that the lateral spread of the ro(
was approximately twice that of the canopy.
CASHEW - A CROP PLOUGH
According to Abdul Salam (1998) cashew serves the purpose ofa "crop ploull
because of the high penetrating ability of its root system to break the hardp
that occurs on the sub-soil. Effect of cashew is unique to inflict a ploughi
effect to the soil by way ofloosening the hard layers. The rooting path in t
soil, allows percolation of rain-water to the deeper layers and encouragi
microbial activity in the rhizoplanes (Plate 2.16). The root exudates al
help to change soil-biology. The enhanced availability of moisture in the S'
soil along with an improvement in the biological activity facilitates a to1
improvement in the physical, chemical and biological properties of the deef
24
soil-layers. The crevices created on decay ofthe roots encourage movement
of rain-water, which helps in bringing up the ground-water table. Ultimately,
the effect of this crop in the ecology over a period of time would be a total
improvement in the agronomic properties of the soil. Cashew performs
excellently well even in waste lands (Plate 2.17).
25
Crop Improvement
C
ashew is primarily a cross-pollinated crop, that exists considerable
variability in the population. The growth, flowering, fruiting, and other
plant characters vary considerably amongst trees and between varieties.
Variability in certain important characters in seedling germplasm as reported
by Bhaskara Rao and Swamy (1994) is given below.
Flowering season
Flowering duration
Harvesting duration
Number of frui ts per panicle
Apple weight
Nut weight
Apple: Nut ratio
Shelling percentage
Kernel weight
Shell thickness
Mean yield /plantlyear
(10 annual harvests)
October to January
40 to 127 days
30 to 105 days
Ito 8
30 to 150 g
2.4 to 18.0 g
4:1 to 12:1
19.0 to 35.0
0.5 to 4.5 g
1.5 to 5.0 mm
0.50 to 11.75 kg
Wide variation was noticed in accessions of seed origin. The concept
of the varieties in cashew is a recent origin. The initial identification of
varieties was based on total yield realized per tree only. This has resulted
in release of varieties with very small kernels. Important attributes like
kernel weight, shelling percentage and recovery of whole kernels received
little attention earlier. In recent years, with the increasing concern for the
quality, emphasis is given by breeders for identification of varieties with
kernel weight over 2 g (export grade of W 210 to W 240) and shelling
percentage not less than 30.
Crop Improvement
HYBRIDIZATION
Crop improvement programme through hybridization is receiving greater
attention in almost all the cashew research centres ofIndia. Hybridization
in cashew was started at Kottarakkara in Kerala (1963) and later continued
at Cashew Research Station, Anakkayam and currently at Cashew Research
Station, Madakkathara. In the initial breeding programmes three parents
with prolific bearing (T.No. 12 A, 30 and 30 A) and 3 bold nut type parents
(T.N o. 27, 8A and Brazil 18) were used in hybridization at Cashew Research
Station, Anakkayam (Damodaran, 1977). The reports on evolution ofthese
hybrids indicated marked variation in the progenies derived from the same
parental combinations.
Of the 28 parental combinations evaluated at Cashew Research Station,
Anakkayam (191 hybrid progenies) and Madakkathara (114 progenies), two
hybrids viz., H-3-17 and H-4-7 were found to be superior to all other
combinations (Damodaran et al., 1978). Results reported from other research
stations viz. Vengurla (Maharashtra) and Baptala (Andhra Pradesh) also
indicated that whenever prolific bearer is crossed with bold nut type, the
chances of realising the hybrid with better nut weight are more
(N agabhushanam et al., 1977 and Salvi, 1979).
Three hybrids viz., Dhana, Kanaka, Priyanka released from Kerala
Agricultural University have at least one parent with bold nut character.
Dhana is across between ALGD-1 and K30/1 and Priyanka is across between
BLA139-1 and K30-1 where K30-1 has good nut weight (over 8 g). Kanaka is
across between BLA139-1 and H-3-13. H-3-13 itselfis a hybrid having one of
its parents with bold nut (Brazil 18). Among the hybrids released so far,
Kanaka and Priyanka both of which have BLA 139-1 as female parent, have
very short flowering phase (Bhaskara Rao and Bhat, 1996 ).
Crop improvement programme in Australia centered around
development of hybrids wherein thousands of hybrids are produced using
parents of genetic diversity obtained from different countries especially from
India and Brazil (Chacko et al., 1990). A simple technique of pollination in
cashew has been developed at National Research Centre for Cashew, Puttur
(Bhat et al., 1998). Panicles having flower buds, which will open the next
day, are selected both on male and female parent trees. All the opened
flowers and nuts, if any, are removed from the selected panicles on the
female parental tree. The Plate 3.1 shows bisexual and male flowers while
Plate 3.2 shows pollination technique.
Every day in the morning, between 8 and 9. 30 am, all the opened male
flowers from the selected panicles on female parental trees are removed. Then,
anthers are removed (emasculated) from freshly opened hermaphrodite flowers
27
of the panicles using ordinary pins before anther The stigma along
with the style is enclosed with butter-paper roil, which IS prepared using a
small piece of butter paper sheet of 2.5 cm x 1.5 cm size, by roiling it with the
help offingers (Plate 3.3). Freshly opened male flowers with undehisced anthers
are collected in petridish from selected male parents (between Band 9.30 am)
and the anthers are allowed to open under partial shade.
The butter-paper roll from the emasculated flower is removed and the
stigma is pollinated with pollens from freshly opened anthers of male parent
collected in a petri-dish. The pollinated stigma along' with style is again
enclosed with butter-paper roll. Each panicle should be labeled indicating
names off em ale and male parents of the cross and also the panicle number.
Each panicle is used for only one cross combination. The above procedure is
continued tillB to 10 hermaphrodite flowers are pollinated in each selected
panicle. All the open hermaphrodite flowers, which are not used for
pollination, are removed daily. All the remaining flower buds are removed
from the panicle on the last day of pollination for that panicle.
Each panicle with developing hybrids, is enclosed in a cloth bag to
collect the panicle-wise hybrid nuts on maturity. The details of the crosses
should also be written on cloth bags. The hybrid seedlings are raised in
polybags for further field evaluation. Tender nuts at early stage of development
are shown in Plate 3.4.
Performance of Hybrids
The review of performance ofthe cashew varieties (selections and hybrids)
indicated that the performance of hybrids were better than the selections.
Hybrid vigour can easily be exploited in cashew because of the amenability
of this crop for vegetative propagation.
HIGHYIELDING CASHEW VARIETIES
Crop improvement work undertaken in the country under the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (National Research Center for Cashew, Puttur)
and State Agricultural Universities (KeralaAgricultural University, Konkan
Krishi Vidyapeeth, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bidhan Chandra
Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology)
during the past five decades led to the development of 40 high-yielding
varieties capable of yielding 2 to 4 tonneslha of raw nuts. Ofthe 40 varieties
released so far, 14 are hybrids and 26 are selections. These varieties possess
desirable attributes like medium to bold nuts, high shelling percentage,
high kernel weight and 'preferred export grades.
28
Crop Improvement
The salient characteristics of the high-yielding cashew varieties
released in India are summarised here.
Cashew Varieties from Kerala Agricultural University
. . Vallanikkara, Thissur, Kerala
The KeralaAgricultural University, so far released 12 high-yielding varieties
of which 7 are hybrids and 5 are selections. The characteristics ofthe vruieties
released by Kerala Agricultural University are given below.
Anakkayam 1 (Plate 3.5)
Year of release
Centre
HybridlSelection
Canopy type
Branching habit'
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yieldltree
K22-1 (Plate 3.6)
Year of release
Center
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nutyieldltree
29
1982
CRS, Madakkathara
Selection
Compact
Intensive
October to November
December to January
Early variety
Pinkish yellow
71.0%
5.95 g
168
1.67 g
27.99%
W280
12kg
1987
CRS, Madakkathara
Selection (Kottarakkara-22)
Compact
Intensive
December to February
February to March
Mid-season variety
Red
67.5%
6.2g
161
1.6g
26.5%
W280
13.2 kg
Madakkathara 1 (Plate 3.7)
Year of release 1990
Centre CRS, Madakkathara
Hybrid/Selection Selection
Canopy type Compact
Branching habit Intensive
Flowering November
Fruiting January to March
Special character Early
Apple colour Yellow
Juice percentage 72%
Nut weight 6.2 g
Number of nuts /kg 61
Kernel weight 64 g
Shelling percentage 26.8%
Export grade W280
Mean nut yield/tree 13.8 kg
Madakkathara 2 (NDR-2-l) (Plate 3.8)
Year of release
Center
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts /kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Kanaka (H 1598) (Plate 3.9)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
}o"'lowering
Fruiting
Special character
30
1990
CRS, Madakkathara
Selection
Open
Intensive
January to March
February to May
Late variety
Red
68%
7.25g
138
1.88 g
26%
W210
17 kg
1993
CRS, Madakkathara
Hybridization
BLA-139-1 x H3-13
Open
Intensive
November to December
December to March
Mid-season variety
Crop Improvement
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Dhana (H 1608) (Plote 3.10)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Numberofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Priyanka (H-1591) (Plate 3.11)
Year of release
Center
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
31
Yellow
70%
6.Sg
147
2.0Sg
30.5S%
W280
12.8 kg
1993
CRS, Madakkathara
Hybridization
ALGD-1-1 x K-30-1
Compact
Intensive
December to January
January to March
Mid-season
Yellow
72%
8.2g
122
2.44g
29.8%
W210
10.66 kg
1995
CRS, Madakkathara
Hybridization
BLA-139-1 x K-30-1
Open
Intensive
February to May
Bold nut variety, mid sea-son, and
drought tolerant
Yellowish red
67%
10.8g
93
2.87 g
26.57%
W180
17.03 kg
Cashew - A Monograp h
Sulabha (KI02) (Plate 3.12)
Yem' of release
Center
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special characters
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tl'ee
Dharasree (H317) (Plate 3.13)
Year of'release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Pnrentage
Cunopy type
Brunching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts/leg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean Ilutyieldltree
Amrutha (H 1597) (Plate 3.14)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
32
1996
CRS, Madakkathara
Selection
Compact
Intensive
January to February
February to April
Bold nut, late season
Light orange
70%
9.8g
102
2.5 g
25.51%
W210
21.9 kg
1996
CRS, Anakkayam,
Hybridiza tion
T30 x Brazil-18
Compact
Intensive
December to January
January to March
Mid-season
Yellowish pink
67%
7.8g
128
2.4g
30.5%
W240
15.02 kg
1998
CRS, Madakkathara
Hybridization
BLA-139-1 x H-3-13
Spreading
Extensive
December to January
January to March
.. 'P-.... jj ... ,'=
Crop Improvement
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Akshaya (H7 - 6) (Plate 3.15)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Anagha (H-8-1) (Plate 3.16)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts /kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
33
Mid-season variety
Yellow
72.2%
7.18g
139
2.24 g
31.58
W210
18.35 kg
1998
CRS, Anakkayam,
Hybridization
H-4-7 x K-30-1
Compact
Intensive
December to January
January to March
Mid-season
Yellow
68%
llg
91
3.12 g
28.36%
W180
11.78 kg
1998
CRS, Anakkayam,
Hybridization
T20 x K-30-1
Compact
Intensive
January to February
February to April
Mid-season
Orange red
66%
10 g
100
2.9 g
29%
W180
13.73 kg
. it
... _. -----.. - .. --
Cashew Varieties from Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth,
Dapoli, Maharashtra
Dr. Balasaheb Sawant, Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth released 7 varieties of
which 5 are hybrids and 2 are selections. The characteristics of varieties
released by Dr. Balasaheb Sawant, Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth are given
here.
Vengurla 1 (Plate 3.17)
Year of release
Centre
HybriclJSelection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnuts/kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nutyieldltree
Year of release
Centre
HybriclJSelection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nutyieldltree
34
1974
RFRS, Vengurla
Selection CAn Sur 1)
Compact
Intensive
September to November
December to March
Medium-sized nut
Yellow
65%
6.25g
160
1.39g
31%
W240
19 kg
1979
RCRS, Vengurla
Selection
WBDC-VI
Compact
Intensive
October to December
January to April
Small nut and high yielded
Red
45%
4.35g
230
Ig
32%
W320
24 kg
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts /kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nutyieldltree
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts /kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nutyieldltree
Year of release
Centre
HybridlSelection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
-- ----....-
Crop Improvement
35
1982'
RCRS, Vengurla
Hybrid
Vengurla-1 x Vetore-56
Compact
Intensive
February to May
Bold-sized nut
Yellow
77%
9.09g
115
2.09g
27%
W210
14.4 kg
1982
RCRS, Vengurla
Hybrid
Midnapur red x Vetore-56
Open
Extensive
February to May
Red
76%
7.69g
140
1.91 g
31%
W210
17.2 kg
1984
RCRS, Vengurla
Hybrid
Ansur early x Mysore Kotekar
Compact
Intensive
October to December
January to April
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts /kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts /kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple color
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts /kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
36
Yellow
86%
4.54g
220
1.0g
30%
W400
16.6 kg
1991
RCRS, Vengurla
Hybrid
Vetore-56 x Vengurla-1
Compact
Intensive
February to May
Fruiting laterals more
Yellow
85%
7.90g
196
1.91 g
28%
W210
13.8 kg
1997
RCRS, Vengurla
Hybrid
Vengurla-4 x M- 10/4
Compact
Intensive
March to May
Bold-sized nuts
Yellow
86%
10 g
100
2.5g
30.5%
W180
18.5 kg
Crop Improuement
Cashew Varieties from Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural
University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultu-ral University, Hyderabad has released
7 varieties of which 3 are hybrids and 4 are selections. Their characteristics
are enumerated here.
BPP 1 (Plate 3.24)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutsikg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
BPP 2 (Plate 3.25)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special characters
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
1980
CRS, Bapatla
Hybridization
T1 x T273
Open
Extensive
February to April
April to May
Flush colour is pinkish
yellow
68%
5g
37
200 to 205
1.375 g
27.5%
W400
10 kg
1981
CRS, Bapatla
Hybridization
T1 x T273
Open
Extensive
February to April
April to May
Cluster bearer, small nut
Yellow
67%
4g
250
1.04 g
25.7%
W450
11 kg
BPP 3 (Plate 3.26)
Year of release
Centre
HybridiSelection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
No. ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nutyieldltree
BPP 4 (Plate 3.27)
Year of release
Centre
HybridiSelection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts /kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nutyieldltree
BPP 5 (Plate 3.28)
Year of release
Centre
HybridiSelection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
38
1981
CRS, Bapatla'
Selection
Open
Extensive
March to May
April to June
Yellow
67%
4.8g
208-210
1.34 g
28.1%
W400
11 kg
1980
CRS, Bapatla
Selection
Open
Extensive
February to April
April to May
Yellow
64%
5g
200
1.15g
23%
W400
10.5 kg
1980
CRS, Bapatla
Selection (T. No .1)
Compact
Intensive
February to April
April to May
Early bearer
Yellow
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
BPP 6 (Plate 3.29)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
BPP-8 (H2/16) (Plate 3.30)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habi t
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Crop Improvement
39
64%
5.2g
192 to 200
1.25 g
24%
W400
11 kg
1980
CRS, Bapatla
Selection CT.No. 56)
Open/Spreading
Extensive
February to May
April to June
Long flowering duration
Yellow
74%
6g
165-170
1.44 g
24%
W400
10.5 kg
1993
CRS, Bapatla
Hybridization
T1 x T39
Compact
Intensive
February to April
April to May
Early bearer
Yellow
64%
8.2g
138-140 or 140-150
1.89 g
27.0%
W210
14.5 kg
. Cashew Vsarieties from Taniil NaduAgricultural University,
Coimbatore, Tamil ~ d u .
Tamil N adu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil N adu so far released
3 high-yielding cashew selections. The characteristics of varieties released
by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu are given
below.
Vridhachalam 1 (Plate 3.31)
Year of release 1981
Centre RRS, Vridhachalam
Hybrid/Selection Selection
Canopy type Compact
Branching habit Intensive
Flowering January to April
Fruiting February to May
Special character Suitable for coastal region.
Apple colour Yellow with slight red tinge
Juice percentage 74.0%
Nut weight 5.00 g
Number ofnutslkg 200
Kernel weight 1.4 g
Shelling percentage 28%
Export grade W320
Mean nut yield/tree 7.2 kg
Vridhachalam-2 (M 44/3) (Plate 3.32)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
40
1985
RRS, Vridhachalam
Selection
Compact
Intensive
February to April
March to May
Compact canopy
Pinkish yellow
82%
5.12 g
195 nuts approximately
1.45 g
28.5%
W320
7.4 kg
Crop Improvement
Vridhachalam 3 (M 26/2) (Plate 3.33)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
1991
RRS, Vridhachalam
Selection
Compact
Intensive
January to April
February to May
Early flowering,
Red
72.8%
7.18g
140
2.16g
29.1%
W210
11.68 kg
Cashew Varieties from University of Aglicultural Sciences,
Krisla Nagar, Dharwad, Karnataka or GKVK
Campus, Bangalore
This university so far released 6 cashew varieties and all are selections.
Ullal 1 and mlal 2 are the first two varieties released by Krisla Nagar,
Dharwad, Karnataka or GKVK Campus, Bangalore are during 1984. The
desirable characteristics released by University of Agricultural Sciences are
given here.
Ullall (Plate 3.34)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
41
1984
ARS, IDlal
Selection
Medium spreading
Intensive
November to April
February to May
Long flowering duration
Yellow
64.2%
6.7g
145 to 150
2.05g
30.7%
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
UUal 2 (Plate 3.35)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Ullal 3 (Plate 3.36)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts /kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Ulla14 (Plate 3.37)
Year of release
Centre
HybricVSelection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
42
W210
16 kg
1986
ARS,01lal
Selection
Medium spreading
Intensive
December to March
February to April
Short flowering duration
Red
64.1%
5.9 g
170 to 175
1.83 g
30.5%
W320
18.5 kg
1993
ARS,01lal
Selection
Open
Intensive
November to January
January to March
Short duration
Dark red
66.1%
7.0g
140 to 145
2.10g
30%
W210
14.7 kg
1994
ARS,01lal
Selection
Open
Intensive
November to January
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Chintamani 1 (Plate 3.38)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
UN 50 (Plate 3.39)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
Crop Improvement
43
January to March
Short duration
Yellow
65.4%
7.2 g
135 to 140
2.15 g
30.8%
W210
9.5 kg
1993
ARS, Chin tam ani
Clonal selection
Open
Extensive
January to April
February to May
Uniform nuts
Yellowish red
65.4%
7.0 g
140 to 145
2.10g
31.0%
W210
7.2 kg
1996
ARS, Ullal
Selection
Medium
Extensive
November to January
February to May
Bold nuts
Yellow
65.2%
9.0 g
110 to 115
2.24g
32.8%
W180
10.5 kg
Cashew Varieties from- National Research Centre for
Cashew, Darbe, Puttur, Karnataka
Two cashew selections were released by NRCC during 1981. The
characteristics of these varieties are given here.
NRCC 1 (Plate 3.40)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
NRCC 2 (Plate 3.41)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Nut weight
Number ofnutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
44
1989
NRCC, Puttur
Selection
Medium compact
Extensive
March to April
Short duration
Red
7.5g
133
2.lOg
25%
W210
10 kg
1989
NRCC, Puttur
Selection .
2/9 Dicherla
Medium compact
Intensive
November to January
February to March
Short duration
Pink
9.2g
108
2.15g
29.0%
W210
9.0 kg
Crop Improvement
Cashew variety from Bhidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,
. Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal
Bhidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal
released a cashew selection by name Jhargram 1 during 1989.
Jhargram 1 (Plate 3.42)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Parentage
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts/kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
1989
RRS, BCKV, Jhargram
Selection
TN-16
Medium compact
Intensive
February to April
April to May
Yellow
63.5%
5g
190 to 208
1.5g
30%
W320
8.5 kg
Cashew Variety from Orissa University of Agriculture and
Technology, Siripur, Bhubaneswar, Orissa
QUAT released a cashew variety through selection and released during 1989
as Bhubaneswar 1.
Bhubaneswar 1 (Plate 3.43)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering .
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Nut weight
Number of nutslkg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nut yield/tree
45
1989
QUAT, Bhubaneswar
WBDC-5 (V36/3)
Compact
Intensive
January to March
March to May
Cluster bearing
Reddish yellow
4.6g
217%
1.47 g
32%
W320
10.5 kg
Cashew Variety from ICAR Research Complex, for Goa Ela, Goa
The Cashew variesty from ICAR Research Complex, for Goa Ela, Goa released
a cashew variety during 1999 as Goa l.
Goa 1 (Plate 3.44)
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Canopy type
Branching habit
Flowering
Fruiting
Apple colour
Juice percentage
Nut weight
Number of nuts /kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nutyieldltree
1999
lCAR Res. Complex, Goa
Selection from Ball-2
Semi spreading
Semi intensive
March to May
Yellow
68
7.6g
133
2.2g
30%
W210
7kg
The salient characters of the 40 high-yielding cashew varieties released
in India are summarised in Table 3.1 (Abdul Salam and Bhaskara Rao, 2001).
SPECIAL TYPES OF CASHEW
CNSL free Variety
The Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara has identified a CNSL
free variety as Pattanur 1 (Plate 3.45). The yield of this variety is low and
therefore its commercial value is low. It is a fancy variety and it's
characteristics are given here.
Year of release
Centre
Hybrid/Selection
Flowering
Fruiting
Special character
Apple colour
Nut weight
Number of nuts /kg
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage
Export grade
Mean nutyieldltree
46
1998
CRS, Madakkathara
Selection
February to March
March to April
CNSL free
Red
3.55g
281
1.38g
38.87%
W450
3.31 kg
Table 3.1. Salient characters of cashew varieties released in India
SI. Name of the Parentage Institution Year of Yield Nut Kernal Shelling Export
No. Variety
release (KgJtree) wt.(g) wt.(g) 0/0 grade
1. Anakkayam-1 T.No. 139 of BapaUa KAU, Anakayam 1982 12.00 5.95 1.67 27.99 W280
2. Maddakka thara-1 T.No. 39 of Bapatla KAU, Madakkathara 1990 13.80 6.20 1.64 26.80 W280
3. Kanaka (H 1598) BLA 139 x H3-13 KAU, Madakkathara 1993 12.80 6.80 2.08 30.58 W280
4. Dhana (H 1608) ALGD - 1 x K 30-1 KAU, Madakkathara 1993 10.66 8.20 2.44 29.80 W210
5. Dharasree (H3-17) T-30 x Brazil- 18 KAU, Anakayam 1996 15.02 7.80 2.40 30.50 W240
6. Amrutha (H 1597) BLA 139 x H3 - 13 KAU, Makakkathara 1998 18.35 7.18 2.24 31.58 W210
7. Akshaya (H7 - 6) H - 4 -7 x K - 30 - 1 KAU, Anakayam 1998 11.78 11.00 3.12 28.36 W 180
8. Anagha (H - 8 - 1) T - 20 x K- 30 - 1 KAU, Anakayam 1998 13.73 10.00 2.90 29.00 W 180 Q
9. Sulabha (K - 10 - 2) Selection KAU, Madakkathara 1996 21.90 9.80 2.88 29.40 W210
.g
10. Priyanka (H - 1591) BLA-139-1 x K-30-1 KAU, Madakkathara 1995 17.03 10.80 2.87 26.57 W 180

"'"
'tl
....:J
11. Makkakkathara-2 (NDR-2-1) Neduvellur Material KAU, Madakkathara 1990 17.00 7.25 1.88 26.20 W210
'j
0
c:::
12. K 22-1 Selection KAU, Madakkathara 1987 13.20 6.20 1.60 26.50 W280
"' ;3
13. Vengurla 1 Ansur - 1 KKV, Vengurla 1974 19.00 6.20 1.39 31.00 W240
"'

14. Vengurla 2 WBDC-Vl(V-37/3) KKV, Vengurla 1979 24.00 4.30 1.00 32.00 W320
15. Vengurla 3 Ansur - Ix Vettore 56 KKV, Vengurla 1981 14.40 9.10 2.09 27.00 W 210
16. Vengurla 4 Midnapur Red x KKV, Vengurla 1981 17.20 7.70 1.91 31.00 W210
Vettore 56
17. Vengurla 5 Ansur Earlyx KKV, Vengurla 1984 16.60 4.50 1.00 30.00 W400
Mysore Kotekar
18. Vengurla 6 Vettore 56x Ansur 1 KKV, Vengurla 1991 13.80 8.00 1.91 28.00 W210
19. Vengurla 7 Vengurla 3x M-10/4 KKV, Vengurla 1997 18.50 10.00 2.90 30.50 W 180
20. BPP 1 T1xT273 ANGRAU 1980 10.00 5.00 1.35 27.50 W400
Table 3.1. (Contd.)
Table 3.1. (Con.td.)
81. Name of the Parentage Institution Year of Yield Nut KernaI8hellingE"""port
No. Variety
release(KgJ tree) wt.(g) wt.(g) <;"'v grade
2l. BPP2 T1xT273 ANGRAU 1980 11.00 4.00 1.04 25.70 W450
22. BPP3 3/3 Simhachalam ANGRAU 1980 11.00 4.80 1.34 28.10 W400
23. BPP4 9/8 Epurupalam ANGRAU 1980 10.50 6.00 1.15 23.00 W400
24. BPP5 TNo.1 ANGRAU 1980 11.00 5.20 1.25 24.00 W400
25. BPP6 TNo.56 ANGRAU 1980 10.50 5.20 1.44 24.00 W400
26. BPP 8 (H2I16) T1 x T39 ANGRAU 1993 14.50 8.20 1.89 29.00 W210
27. Vridhachalam - 1 Vazhisodanipalayam TNAU, Vridhachalam 1981 7.20 5.00 1.40 28.00 W320
(')
28. Vridhachalam - 2 (M 4413) T 1668 of Katterpalli TNAU, Vridhachalam 1985 7.40 5.10 1.45 28.30 W320
III
Ul
t:r'
29. Vridhachalam - 3 (M 26/2) Edayanchavadi TNAU, Vridhachalam 1991 11.68 7.18 2.16 29.10 W210
(l)

30. UIlall 8146 Thaliparamba UAS, Ullal 1984 16.00 6.70 2.05 30.70 W210
I
,;..
>
ex>
31. Ullal2 3/67 Guntur UAS, UIlal 1984 9.00 6.00 1.83 30.50 W 320
s::
32. Ullal3 5/37 Manjeri UAS, UIlal 1993 14.70 7.00 2.10 30.00 W210
0
t:I
0
33. UIlal4 2177 Tuni UAS, Ullal 1994 9.50 7.20 2.15 31.00 W210
34. Chinthamani 1 8/46 Thaliparamba UAS, Chin tam ani 1993 7.20 6.90 2.10 31.00 W210

t:r'
35. UN 50 2127 Nileswar UAS, UIlal 1995 10.50 9.00 2.24 32.80 W 180
36. NRCC - 1 3/8 Simhachalam NRCC, Puttur 1989 10.00 7.60 2.10 28.20 W210
37. NRCC - 2 219 Dicherla NRCC, Puttur 1989 9.00 9.20 2.15 28.60 W210
38. Jhargram - 1 T. No. 16 of BapatIa BCKW, Jhargram 1989 8.50 5.00 1.50 30.00 W 320
39. Bhubaneswar - 1 WBDC - 5(V-36/3) QUAT, Bhubaneswar 1989 10.50 4.60 1.47 32.00 W 320
40. Goa - 1 Balli - 1 leAR R.C, Goa 1999 7.00 7.60 2.20 30.00 W210
Crop Improuement
purple Cashew
purple cashew is a unique type in cashew family. The leaves are purple in
colour. This has got an ornamental value (Plate 3.46).
Dwarf Cashew (KGN 1)
A high-yielding and precocious dwarf cashew suitable for high density
planting was identified by Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara. This
variety, KGN-1 (Plate 3.47) is dwarf and compact and occupies only a small
space. This variety comes to bearing during the first year itself. On an average
at 2-year-old plant yielded over 1 kg raw nut/tree. This can be planted at a
spacing of 3 m x 3 m (1100 trees/ha). The mean apple weight is 100.9 g, nut
weight is 9.36 g and shelling percentage is 25.1%. The export grade of this
variety is 180 to 210.
Research efforts made in Brazil (Embrapa, Fortaleza) lead to the
development of high-yielding dwarf cashew types (Plate 3.48) suitable for
high density planting.
Drought Tolerant Varieties
Drought tolerance studies conducted at Cashew Research Station, Kerala
Agricultural University, Madakkathara revealed that 3 varieties viz., H1591
(Priyanka), M26/2 (Vidrachalam 3) and V5 (Vengrula 5) are tolerant to
moisture stress conditions (Plate 3.49, 3.50 and 3.51).The varietal ability of
Priyanka to maintain high leaf water potential during periods of moisture
stress is evident from Plate 3.52. The variety M26/2 is a popular variety of
Tamil Nadu, where cashew is grown in drought prone environments.
Vengurla 5 is a variety with small nuts, released by Dr. Balasaheb Saw ant,
Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, which is drought tolerant.
Variation in Flowering Time
Flowering time of cashew varies with variety as well as with growing
environment. The flowering and fruiting time of 13 cashew varieties under
the agro-climatic condition of Kerala are shown in Fig. 3.1. Four varieties
namely, Anakkayam-l, Madakkathara-l, Vridhachalam-3 and Kanaka are
early flowering and fruiting type. Their normal flowering and fruiting times
coincide with October- February. The nuts of these varieties reach first in
the market during the harvesting season.
Cashew varieties viz. Dharasree, Dhana, Amrutha, Akshaya, K22-1,
Priyanka and Anagha are mid-season varieties as they flower and fruit in
December to March. Two late season varieties viz., Sulabha and
Madakkathara-2 flower and fruit during February to April.
49
July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June
Legend
( Flowering & Fruiting Time
: 0 Early varieties
[ 0 Mid varieties
IZI Late varieties
Anagha
Prlyanka
K22-1
Akshaya
Amrutha
Dhana
Dharasree
Kanaka
Vridachalam-3
Madakkathra-l
Anakkayam-l
July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June
Fig. 3.1. Flowering and fruiting time of cashew (Early, Mid and Late season varieties)
11.00
<;
s!
:A
..
1000
0>
;;
"'!
:>
9.00
'" ~
0
..
'"'
;z
'"
0.00
'"'
.,
g
....
'"'
..
'"
'"
.,;
'"
7.00
,,;
0
'"
0.00
,,;
...
~
'"
...
'"
.. ....
5.00 -
of
... , ....
'"
... -i ....
'" M
'"
4.00
,.;
3.00
2.00
t'
! t
~
~
~
;;
~ i
~
~
'"
~
C>
l!:
~
..
~
~ ~ ~
~
9.
;:: :I
;:
:2
<
..
~
4
D J
;.
Fig. 8.2. Yield potential (mean yield) of 18 cashew varieties at Cashew Research Station,
Madakkathara, Kerala, India
50
Crop Improuement
The flowering time of all these varieties shift towards both sides by
2-4 weeks (either it becomes early or late from the normal time) depending
on the climate of the year, particularly the onset of rain. In Kerala, the
south-west monsoon commences by the end of Mayor first of June.
Sometimes, the harvesting of nuts of late flowering varieties may coincide
with rainy season leading to quality deterioration in nuts.
In high altitude areas ofKerala, early flowering varieties are preferred
as they complete flowering, fruiting and maturity before the onset of rains.
Performance of Cashew Varieties
Performance of 18 varieties was studied at Cashew Research Station, Kerala
Agricultural University, Madakkathara during 1987 to 1999 (Fig. 3.2). It
was found that the varieties Vridhachalam-3, Kanaka, Vengurala-5,
Vridhachalam-2, Dhana,Anakkayam-i, H 1600, Vengurala-3 are the best in
terms of nut yield (Abdul Salam, 1998 and Abdul Salam, 2000) under Kerala
conditions. The results also suggest that the performance of the variety
depends on the environment.
51
Climate and Soil
CLIMATE
C
ashew is a tropical crop and it is being grown between 28N and 28S
latitude. In India, it is grown in the entire coastal belt between 8N and
28N. The flowering time depends on the latitude. In Brazil and Tanzania,
peak flowering is between August and September. In Mozambique, maximum
flowering occurs in October and in Philippines, March. In the west coast of
India cashew flowers from October to March. But in the east coast of the
country, flowering is delayed by about 2-3 months. However, the crop is
ready for harvest in summer, both in the north and south of the equator.
The phenology of cashew is greatly influenced by the altitude of the
region where cashew can be grown. Low temperatures at higher altitudes
have adverse effect on the crop. Cashew shows a t,endency for late flowering
and fruiting irrespective oflatitude at higher altitude. In general, cashew is
grown in places upto an altitude of around 700 m above mean sea level.
Though the coastal climate is favourable for the growth of cashew, proximity
to the sea is not essential for its growth.
Temperature
Cashew has the ability to thrive in high temperatures. In its natural habitat,
it grows in the semi-arid regions like northern Mozambique where daily
maximum temperatures may exceed 40C. Though cashew exhibits tolerance
to wide range of temperatures, it is considered that the optimum monthly
temperature is between 24C and 28C. Young cashew shows high sensitivity
to frost. In Assam, cashew survives upto 7C. The duration of cold is also
significant as far as cashew is concerned. Though cashew is able to survive
temperatures around ODC for a short period, cashew cultivation is not
economical in regions where annual temperature falls below 20C for
Climate and Soil
prolonged periods. In the most important cashew growing regions, the mean
daily minimum temperature vary between 15
D
C and 25
D
C whereas the range
of mean daily maximum temperature vary between 25
D
C and 35C. Cashew
is able to tolerate diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in temperature,
provided all the other climatic factors are favourable.
For flowering, cashew requires mild winter, that is low minimum surface
air temperature ranging between 16
D
C and 20DC coupled with more dew
nights. Bright sunshine (greater than 9 h/day) with moderate dry weather is
1700d for flowering. The unusual rains between November and December
inordinately delay reproductive phase of the late flowering varieties.
Rainfall
Cashew growth depends on the availability and distribution of rainfall. It
can withstand very high and low rainfall conditions. An average annual rainfall
ofl,300 to 2,500 mm is considered to be suitable. The dry period experienced
at of fruit set and development stages results in good crop yields under
Kerala conditions.
Light rains during flowering may not harm the flowers, but heavy
rains during flowering affects the yield. Cashew needs a climate with at
least 4 to 5 months well defined dry season to produce best results. This is
one of the reasons, why cashew quality and production are better in the
northern districts ofKerala under rainfed conditions.
The rainfall distribution pattern of Kannur district, one of the best
cashew environments of Kerala, is shown in Fig. 4.1.
1200
1085
1000
E
800
.
;j!
600
c
iii
0:
4
4 8
c .0 .c
'2
>. ..
2' ti Q. U
>
u
.. ..
I!
Q.
.. C
:I :I .. 0
0 ..
.... u.
..
<
:::E
"
.... CII I/)
Z c
:::E
....
:I
<
Fig. 4.1. Rain fall distribution pattern ofKannur, one of the best cashew
environments of Kerala
53
Here cashew experiences a well-defined dry spell from December to
February, which coincides with flowering and fruiting of cashew. Rains
during flowering and fruit set affect the production. Unusual heavy rainfall
between January and March may encourage high incidence of pest like tea
mosquito and reduce yield and quality. Cashew is highly sensitive to high
relative humidity (more than 80%) during the harvesting season. High relative
humidity adversely affects the nut-quality.
Cashew tree bears more fruits on the peripheral branches, which
receive full sunlight. Being a sun-loving crop, it is not advisable to plant the
trees in excessively shaded areas. The response of cashew towards sunlight
is immediate and affirmative. Cashew is extremely sensitive to light and
produces more foliage, flowers and fruits on exposed side than on the shaded
branches.
Factors viz., genotype and age of the grafts, nutrient status of soil,
meteorological parameters, exposure to sunlight, latitude and altitude, crop
management practices and the incidence of pests and diseases playa pivotal
role in flowering and fruiting in cashew. Year to year variation in flowering
phase of a variety is common even under uniform cultural and management
practices, indicating the significance of weather factors on flowering behaviour
of cashew.
A general dry spell from January to May with occassional light
summer rains ensures good crop production in cashew. A well distributed
North-East monsoon rainfall of about 500 mm from September to December
and about 100 mm between February and April are ideal for successful crop
production. The rains during March-April may be more advantageous
especially to late season varieties. Cashew can tolerate drought conditions
without much adverse impact on its productivity as compared to other tree
crops (Veeraraghvan and Pushpalatha, 1990).
Environmental Ratings for Cashew
Low altitude areas with a mean rainfall of1,500 to 2,000 mm is excellent for
cashew. By and large, cashew performs well in areas closer to sea and as such
it is generally believed that proximity of the area to the sea is advantageous to
the crop. Environments with maximum temperature ranging from 28C to
32"C, minimum winter temperature around 19C and 70-80% relative humidity
are good for getting better results. Frost is detrimental to the crop. Mandal
(1992) attempted to rate cashew growing environments as very good, good,
fair and poor based on variation in altitude, rainfall, proximity to sea, maximum
and minimum temperature, humidity and occurence of frost. The ratings and
the range of these parameters are indicated in Table. 4.1.
54
Climate and Soil
Table 4.1. Environmental rating for growing cashew
Parameters Very Good Good
Class I Class II Class III
Fair Poor
Class IV Class V
Altitude
20 20-120
120-450
450-750
Rainfall (mmlyr.) 1500-2000
1300-1500
1100-1300
Proximity to sea (km) <80 80-160
160-240
240-320
900-1100
Maximum temperature 28-32 32-33
33-34
34-35
in summer (DC)
Minimwn temperature 19 18-19
17-18
15-17
in winter ("C)
Humidity(%) 70-80 65-70
60-65
50-60
Occurrence of frost None None
Very rare
One in 5 yrs
Source: R.C. MandaI, 1992. Cashew Production and Processing Technology.
Flowering and fruit yield differ with the direction of the canopy.
Flowering and fruiting is more in southern side of the canopy (60 to 80%)
whereas it is low (20 to 40%) in the northern side of the canopy.
It was also observed that there is a delay by 7-10 days in the occurrence
of all the biotic events of cashew towards the northern side of the cashew
tree (Rao et al.) 2002).
SOILS
Cashew is adapted to a wide variety of soil conditions. In general, worst soils
are being selected for cashew, where no other crop can give an economic
return. Cashew performs better even in poor soils. Cashew grows well in
poor or st.ony soils as well, due to its extensive and penetrating root system.
Crops with a poor root system may perish in such soils. Deep (more than 2
m), friable, well drained and sandy loam soils are good for cashew. Cashew
also thrives on pure sandy soils. Deep red latosols are also suitable. Cashew
cannot withstand ill-drained soils with water stagnation. Heavy soil layers,
compacted sub-soils and hard pans impede root growth. In such soils, growth
is much affected. Lateritic gravel also allow growth and development of the
cashew tree.
Growth of cashew is affected in shallow soils also. In deep soils, growth
and development is vigorous. Cashew trees are capable of suppressing weed
growth in the plantation. The growth and performance of trees in the coastal
soil is generally good suggesting tolerance of the crop to soil salinity. However,
laboratory trials indicated that cashew has only a little tolerance for soil
salinity and also that difference in tolerance exists amongst cashew trees
(Rocchetti,1970).
55
In Kerala, the major cashew plantations are located in northern region-
Here, cashew is grown in extremely eroded and poor laterite soils in the
mid lands (Plate 4.1 and 4.2) with altitude less than 300 m.
Cashew grows excellently well in the laterite soils of Kasaragod and
Kannur districts ofKerala, where other crops fail to establish. Cashew growS
excellently in rich laterites, in forest loams and in rich forest soils. The
growth rate, flowering and productivity are quite high in such soils. The nut
size is also large in rich soils.
In the interior regions of northern Kerala, close to the forest
environments, cashew is being grown in laterite soils with medium to high
soil fertility (Plate 4.3), and in forest loamy soils (Plate 4.4) and in very rich
forest soils (Plate 4.5).
In Tamil N adu, cashew cultivation is largely confined to the coastal
sands (Plate 4.6). These soils are porous and extremely low in fertility. Even
in such soils cashew shows satisfactory performence, that too under marginal
management.
Cashew is being successfully grown in poor red soils and red sands as
well in Tamil N adu (Plate 4.7). Seedling raised cashew plantations are coming
up in extensive areas in these soils. The performance of the crop is also
satisfactory.
In the recent years, cashew is widely grown in the wastelands of Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Orissa where other crops are not
successful. Although these soils are less endowed with moisture and
nutrients, cashew is capable of showing satisfactory performance particularly
due to its capacity to tolerate drought. Large areas of wasteland, in Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra, Orissa, Bihar and Madhya
Pradesh are also being brought under cashew in recent years.
In northern Kerala, there exist extensive areas of hard lateritic
wastelands which are not suitable for other crops. These soils are highly
eroded with hard crust of iron and aluminium. Vegetation is scanty and it is
difficult to take even pits in these soils. Excellent growth and better yield
are noticed in the cashew trees grown in these environments. The cashew
trees of these area remain as living examples to confirm its potential for the
utilisation of hard lateritic waste lands that are unsuitable for other crops
(Plate 4.8).
56
Propagation
C
ashew is a highly cross-pollinated crop and it produces heterozygous
plants when propagated through seeds. Seed propagation is the
traditional method. Good quality seeds are selected from identified "super
trees" and sown directly or planted after raising seedlings. Seed nuts after 2
to 3 days of sun drying are stored in gunny bags for use. Usually these nuts
can be stored for 5 to 6 months without losing viability. Seeds germinate
between 10 and 15 days after sowing and 2 to 3 months old seedlings can be
planted.
Vegetative Propagation
Research efforts on propagation conducted so far clearly established its
advantages over the seed propagation. Vegetative propagation gains
considerable acceptance as it enables early flowering, uniformity in tree
size and better yield, when planted in the main field. The trees show more
or less uniform growth in the plantation and are capable of expressing the
true characters of the mother-plant. Different types of vegetative propagation
viz. layering, cutting, budding, grafting etc. were standardized. All these
methods have their own advantages and disadvantages. Of these methods,
most widely practised and accepted one is the softwood grafting technique.
Because of the simplicity of the method, higher success rate and better field
establishment of grafts, softwood grafting has gained considerable popularity.
PRODUCTION OF SOFTWOOD GRAFTS
Selection of Seed Nuts
Seed nuts are collected during the peak period of harvest (February-March)
and sun-dried for 2-3 days. Dense nuts are selected by immersing nuts in
57
water or 10% salt solution. Seeds which sink in water, may be selected.
Medium sized nuts (7-9 g) are good to obtain vigorous seedlings. Fresh seed
nuts are to be used for raising root-stock. More than 1-year-old seed nut5
may be avoided as the germination percentage will be less.
Raising Rootstocks
Rootstocks of 40 to 50 days old are to be produced first for grafting. For this
purpose good quality seeds, polythene bags, soil, sand, cow-dung and rock
phosphate are to be obtained first. Seed nuts are soaked in water overnight
before sowing. Polythene bags of size 25 cm x 15 cm and 300 gauge thickness
are ideal for filling potting mixture. Punch about 16-20 holes on the
polythene bags to ensure good drainage. Prepare the potting mixture with
1: 1: 1 ratio of soil, sand and cow-dung. Mix with rock phosphate @ 5 g per 2
kg potting mixture. Fill the polythene bags with potting mixture upto the
brim ofthe bag. Sow the soaked nuts (24 h in water) in the centre ofthe bag
with stalk ends up, at a depth of 2.0 to 2.5 cm. The steps involved from
preparation of potting mixture to sowing seeds are referred in plates between
Plates 5.1 and 5.6.
Water the bags immediately after sowing and daily thereafter. Avoid
excess irrigation. Nuts usually germinate between 15 and 20 days after
sowing during monsoon and between 8 and 10 days during dry months. Nuts
should be sown at weekly intervals to get continuous supply of rootstocks in
the nursery. During summer, provide partial shade to the seedlings till they
change their bronze colour to green and then keep them in the open.
For preventing damage to germinating nuts from squirrels, birds etc.,
they may be covered with nylon nets. During rainy season, damping offmay
be observed in young seedlings. To control this disease, soil drenching with
Bordeaux mixture (1%) is effective.
The seedlings will be ready for grafting in 40 to 50 days after germination.
The different stages of rootstock development from germination to rootstock
stage, are illustrated from Plates 5.7 to 5.12.
Regular watering is essential for the production of healthy rootstocks.
Seeds collected from the current season may give good germinability and
better growth. Germination percentage will be low, if old seeds (more than
six months of storage) are used. The leaves (3 to 4) may emerge in 10 days
after sprouting. The leaves (5 to 7) may emerge in 3 weeks after germination.
The leaves (7 to 10) may be produced within 4 weeks after germination. An
ideal rootstock should have a stem of pencil thickness with 10 to 15 leaves.
It may take 40 to 50 days for the production of a healthy root stock suitable
for grafting.
58
Propagation
Selection of Rootstock
Select 40-50 days old healthy seedlings having single main stem, growing in
the centre of the polythene bag as rootstock.
Selection of Scions
Select a high-yielding variety of cashew as a mother tree to collect adequate
number of scions. Select 3 to 5 months old non-flowering lateral shoots of
current season's growth. The selected scions should be 10 to 15 cm long,
straight, uniformly round and pencil thick with brown colour having dormant
plumpy terminal buds. The top 4-5 leaves will be dark green indicating proper
maturity of the scion (Plates 5.13 and 5.14).
Precuring
Precure the selected scions by clipping off 3/4 portion of leaf blades (Plate
5.15). Scions will be ready for grafting, 7-10 days after leaf removal.
Collection of Scions
The precured scions are to be cut early in the morning to avoid desiccation.
Scions should be collected before the terminal buds sprout. Wrap scions in
moist cloth and put in polythene covers as soon as they are cut from the
mother tree and bring them to the nursery for grafting. If necessary, they
can be stored for 3 to 4 days and used for grafting (Plates 5.16 and 5.17). For
better graft take, it is necessary to do grafting with least time lag between
scion collection and grafting.
Preparation of Rootstock
Retain two pairs of bottom leaves and remove others from the selected root
stock using a sharp knife. Give a transverse cut on the main stem, 15 em
above ground level. A cleft of 4 to 5 cm deep is made in the middle of the
decapitated stem of the seedling by giving a longitudinal cut (Plates 5.18
and 5.19).
Preparation of Scion
Select a matching scion stick with same thickness as that of the rootstock.
The cut end ofthe scion is shaped to a wedge of 4 to 5 em long by chopping
the bark and wood from two opposite sides (Plates 5.20 and 5.21).
GRAFTING
The wedge of the scion is inserted into the cleft of the rootstock, taking care
to ensure that the cambium layers of stock and scion are in perfect contact
59
with each other (Plate 5.22). The graft joint is secured firmly by a polythefl
e
tape of 1.5 cm width and 30 cm length (Plate 5.23). The scion of the graft is
to be covered with a wet polythene bag(15 em x 12.5 em, lOO-gauge thickness)
The bottom ofthe polythene cap may be tied with a rubber band to maintain
humidity inside and to protect the apical bud from drying (Plates 5.24, 5.25
and 5.26). The polythene cap should not touch the terminal buds. Grafted
plants are to be kept under shade for 10 to 15 days to enable sprouting oftb.e
terminal buds. Instead of polythene caps, sip-up tubes of 15 cm length and 3
cm width can be effectively used to protect the scions. The polycaps or sip-uP
tubes may be taken out, moistened and replaced after 2-3 days. The grafted
plants should be watered regularly. Sprouting of scions may occur about 15
days after grafting (Plates 5.27 and 5.28). After sprouting, the polycaps are
to be removed. The sprouted grafts may be kept as such for another 15 to 20
days for the new flushes to develop. The graft development pattern is shown
in Plate 5.29.
Grafts are to be maintained under partial shade for 40 to 50 days.
When they reach 5 to 7 leaf stage, they may be kept in open for hardening.
The grafts will be kept in open for another 3 to 4 months.
A healthy graft may have 10 to 15 fully developed and matured leaves
with a stem girth of 3 to 4 cm at base and height of 35 to 40 cm. Grafts will
be ready for planting 5 to 6 months after grafting (Plates 5.30 and 5.31).
Care in the Nursery
The grafts are to be watered regularly using a rose can (Plate 32a) or micro-
sprinkler (Plate 5.32b). Remove the polythene tape from the graft union
about 3 months after grafting to avoid girdling. The new sprouts emerging
from rootstock are to be removed at frequent intervals. Keep the grafts in
rows in nursery with regular watering till planting (Plate 5.33).
Panicles if produced on young grafts, may be removed as and when
observed. Shift the grafts frequently from one place to another to prevent
striking roots into the ground.
Frequent spraying of insecticides is required for controlling the
infestation of sucking insects. Spray quinalphos (20% EC) @ 2 mlllitre or
monocrotophos (35 EC)@ 1.5 mlllitre or endosulfan (35 EC)@ 1.5 mlllitre or
carbaryl 50% WP@ 2 gIlitre of water, for protection against insect-pests.
Best Season for Grafting
H ~ g l success rate. in .softwood grafting is achieved during months with
mInImUm fluctuatIon III the day and night temperatures and high relative
60
Propagation
humidity throughout the day. In Kerala, this type of weather condition is
prevalent from April to July.
Effect of Trichoderma sp. on Growth of Grafts
Studies conducted at Kerala Agricultural University, Madakkathara revealed
that incorporation of farmyard manure inoculated with Trichoderma
harzianum (@ 1 kg culture/100 kg offarmyard manure) in potting mixture
(1:1:1 mixture of soil, sand and farmyard manure inoculated with
Trichoderma) enhances the growth and vigour of rootstock as well as the
grafts (Plate 5.34).
Top Working
This is a method in which less productive trees are rejuvenated with high-
yielding varieties. Less productive trees of 5 to 15 years of age can be
successfully top worked. Top worked trees start bearing during the second
year itself. Different steps involved in top working are illustrated in Fig. 5.1
(a to p). The trees may be beheaded at a height of 0.5 to 1.0 m above ground
level, about 2 months prior to the best season for grafting. Treat the surface
ofthe trunk with the Bordeaux paste to avoid infection. The trunk may be
protected by swabbing with carbaryl (4%) to prevent stem borer attack.
Coconut fronds are used to protect the trunk from sun (Fig. 5.1a). Profuse
sprouting of new shoots can be seen within 2 months (Fig. 5.1b, c).
(a) Protection of detopped
tree by coconut fronds
(b) Sprouts arising from
detopped tree (15 days
after detopping)
(c) Fresh shoots emerged
(2 months after detopping)
Fig. 5.1(a-p). Steps in top working (Contd.)
The new sprouts will be ready for grafting in about 60 days after
beheading. Retain 10 to 15 thick vigorous shoots and remove the rest
61
(d) New shoots matured
for grafting
. '
:'
l ..
,I-: . .:... ... ..... - .
I .1 .",' ",:',
. l' _ .....
..

, "
./
,
...
. ./
(g) A selected and prepared
scion for top working
(j) Grafted shoot
..
(h) A cleft made on the
new shoot
(f) Precured scion
\

"', I
.'1," R of .. I

_ .'.
(k) Polythene cap protection (1) Support and protection
to the new graft to the grafted shoot
Fig. 5.1(a-p). Steps in top working (Contd.)
62
Propagation
.

f

(n) Successfully top
worked tree
(0) Top worked
1 year old tree
Fig. 5.1(a.p). Steps in top working (Contd.)
(Fig. 5.ld). Adopt the softwood grafting techniques on the new shoots using
the scions of high yielding variety [Fig. 5.1 (e to n)]. Normally 60-80 % of
graft success is possible. Retain 4 to 5 su<!cessful grafts on every stem and
allow them to grow and develop in the new tree (Fig. 5.10).
Grafting may be done following same procedure explained under grafting
(see page- 96). The grafted scions may be covered with a poly cap to ensure
humidity inside the bag and to avoid drying up of the scion (Fig. 5.1 k). The
poly-capped scions are further protected with a paper cap to ensure protection
from sun (Fig. 5.11).
The top worked plants grow fast and develop in to a new tree (Fig. 5.1
m to p). The top worked trees start bearing right from the second year oftop
working (Fig. 5.1p).

,. .......... ,:, ..... ""i.,U., ._ ,.' ..... __
(p) Top worked 2-year-old tree
Fig. 5.l(a-p). Steps in top working
63
h of tw
o top worked trees, three year old and five year old
Photograp s . '
h
n Plates 5 35 and 5.36 respectIvely.
are sown 1 .
Th
. advantage is that less productive trees can be converted to
e mam ft ki 1
d t
ve tree during the second year 0 op wor ng Itse f. But the
more pro uc 1 . fi .
main disadvantage is the need for skilled manpower or top working and
management.
TISSUE CULTURE TECHNIQUES
Ti e
culture techniques are being tried in cashew during the last two
ssu . h h . t
decades to supplement vegetative propagation roug. mens em A
reproducible protocol of regeneration from seedlings (mICro-propagatIOn) was
standardized at National Research Centre for Cashew, Puttur, Karnataka.
Media requirement for initiation, multiplication, shoot bud elongation, rooting
and hardening processes were worked out in detail (Tbimmappaiah and Shirly,
1999).
Though several explants (leaf, cotyledon, internode, nucleus) were used
for callus induction, embryogenesis was observed only in immature
cotyledonary segments and nuclear tissue. Embryoid structures were induced
from callus of immature cotyledonary segments (Hedge et al., 1994; Nair
and Mohanakumaran, 1993 and Thimmappaiah, 1997). The frequency was
very low and the somatic embryos failed to germinate properly (Plate 5.37
to 5.40).
Similarly, nuclear tissue excised from developing nuts (3-4 weeks old)
were induced to form calli and from these calli, somatic embryoids
differentiated at a low frequency. Somatic embryogenesis in nuclear calli
was also reported by Nair and Mohanakumaran in 1993. Gogte and N adgauda
(2000) reported induction of somatic embryogenesis on semi-solid medium
containing 2,4-D and gibberelic acid.
Ramanayake and Kovoor (1999) reported micro-grafting in cashew using
shoot tip or axillary shoots of seedling origin as scion and in vitro raised
seedlings as rootstock. The contamination and browning of explants during
culture are considered as serious hindrances. Microbial contamination of
cultures may be due to fungi or bacteria. Some are exogenous while some
are endogenous which appears later in culture growth. Contamination is
more in explants of field grown trees and predominantly the
contam.mant was a fungus (Fusarium sp.). They cause considerable
and therefore reducing its occurrence during initiation stage
IS a must. 5-h treatment on a rotary shaker with 200 mg/litre Bavistin
(carbendazlID) was found to be effective to control contamination (D'silva
64
Propagation
and D'souza, 1993). Even incorporation of Bavistin in the medium was also
found to reduce contamination. Browning of explants and media is another
serious bottleneck during culture.
Other problems encountered in micro-propagation of mature tree are
inability of shoot buds to elongate and micro-shoots to root in vitro. This is
a serious impediment, which limits the application of this technology.
65
Planting and Management
S
uccessful cashew cult.ivati?n on the best
suited for the agro-chmatlc condItIons and adoptlOn ofnght technologIes
for the region. Important agronomic techniques developed for enhancing
production and productivity of cashew are detailed below.
Planting Material
The ideal planting material is the graft. Softwood grafts of high-yielding
varieties may be selected for planting. An ideal graft will have 30 to 45 cm
height. 3 to 4 cm stem girth at the base and 10 to 15 green leaves (Plate
6.1).
Season and Method of Planting
The season of planting is important for the establishment of a good
plantation. Depending on rainfall pattern ofthe area, planting season varies
with the region. In the west coast of India. the best planting season is
June-July or September- October, coinciding with the monsoons. Planting
is done in pits of size 60-cm cube. Fill the pits with top soil and organic
manure (about 10 kg) to 3/4 ofthe pit capacity and plant grafts at the centre.
6-month-old grafts are best for planting.
Remove the polythene bag carefully with the help of a blade and plant
the grafts without breaking the ball of earth (Plate 6.2). Care should be
taken to ensure that the graft union is atleast 2.5 cm above the ground
level. The polythene tape at the graft union should also be carefully
removed before planting.
Mterplanting, the basins of the plants are to be mulched with organic
materials, to conserve moisture. In wind prone areas. young plants are to
Planting and Managem.ent
be protected from wind damage. Different methods are followed for
this purpose. Staking is a method to protect the grafts from wind damage
(Plate 6.3 and 6.4). Coconut fronds or high-density polythene sacks are
used to cover the young grafts for protection (Plate 6.5). From first year
onwards, grafts require regular weeding, pest and disease control, manuring
and irrigation.
Watering
Young grafts may be watered using earthen pots filled with water. A small
rubber tube can be used to drip water to the base of the plant from the pot,
Plate 6.6.
Buried earthen pots are also used to irrigate young plants. The pots
are filled with water, which allows seepage into the root zone (Plate 6.7).
Protection from Animals
Sometimes wild boars cut the newly planted grafts at the tender stage. To
prevent this damage, protective covers made of chicken mesh are used (Plate
6.8).
Some grafts may flower at the young age (Plate 6.9). In such cases,
panicles may be nipped off to encourage strong vegetative growth during
early years.
Planting Density
For getting higher yield, it is necessary to optimise the plant population
that depends on soil fertility, rainfall pattern, the variety as well as the level
of nutrition and management. The normal spacing recommended for rainfed
cashew in Kerala is 7.5 m x 7.5 m for poor and 10 m x 10 m for rich and deep
soils and sandy coastal areas. On very sloppy lands, the rows may be spaced
10 to 15 m apart with a tree-spacing of 6 to 8 m.
Systems of Planting
There are mainly two systems of planting, the square system and the
triangular system. In the former case, the inter row and intra row spacing
will be the same such that the plants in the field exist in squares (Fig. 6.1).
The spacing and plant population in these two systems of planting are
shown in Table 6.1 (Abdul Salam and Bhaskara Rao, 2001).
In traingular system of planting, the inter-row and intra-row spacing
will be adjusted such that the plants in the field exist in triangles (Fig. 6.2).
67
Fig. 6.1. Square system of planting -7.5 m x 7.5 m (177 plants per hectare)
Table 6.1. The spacing and plant population in square and triangular systems
of planting
Spacing
(trees/ha.)
10.0 m x 10.0 m
8.0m x 8.0m
7.5m x 7.5m
7.0m x 7.0m
Square system
(trees/ha.)
100
156
177
200
Triangular system
116
180
204
230
In iriangular system of planting, it is possible to accomodate 15% more
plants/unit area compared to square system of planting keeping the plant
spacing the same.
High Density Planting
It is a technique recommended for enhancing the productivity of cashew
plantations. This technique involves planting more number of grafts per
unit area and thinning out trees at later stages. The spacing and plant
population under high density planting are indicated below (Table. 6.2).
Table6.2. Spacing and plant population in square and triangular systems of planting,
under high density planting
Spacing
4mx5m
5mx5m
8mx4m
Square system
(treeslha.)
625
400
312
68
Triangular system
(treeslha.)
720
460
360
Fig. 6.2. Triangular system of planting -7.5 m (204 plants per hectare)
A high density planting (HDP) involving 312 to 625 plants/ha, would
ensure better agronomic advantages and profits. The principle involved in
HDP is better for the exploitation of environmental resources both
temporarily and spatially. In cashew, during early years of planting,
considerable inter space remains unutilized by the crop. This leads to
wastage oflarge amount of horizontal and vertical space, underground soil
resources like nutrients and moisture and above ground resources like solar
radiation. The canopy expansion rate in cashew is slow during early years.
The canopy development pattern and filling pattern of high-density plantation
is as per Fig. 6.3(a-l).
The canopy development pattern in cashew offers considerable scope,
either for inter cropping or for high density planting. If interspace is left
unutilized, it will be occupied by unproductive vegetation (weeds). Therefore,
it is essential to adopt a management strategy capable of exploiting the
environmental resources both in time and space dimensions. High density
planting is a technique aimed in this direction.
While adopting a high density planting technique, grafts may be planted
initially at a spacing of 4 m x 4 m or 8 m x 4 m or 5 m x 5 m, so that there will
be 625 or 312 or 400 plantslha initially. This population can be retained for
7 to 10 years depending upon the canopy expansion rate. If the soil is rich,
the canopy development rate will be faster.
69
. .
a _
a.1-2year,Spacing:4mx 4m
(625 plants)

c. 3-4 year, Spacing: 4 m x 4 m
(625 plants)

-

-

-

1-

-
e.5-7year,Spacing:4mx 4m
(625 plants)

Cl

Q o:J Gl 0 e

..

.,

II

It

0

0

C)

..

h. 2-3 year, Spacing: 4 m x 4 m
(625 plants)

d. 4-5 year, Spacing: 4 m x 4 m
(625 plants)

f. 6-9 year, Spacing: 4 mx 4 m
(625 plants)
Fig.6.3(a-1). Canopy development and selective filling pattern in a high
density plantation (Contd.)
70
[](]( ](]( ][][][.]
nnnnnnnn
nnnnnnnn
nnnnnnnn
nnnnnnnn
nnnnnnnn
nnnnnnon
DDDDDDDD
g. 7-10 year, Spacing: 4mx 4m
(625 plants)
i. 9-12 year, Spacing: 8mx 4m
(312 plants)
r 'r 'r 'r 'r 'r ,r '
I. A A
.,,. .,,. ""III,. ""III,. ""III,. ""III,. ""III,. ""III
I. A .. A - A A
.,,. .,,. ""III,. ""III,. ""III,. ""III,..-,r.- .....
l .. I. A .1. .. I. A A.
"... ""111,.- ""111,..""111,.- ""III,. ""III,.. ""III,. ..... ,. .....
I. .. I. .. I. .. .1. jl.

.. A .. I. A .1. A
""III,.. ""III,. ""III,. ""III,. ""III,. ""III,.. ""III,. .....
.. A A .. I.- A .. I.. .1. A
.....
.. ..I. A .. I. A .. A ..
"... ..... ,.. ..... ,. ..... ,. ..... ,.. ..... ,.. ..... ,.. ..... ,.. .....

h. 8-11 year, Spacing: 4 m x 4 m
(625 plants)
..-

- . ..

..

...

..I.
... ...
j.l0-12year, Spacing: 8mx 4m
(312 plants)
k.12-13 year, Spacing: 8 m x 8 m 1.12-15 year, Spacing: 8 m x 8 m
(156 plants) (156 plants)
Fig. 6.3(a-l). Canopy development and selective filling pattern in a high
density plantation (Contd.)
71
High density planting technique. would be m?re in poor soils
where the rate of canopy development IS slow. ConsIdermg the soil-fertility
status, the level of management in fertilizer application, irrigation etc. the
initial plant population is to be decided carefully, for every agro-climatic
condition. Later, after monitoring the canopy pressure between adjacent
plants, the alternate plants are to be in a phased manner. Finally,
when the plants attain full growth, the spacmg between the plants can be
regulated at 8 m x 8 m or 10 m x 10 m (Abdul Salam, 1997a). Plant population
of625 trees/ha (4 m x 4,m) or 312 treeslha (8 m x 4 m) can be considered as
optimum for getting high yield from cashew in Kerala (Surna et al., 1998).
Varieties suitable for High Density Planting
Variety selection is important in high density planting. Dwarfvarieties with
compact canopy is ideal for high density planting. If dwarf types are not
available, relatively less statured and more compact varieties may be selected.
Cashew varieties M 44/3, Anakkayam-1 and H1608 are relatively less statured
and less spreading compared to other varieties and as such they are suitable
for high density planting (Abdul Salam, 1999a).
Irrigation
Cashew responds tremendously to irrigation. Drip irrigation proved the most
efficient method in cashew plantations. It was observed that irrigation
during periods of soil moisture stress can double the cashew yields. ThE
yield of cashew was doubled in Karnataka by 10 irrigation @ 200 litre/tree a1
15-days-interval from November to March (NRCC, 1993). In young cashew
application of 30 litres of water/tree at 15-days-interval increased the nul
yield by 393% when compared with unirrigated plants in West Bengal (Ghosh
1995).
Drip irrigation @ 43 mm/week from April to October increased nu
yield by 20% in Australia (Schaper et al., 1996). The highest nut yield (3.8:
kg/tree) was obtained from trees provided with 80% recommended dose 0
fertilizers as water soluble fertilizers through drip irrigation, compared tl
trees supplied with recommended dose of NPK through soil without dri]
irligation (Kumar et al., 1998).
Weed Control
Depending upon the type of weeds and intensity of weed growth, weeding is t
be done from August to September, either chemically or manually. Norma1l:
the cashew plantations are severely infested with a wide variety of annua
and perennial weeds, which decrease nut yield considerably (Plate 6.10).
72
-==
Sickle weeding is being adopted using manual labour (Plate 6.11). Weed
control using manual labour is costly, therefore, farmers resort to mechanical
and chemical means of weed control.
A tractor-mounted slasher is a hardy mechanical weeder which is
efficient and economical for cashew in cashew plantation (Plate 6.12).
Mikania is a broad leaved climbing weed, which smothers the tree
completely causing heavy yield reduction (Plate 6.13).
Chemical Weed Control
Herbicides like paraquat and glyphosate are commonly used to control weeds
in cashew plantations (Plate 6.14).
Application of paraquat @ 0.4 kg/ha thrice at monthly intervals starting
from July will effectively control all types of weeds.
Abdul Salam et al. (1993) reported that application of glyphosate at 0.8
kglha (single spray) or paraquat 0.4 kg/ha + 2,4-D 1.0 kg/ha (single spray)
during August can effectively control the weed growth in cashew plantations.
It was also found that chemical weed control is economical compared to
sickle weeding.
Abraham and Abraham (1999a) reported that either diuron @ 1 kg/ha
(alone or with 2,4-D@0.25 kg/ha) was effective in selectively killing Mikania.
In another study Abraham and Abraham (1999b), found that use of glyphosate
@ 1.2 kglha or 2,4-D @ 1 kg/ha controlled Mikania infestation effectively.
Training and Pruning
Training of young plants is a method employed to control the shape, size
and direction of the plant growth. It helps to improve its appearance as well
as yield. The water shoots occur in the trees are unproductive and they
form a burden to the tree. Pruning (Plates 6.15 and 6.16) involves removal
of dry branches, criss-cross branches and weak and thin laterals. Such
measures facilitate proper light penetration and production of vigorous and
productive laterals. Pruning enhances flowering and increase nut production.
Low lying and dead branches may be removed by giving sharp cuts. The
pruning may be done at least a month before the commencement of productive
flushing. Bordeaux paste may be applied on the cut surface to prevent entry
of pathogens.
The trees may be trained and pruned to open like an umbrella with
straight main stem of about 1 m at the base. This facilitates easy fertilizer
application and convenience in nut collection (Plate 6.17).
73
:1
J
:,
'\
II
,
Sometimes young trees are affected by pests or diseases. To rejuvenate
such trees, they are to be pruned with sharp implements and the cut ends
are to be smeared with bordeaux paste (Plate 6.18). Pruned trees develop
new flushes and regain normal growth and development.
Intercropping
Cashew grafts are normally planted at a spacing of 7.0 m x 7.0 m to 10.0 m
x 10.0 m. The wider inter-space available in between trees during early
years offer opportunities for raising other crops as intercrops. Intercropping
can provide additional income to the farmers.
In the first year, when planted at a spacing of 7.5 m x 7.5 m (177
plants/ha) very little land area is utilized by the crop. The canopy
development pattern of cashew in relation to age is illustrated in 6.4 (spacing
of 7.5 m x 7.5 m). During the first year, cashew uses hardly 1.2% of the
land area provided to the crop. During the second and third year, the canopy
coverage is only 5% and 13.4% respectively.
This pattern of canopy development offers tremendous scope for
intercropping in cashew during early years. A systematic intercropping
system involving compatible crops with varying morphological and rooting
l-year-old 2-year-old 3-year-old l2-year-old lS-year-old
c:J 0
Canopy Canopy Canopy Canopy Canopy
spread - 1.0 m spread - 2.0 m spread - 3.3 m spread -7.2 m spread - 10.8 m
1.2% Land 5% Land 13.4% Land 63.6% Land 143% Land
area. area area area area
Fig. 6.4. Canopy development pattern in relation to age
habits will enable better resource use and more returns. Biennial
horticultural crops like pineapple, banana and papaya; and annual food
crops like cowpea and tapioca are suitable inter-crops in cashew (MandaI,
1992). In addition, pepper and pomegranate also come up well along with
cashew. Intercropping also reduces weed growth in plantations.
MANAGEMENT OF INTER CROPS
Pineapple
Pineapple comes up excellently well in young cashew plantations during the
74

first four years (Plate 6.19). Sucke.rs are planted at a spacing of 30 cm x 30
cm in trenches a plant populatIon density of atleast 10,000 suckerslha.
Kew variety of pmeapple shows excellent performance as an intercrop. During
the first four four crops can be taken in succession. On an average 15
to 20 tonnes of pmeapplelha/year can be harvested. The crop association
involving cashew and pineapple proved to be an excellent combination in
Kerala, yielding better agronomic and economic advantages. This system
ensures better nutrient sharing, Smothering of weeds, conservation of soil
and water and enhanced growth of cashew. Cashew also receives better care
and management due to frequent visits of the farmer to the field.
Banana
Banana is another crop that can be successfully intercropped with cashew
during the first four years. Locally adapted banana varieties may be planted
in the inter-space at a distance of2.5 to 3.0 m. The agronomy ofintercropped
banana must be the same as that of sole crop banana. Cashew and banana
intercropping system proved successful economically and agronomically.
Inter-cropping in young cashew plantations with banana is seen practised in
the west coast of India (Plate 6.20).
Cowpea
Cowpea is an annual crop that can be successfully intercropped with cashew
during the first four years (Plate 6.21). Agronomy of cashew as inter-crop
must be the same as that of sole crop of cowpea. Being a nitrogen-fixing
legume crop, cowpea helps enriching the nutrient status of the soil.
Pomegranate
In Tamil Nadu farmers intercrop pomegranate, a fruit plant, with cashew
during early years of cashew. The spacing between pomegranate in the inter
space ranges from 2 to 3 m. Under irrigated conditions, pomegranate start
yielding from the third year of planting (Plate 6.22).
Pepper
Pepper (Piper nigrum) often known as the 'King of Spices', is another
important crop ofIndia. Being a twining plant, pepper vines require a support
for their growth. Many tree species are used to trail pepper. Experiments at
the Central State Farm, Aralam (Kerala, India) clearly indicated the suitability
of cashew as a support tree, for pepper. Cashew and pepper live in harmony,
ensuring better utilisation of the environmental resources (Plate 6.23).
Karimunda is an ideal variety for this purpose as it is adapted to shaded
75
environment. When cashew trees put forth sufficient trunk to facilitate
trailing pepper (7 to 10 years of age), rooted cuttings of Karimunda may be
planted at 30 to 40 em away from the tree base.
Two rooted cuttings may be planted on either side of the tree, during
the onset of south-west monsoon. The vine may be guided to the cashew
trunk by tying appropriately. Karimunda with cashew, on an average, yield
1.5 to 5.0 kg of fresh pepper (0.5 to 1.5 kg of dry pepper). This additional
income is a bonus without much additional investment.
The association between cashew and pepper looks like a harmonious
matrimony between the two dollar earning crops, by achieving higher
resource use efficiency, yielding greater agronomic and economic advantages
to the farmer. Care should be taken to ensure that both the crops are
adequately manured every year (Abdul Salam, 1999).
Soil and Water Conservation
The of soil erosion and run off is very severe in majority of the
cashew soils of India. To conserve soil and water, different agronomic,
agrostologic and engineering methods are to be followed. Contour terracing,
trenching or contour platforms help to conserve soil and water in a big way
(Plate 6.24).
In the west coast ofIndia contour trenching is common practice for soil
and water conservation. Trenches of size 1 m long, 50 em wide and 50 cm
depth will be taken near the plant, close to the root zone, across the slope.
Organic manure and organic wastes including the fallen leaves will be put
into these trenches. The trenches act as collecting points for soil and water.
Trees in plantations with conservation trenches show enhanced growth,
early flowering and higher yields. This is due to the conservation of moisture
in the sub-soil and maintenance of soil fertility (Plate 6.25).
Contour platforms, either staggered or continuous across the slope
help considerably to enhance plant growth during early age ofthe plantation.
Weed growth at the tree base will also be low, ifplatforms are taken properly
(Plate 6.26).
Platforms of 4' to 5' (1.20 m to 1.50 m) width and the same length may
be taken at. the basin, across the slope, by giving an inward (1.20 m to 1.50 m)
slope within the platform. The run off water and eroded soil will be collected
in the platform itself which will enhance sub-soil moisture storage. This
practice will result considerable improvement in the growth, development
. of the plant and nut yield.
76
Technology for Flower Induction
A technology for inducing flowering in cashew was developed by Puspalatha
et al. (2001). Foliar application of a mixture of cultar, KNO
s
and Carbaryl
(1,000 ppm cultar along with 1% KNO
s
and 0.10% carbaryl)@5litres/treeto
mature lateral shoots of cashew before flushing (September to October)
induces flowering early by one month, compared to untreated trees. This
spray application caused profuse and synchronized flowering resulting in
two-fold increase in nut yield compared to control.
Harvesting
Flowers after pollination generally take 50 to 75 days for maturity. Matured
nuts fall down with apple. The fallen fruits are manually collected (Plate
6.27).
The nuts are extracted from the apples (Plate 6.28), dried and stored.
Generally the cashew apples are left in the plantation. The extracted nuts
are dried under the sun for 2 to 3 days, to reduce the moisture content to
about 8%.
The dried nuts (Plate 6.29) are stored in the gunny bags and kept on
wooden planks"to avoid contact of moisture from the ground. Immature or
half-matured nuts should not be collected, because such nuts may yield :mly
poor quality kernels. For obtaining good quality kernels, fallen nuts may be
collected before getting damaged by rains.
77
Nutrition
C
ashew is well adapted to a wide variety of soils, from coastal sands to
degraded laterites. Cashew grows well in even soils, which are very low
in nutrients. It is grown in red, laterite and sandy soils and wastelands
particularly in Karnataka, Tamil N adu and Kerala.
Cashew responds very well to fertilizer application. About 50 to 100 per
cent increase in nut yield is observed due to the fertilizer application in this
crop. Nitrogen is the key nutrient element for cashew followed by potassium.
The nutritional requirement depends on the soil and climatic environment
in which it is grown. The production potential of the variety also decides
amount of nutrient requirement that is to be applied.
NITROGEN NUTRITION
Increase in levels of N from 200 to 1,000 g/tree/year increases the height
and girth of cashew (NRCC, 1980). Plant height increases linearly with
increase in N application upto 1,000 g/tree/year in sandy loam soils ofBapatla
(Nambiar, 1983). Cashew seedlings raised in Hoagland nutrient solution
completely devoid of N, were short by 7.2 cm compared to seedlings grown
in nutrient solution containing N. At the same time, the leaf number
decreased by 25% in the absence ofN in the nutrient solution (Gopikumar
and Aravindakshan, 1988). Increasing N application from 500 to 1,000 g/
tree/year increased the tree height (Latha, 1992). Cashew tree is a nitrogen
lover (Abdul Salam, 1997).
LeafN Content
LeafN content of cashew ranged from 1.52 to 1.98% (Calton, 1961). Haag et
al. (1975) reported that leaf N content ranging from 2.4 to 2.58% indicate
--
Nutrition
sufficiency whereas N content ranging from 0.98 to 1.38% indicate N
deficiency in cashew. Application ofN @ 1,000 g/tree/year resulted increased
concentration of N in leaf and shoot (Kumar and N agabhushanam, 1981).
Increase in N level from 0 to 1,500 g/tree/year increased leafN content from
1.02 to 1.15% during August. But N application decreased leaf P content
from 0.149 to 0.124%. LeafK content decreased from 0.660 to 0.575% due to
increased levels ofN application (Reddy et al., 1982).
Leaf nutrient status of cashew varied with physiological phases. The
concentration ofN, P and Kin leafwas high at flushing and early flowering
phase. The concentration ofMg and Cu in leaf was high during flowering and
fruiting phase. The concentration of Fe in leaf was high during maturity
phase. The concentration of S, Mn and Zn in leaf was high at post-harvest
phase. LeafN, P, K, Ca and Mg concentrations vary from 1.52 to 2.06, 0.045
to 0.14, 0.40 to 0.96, 0.10 to 0.54 and 0.16 to 0.34 respectively (Richards, 1993).
LeafN was highest (2.76%) in flowering phase and lowest (1.24%) in
pre-flushing phase (Mathew, 1990). The leafN content was highest (3.02%)
at flowering and lowest (1.93%) at flushing phase (Latha, 1992). Bhaskar
(1993) reported highest leafN concentration at flushing and early flowering
phases and lowest at fruiting and maturity phases.
Trees grown in nitrogen deficient soils show general yellowing (Plate
7.1). This can be cO!l"ected by applying N fertilizers like urea. Increase in N
application from 150 to 300 g/tree/year increased leafN content from 2.04 to
2.53% in cashew. But, leafP decreased with increase in N application. Leaf
K content decreased from 0.99 to 0.90% when N level increased from 150 to
300 gltree/year (Kumar, 1985). Variation in leaf N concentration ranging
from 1.2 to 3.24% was reported by Gopikumar and Aravindakshan (1989) in
cashew seedlings. The leaf N content increased from 2.46 to 3.02% with
increase in N level from 250 to 1000 g/tree/year (Latha, 1992). The leaf N
content decreased from 2.06 to 1.56% with increase in age of the plant from
6 to 70 months (Richard, 1992). The leafN content varied with leaf position.
It was highest (2.76%) in younger leaves and lowest (1.24%) in older leaves.
Response
The response of cashew to applied nitrogen is tremendous and the same is
observed universally. Nitrogen is the element that is absorbed by cashew in
largest quantity (Abdul Salam, 1997). The growth and development of cashew
is influenced by nitrogen application. Significant positive effects on various
growth characters of cashew are reported from Bapatla (AICRP, 1983) and
Karnataka (Kumar, 1985). Increase in cashew yield due to N application was
reported by several workers (Nair et al., 1973; Lefebvre, 1973; Reddy et al.,
79
1982; AICRP, 1983; Rao et al., 1984; Veeraraghavan et ai., 1985; Ghosh, 1988
and Mathew, 1990). A review of literature indicate that the response of cashew
to nitrogen application is universal, except in very rich soils.
Foliar Nutrition of Nitrogen
Spray application of2% urea with 0.05% Endosulfan, twice at the emergence
of flush and at panicle initiation, ensure high fruit set and effective pest
control. The HC Urea is absorbed by cashew through leaf as well as roots in
the molecular form (Abdul Salam and Kamalam, 1993).
PHOSPHORUS NUTRITION
Plant height increased linearly with increase in P application upto 400 g
P,05/treelyearyearin sandy loam soils of Bapatla 1983). Increase
in P application from 50 to 150 g PPJtree/year mcreased plant height by
12% (Kumar 1985). Cashew seedlings raised in Hoagland nutrient solution
completely devoid ofP were shorter by 8.63 em when com.pared with seedlings
grown in nutrient solution containing P. At the same time the leaf number
decreased by 27% in the absence ofP in the nutrient solution (Gopikumar
and Ara"indakshan, 1989). Increase in P application increased plant height
upoo500 g P,PJtreelyear (Latha, 1992).
LeafPConrent
According to Haag et al. (1975), leaf P content ranging from 0.16 to 0.2%
indicate sufficiency where as P content ranging from 0.1.1 to 0.14% indicate
P deficiency in cashew. Falade (1978) observed highest growth at a leaf P
concentratiGn oItl.l1lJl11b-in ca....mew seealings.1.ncrease in'"P appficationfron
50 to 15() gltreelyear increased leaf P content from 0.11 to 0.16% in cashev
(Kumar. 1985). The leaf P content of cashew seedlings raised in Hoaglanc
nutrient solution completely devoid ofPwas 0.11% whereas it was 0.34% iJ
seedlings grown in nutrient solution containing P (Gopikumar ant
... 1989). Increase in P application increased leaf P oonten
from (t012 tOo 0.16% upto a dose of 500 g P'1.0,ftreelyear (Latha, 1992). Th4
leafP int'rea...o;ed from 0.045 to 0.136% with incrt'.ase in age of th,
plant f.rtlm 6 to 7fi mouths (Richard, 1992). The leaf P content varied witl
malposition. It was highest (2.76%) in seventh and eighth leaf and lowes
first le.affrom theinilorescence (Mathew. 1990). The lemP conten
\'l\riat with physkllogkal phase ufthe piant. It was highest (0.16%) in fruitinl
and lowest (tHl12%) in ilusningphase (Latha" Bhaskar (1993
W,pl'li'ted the ofhighest leafP content at early flowering phas,
and
Nutrition
Response
Conflicting reports are observed regarding the response of cashew to P.
Rao et al. (1984) observed no response to P application in sandy loam soils.
Similarly, Veeraraghavan et al. (1985) found no effect of phosphorus on
cashew in laterite soils ofMadakkathara. The main effect of phosphorus to
increase the yield was limited to a dose of 25 kg P Plha, but when applied
with nitrogen, phosphorus application increased yield upto a dose of 75 kg!
ha (Swake et al., 1985). Kumar (1985) reported positive influence of
phosphorus on nut yield. Richards (1993) reported that soil P is a major
limiting nutrient in P deficient soils of Australia. According to him, P
application increased nut number and nut yield. A review of literature
indicates that cashew is generally shy to show response to phosphorus
fertilisers.
Foliar nutrion of P
A method was developed at the Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
during 1993-94 to study the extent offoliar absorption of32P and to identify
the factors affecting foliar absorption in cashew. A leaf washing technique
was developed to quantify the foliar absorption of phosphorus using 32P.
Plant factors namely leaf surface, leaf age, cuticle thickness and stomatal
index and other factors viz. application in a day, duration allowed for
absorption and presence of surfactant in the spray solution were found to
influence the absorption of foliar applied phosphorus. For getting greater
efficiency offoliar applied phosphorus, spraying is to be done around 11.00
hr directing to the lower surface of younger leaves and by giving a minimum
absorption time of6 days (Mini et al., 1995).
POTASSIUM NUTRITION
Plant height increased with increase in K application upto a dose of 150 g
(Kumar, 1985). Cashew seedlings raised in Hoagland nutrient
solution completely devoid ofK were short by 7.03 cm compared to seedlings
grown in nutrient solution containing K. At the same time the leaf number
decreased by 25% in the absence of K in the nutrient solution (Gopikumar
and Aravindakshan, 1988) The plant height increased with increase in K
application upto a dose of 1,000 g (Latha, 1992). General
yellowing, stunted growth, decreased leaf size and lean and lanky growth
were some of the deficiency symptoms in K deficiencies of cashew seedlings
in pot culture (Plate 7.2).
81
Leaf K Content
According to Haag et ai. (1975), leaf K content ranging from 1.11 to 1.29%
indicated sufficiency whereas K content ranging from 0.20 to 0.26% indicated
K deficiency in cashew. The leaf K concentration for highest growth was
determined as 0.342% in cashew seedlings (Falade, 1978). Increase in K
application from 50 to 150 g/tree/year increased leaf K content from 0.85 to
0.98% in cashew (Kumar, 1985). The leafK content of cashew seedlings raised
in Hoagland nutrient solution completely devoid ofK was 1.06% whereas it
was 3.17% in seedlings grown in nutrient solution containing K (Gopikumar
and Aravindakshan, 1988). The leaf K content increased from 1.14 to 1.23%
when K level was increased from 0 to 1,000 g (Latha, 1992).
The leafK content decreased from 0.96 to 0.73% with increase in age of the
plant from 6 to 70 months (Richard, 1992). The leafK content varied with leaf
position. It was highest (2.74%) in seventh and eighth leaf and lowest (0.54%)
in first leaf from inflorescence (Mathew, 1990). The leaf K content varied
with physiological phase. It was highest (0.57%) in flowering phase whereas
lowest (0.14%) in flushing phase (Latha, 1992). Bhaskar (1993) reported the
highest leafK content at early flowering phase and lowest at fruiting phase.
Response
Positive effects of potassium on cashew was reported by AICRP on
cashew(1983). Application of potassium increased the cashew nut production
particularly in the presence of nitrogen (Lefebvre, 1973). Significant positive
effects of potassium on growth and yield of cashew were reported by Ghosh
(1988) and Ghosh (1990). But Veeraraghavan et ai. (1985) could not observe
positive effect of potassium application in cashew. Kumar (1985) obtained
linear response for potassium upto 150 g the highest level tried by
him. A review ofliterature indicates that, next to nitrogen, the response of
cashew is more to potassium application.
The response of cashew to the major nutrients is in the order of N, K
and P. The N and K nutrition play significant role in enhancing the production
and productivity of cashew (Abdul Salam, 1997).
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
Nutrient Interactions
Many workers reported significant interaction between major nutrients in
cashew. Among the first order interactions, N and P, and N and K interactions
are strong. At Jhargram (West Bengal), application of 600 g N, 300 g PP5
and 300 g doubled the yield compared to control.
82
..-..
Nutrition
Nutrient Removal
A 30-year-old cashew tree e m o v e s 2:847 kgofN, 0.752 kgofP205 and 1.265
kg of through vegetatIve parts mcluding root system, apples and nuts
(Mohapatra et al., 1973). Beena et al. (1995) quantified nutrient uptake of
cashew. According to them, the nutrient off-take through 1 kg of nuts and
their apples is: 64.1 gofnitrogen (N), 2.05 gphosphorus (P), 24.7 gpotassium
(K), 4.1 g calcium (A), 1.57 g sulphur (S), 525.7 mg of iron (Fe), 63.6 mg of
manganese (Mn), 87.8 mg zinc (Zn), and 26.5 mg copper (Cu).
Relative Requirement of Nutrients
Based on the nutrient uptake reported by Bhaskar (1993) it can be seen that
nitrogen is the element that is required by cashew in largest quantity followed
by potassium. Calcium comes third in that order followed by P, Mg, S, Fe,
Zn, Mn and Cu. The relative nutrient requirement of cashew, compared to
nitrogen is elucidated in Fig. 7.1.
Ca s
Fe
Zit MnCu
Fig. 7.1. The relative nutrient requirement of cashew, compared to nitrogen
Nutrient Ratios
Mohapatra et al., (1973) studied the nutrient composition of one-year
vegetative and reproductive growth of a 30-year-old cashew tree and
determined the N: P: K ratio as 8.6:1:3.2. Richards (1993) determined the
N : P : K ratio (tree total) of a 6-year-old tree as 4.5:1.3.
Zinc Nutrition
Zinc is one of the most important micronutrients to which cashew responds
well. Ohler (1979) reported that in Zinc deficient soils, the leaves of cashew
seedlings change to pale yellowish green with a reddish brown pigmentation
and leaves become small and narrow in size. In zinc deficient soils, foliar
spray ofZn (2 kg ZnS0
4
+ 1 kg lime in 450 litres ofwaterlha) showed quick
response (Mandal, 1992).
83
Varietial Variation on Growth and Nutrient Uptake
Bhaskar (1993) found that the growth parameters of cashew varied with
varieties. Among 18 cashew varieties tested at Cashew Research Station,
Madakkathara, the variety V 3 cashew was the tallest (8.03 em) and M 44/3
cashew the shortest (5.56 em). The canopy spread was highest with the
variety V cashew 3 (10.35 m) and lowest (7.97 em) with M 44/3 cashew. The
highest girth was noticed with the variety H 1610 cashew and lowest with M
44/3 cashew (CRS, 1997). The leaf nutrient content in cashew varied with
varieties. Among the 6 varieties (Vengurla 5, M 26/2, A 1, V 3, H 1600 and H
1598) tested, the leaf N content was highest in M 26/2 (3.26%) whereas it
was lowest in V 5 (2.68%). The leafP content and leafK content were highest
in M 26/2 and lowest in V 5. Bhaskar (1993) quantified the nutrient uptake of
6 cashew varieties (4-year-old trees). It was found that the nutrient uptake
differed between varieties. The uptake was highest with the variety M 26/2
and lowest with the variety V 5.
Nutrient Recommendations
The nutritional doses recommended for different cashew growing states are
different (Table 7.1). The N recommendation ranges, is from 500 g/tree
(Orissa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu) to 1,000 g/tree for
Maharashtra. The P Ps recommendation ranges from 125 g/tree (Andhra
Pradesh) to 325 g/tree (Kerala). The recommendation of ranges
from 125 g (Andhra Pradesh) to 750 g (Kerala)
Table 7.1. Fertilizer recommendation for cashew, for different states of India
States
Kerala
Maharastra
Tamil Nadu
Andhra Pradesh
Knrnataka
West Bengal
Orissa
N
750
1000
500
500
500
600
500
ORGANIC MANURING
Fertilizer dose for adult tree (g)
325
250
250
125
250
300
250
750
250
250
125
250
300
250
Beneficial effects of organic manuring to cashew particularly at the planting
is reported by Mandal (1992). Planting cashew with organic manures
like compost, farmyard manure or oil-cakes results in quick growth and
development. At Vengurla, application of6 tonnes offarmyard manure/ha
resulted in better growth of young plants. The farm yard manure is
84
Nutrition
recommended @ 50-100 kg/tree, for sustained cashew yield in Kerala
Maharashtra , Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and West Bengal.'
Nutriell. t ltecycling
According to Richards (1993) the "canopy biomass fallout" involving leaves
cashew apples and flowers contribute 15.52 to 37.7% of the totai
macronutrients requirement of the tree.
Nutrition in Relation to Age
Cashew is a tree crop that requires at least 7 years to attain the status of a
full-grown tree, with stabilized yield. During this period, the growth
parameters viz. height, girth, canopy spread and yield increase steadily.
Therefore, it is necessary to evolve fertilizer doses in relation to age. The
fertiliser recommendation in relation to age of trees for different Indian
states, are given in Table 7.2.
Table 7. 2. Fertiliser recommendation in relation to tree age
% of fertilizer dose recommended for adult trees
State I-year 2-year 3-year 4-year5 -year
Andhra Pradesh a 25 50 75 100
Karnataka 12 25 50 N-100 P&K-50 100
KeraIa 10 25 50 75 100
Maharasbtra 25 50 75 100 100
Tamil Nadu 15 30 40 60 100
West Bengal 33 66 100 100 100
Time of Fertilizer Application
Agronomically, to maximise nutrient use efficiency, it is necessary to apply
the fertilizers at the physiological phase of the tree at which the internal
nutrient demand is the highest.
Beena et al. (1995) studied root activity of cashew in relation to
phenological phases, employing 32p soil injection technique, in the laterite
soils of Kerala. Highest root activity and peak absorption of32Pwere noticed
in flushing and early flowering stage, which extended from September to
December. It is u g g e ~ t e that the onset of this phase is the most appropriate
time for fertilizer application in a cashew orchard. Root activity was lowest
at fruit maturity and harvest phase (March to June). However, irrigation
during this period enhances 32Puptake by the roots. The months offertilizer
application recommended for cashew, for various states of the country are
mentioned in Table 7.3.
85
Table 7.3. Months offertilizer application for various states of India
States
Andhra Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Mallarashtra
Tamil Nadu
West Bengal
Months of application
June-July and October- November
September
June-July and September-October
August-September
October-November
September-October
Method of Fertilizer Application
Fertilizers are to be applied in the tree basin where the feeding roots ar,
concentrated. The feeding root zone depends on the age of the tree. It i
generally believed that majority ofthe feeding roots reside under the canop:
area and as such fertilizer application can be restricted to this zone (Plat,
7.3). For adult trees, fertilizers can be broadcast and incorporated over tht
entire tree basin (15 cm deep) within a radial distance of2 to 3 m within tht
drip line, leaving half-a-meter from the tree trunk (Plate 7.4). Instead
fertilizers can be placed in narrow trenches of 15 cm depth (taken 2 to 3 n
radially around the tree) and covered with soil.
For young trees, fertilizers can be broadcast and incorporated over thl
entire tree basin (10 cm deep) within the canopy area.
Need for Site-specific Recommendations
Cashew area in India is confined mainly to Kerala, Karnataka, Andhrl
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil N adu, Goa, and Orissa. The present practicl
of fertilizer application is by adopting a common nutritional dose for thl
entire state. As the soil fertility as well as the crop productivity varies to I
greater extent amongst the cashew growing environments, the presen
practice of adopting a uniform fertilizer recommendation for the entire state
disregarding the variations in the level of soil fertility is irrational. Thl
production potential of the variety also needs consideration. Hence
productivity linked and soil fertility based nutrient recommendations are tl
be evolved for each and every agro-climatic environment. Research effort:
are being made in this direction.
86
-
.-.. ._--
Crop Protection
INSECT PESTS
Tea mosquito, stem borer, thrips, leaf minor and blossom webbers are the
important pests of cashew. Ofthese, the first two are the major pests and
their damages are most serious.
Tea Mosquito Bug
This (Helopeltis antonii, Miridaeis) is the dominant species causing serious
damage to tender shoots, foliage, panicle and tender nuts. Review by
Davasahayam and Nair (1986), Sundararaju and Bakthavaltsalam (1994) and
Sundararaju (1996) covers information on distribution, nature and extent of
damage, biology, natural enemies and host plants. The adult bug is responsible
for causing the damage. Adult bug is reddish-brown with black head, red
thorax and, black and white abdomen (Plate 8.1). The scutellar horn is
reddish-brown, erect and tapering with knobbed and funnel shaped tip. The
female is 8.0 mm long and the male is smaller than female.
Female bug inserts eggs into the epidermal tissues of the tender shoots,
inflorescence and nuts. Usually the eggs are laid in two rows of 3 each. The
egg is 1 mm long and 0.25 mm broad. It hatches in 7-8 days. The nymph is
red and ant-like with long legs. It feeds on the plant juice, undergoes 5
instars and becomes adult in about 15 days. The total life-cycle is completed
in 15 to 20 days (Fig. 8.1). The mean longevity of females is 6.5 days as
against 5.2 days in males. Population builds up from October coinciding with
the emergence of new flushes, reaches peak in the blossom period in January.
During the monsoon (June to September) the pest is almost absent in the
field. Several species of spiders and reduviid bugs have been recorded as
predators of tea mosquito bug in different cashew tracts. In Kerala, the ant,
Crematogaster wronghtoni Forei feeds on nymphs and adult bugs.
Female
J
I"
The tea mosquito bug takes
15-20 days to complete its
life cycle.
Fifth instar nymph
"gg \ /,
w... ----- V.-/" Thkd '",la, nymph
First instar nymph .
Sel'<md instar nymph
Fig. 8.1. Life-cycle of tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis antonii
Tea mosquito bug causes injury to the cashew plants by inducing toxemia
when the adults and nymphs feed on them. The area around the feeding
point becomes necrotic. The insect feeds on tender shoots, inflorescence,
developing nuts and apples. The shoots show dieback symptoms and 'blossom
blight'. Finally the whole inflorescence dies.
The flushes, panicles and tender nuts are vulnerable to the damage.
The injured portion gets blackened and sometimes get infected by fungi.
Depending on the severity of the injury and fungal infection the shoot may
dry up (Plate 8.2).
Tea mosquito bug damages the panicles and tender nuts as well (Plates
8.3 & 8.4). The panicles dry up resulting in heavy yield loss. The injured
tender nuts show black spots, get shrivelled and dry up.
The nature of damage during the flushing and flowering phases are
shown in Plates 8.5 and 8.6.
Neem is the primary host of tea mosquito bug, especially in Tamil
N ad u and Southern parts ofKarnataka and Andhra Pradesh (Pillai and Gopi,
1990). The insect spreads from neem to cashew as a regular pest.
88
Crop Protection
Tea mosquito bug is distributed in most of cashew growing regions of
Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra (Pillai et ai., 1976); Tamil N adu (Pillai
et ai., 1976) and Orissa (Jena et al., 1985). Decrease in cashew nut yield,
ranging from 25 to 50% owing to tea mosquito bug has been reported from
Karnataka, Goa, Kerala and West Bengal (CCRS, 1966; Desai et al., 1977;
Abraham and Nair, 1981).
The nature of damage caused by H. antonii has been described by various
workers (Sathiamma, 1977; Pillai, 1979, 1980; Satapathy, 1993; Sundararaju,
1996). Both nymphs and adults suck sap from tender shoots, panicles and
immature nuts and apples (Plates 8.7 and 8.8).
The typical symptom of damage is the formation of necrotic lesion
around the point of stylet insertion by the bug. The lesions on shoots and
panicles coalesce and ultimately result in shoot blight or blossom blight.
During the emergence of new flushes, the severely infested trees bear a
scorched appearance. Each nymph/adult during its lifetime damage atleast
3 tender shoots/panicles. A single nymph can cause blighting of emerging
tender shoot/panicle within 3 to 4 days offeeding. In general 1 to 3 nymphs
were seen in each emerging tender shoot/panicle. The fungi, Gloeosporium
mangiferae and Phomopsis anacardii have been reported to cause blossom
blight in association with Helopeltis antonii (CCRS, 1965; Nambiar et al.,
1973).
The feeding injury by the bug was attributed as one of the causes of
infection and manifestation of dieback disease caused by Colletotrichum
gloeosporoides and Botryodiplodia theobromae (Plate 8.9).
Least susceptible types to Helopeltis antonii contain higher phenols
(Anapoorna Rai and Nagaraja, 1988) which can not be implicated towards
resistance, since H. antonii has potential salivary detoxification mechanism
(Sundararaju and Sundarbabu, 1996).
Management of Tea Mosquito Bug: Spraying of Cuman (0.1%) in
combination with phosphomidan (0.03%) was earlier suggested for control of
the pest (CCRS, 1966, 1969).
Endosulfan (0.05%) was observed to be the most effective insecticide
when sprayed thrice during emergence of flushes, panicles and fruit set
(Singh and Pillai, 1984). Endosulfan (0.1%) as low volume spray also led to
effective pest suppression (CPCRI, 1975). An effective and economical control
could be achieved by aerial spraying with endosulfan (George et al., 1984;
Krishnamurthy et al., 1985).
Three sprays of endosulfan (0.05%) alone or in combination with urea
(3.0%) were found to be promising in managing the pest along with increasing
89
"-. '-. ----
---.
.. -_. --:-::-
yields (Pappiah et al., 1984). Besides endosulfan (0.05%), other insecticides
viz. monocrotophos (0.05%), carbaryl (0.1-0.15%), methyl parathion (0.5%),
quinalphos (0.05%) dimethoate (tl05%), fenthion (0.05%), phosalone (0.07%)
and phosphomidan (0.03%) were also reported to be effective against Helopeltis
antonii (Nair and Abraham, 1984; Samiayyan and Palaniswamy, 1984) Singh
and PiIlai, 1984; AICRPC, 1989; ChatteIjee, 1989; Godse et al., 1991). Carbaryl
(0.1 %) and monocrotophos (0.05%) had maximum residual action for 7 days
and found to be the best (Sundararaju et al., 1993). Even though cashew is
an insect pollinated crop, use of carbaryl or monocrotophos during the
flowering stage had not affected the fruit set. In Tamil N adu, the major
cashew tract (Panruti area) insecticide sprayings with various formulations
were being uridertaken indiscriminately to avoid the potential damage of
Helopeltis antonii, leading to resurgence of other sucking pests like mealy
bug (Sundararaju, 1996).
Effectiveness of synthetic pyrethroids viz. decamethrin (0.002%),
permethrin (0.01 %), and cypermethrin (0.0075%) against Helopeltis antonii
was also reported (NRCC, 1988; Godse et al., 1991). However, overall
performance of decamethrin in terms of cost could not match that of
endosulfan (NRCC, 1989).
Dust formulations of carbaryl (5 and 10%), phosalone (4%), malathion
(5%), methyl parathion (2%) and quinalphos (1.5%) were also found to be effective
against Helopelties antonii (Nair and Abraham, 1984; Hiremath et al., 1987).
Plant products especially neem formulations evaluated against H.
antonii indicated low mortality and low feeding deterrence at the
recommended dose (Satapathy, 1993; NRCC, 1994, 1995; Bhat et al., 1994;
Angaiah, 1995). However, kernel extracts of Pongamia had shown increased
mortality of Helopelties antonii than any other plant extracts (NRCC, 1993;
Satapathy, 1993).
In Kerala, tea mosquito bug along with Colletotrichum gloeosporoides
often cause severe damage to cashew. This disease caused by Colletotrichum
Table 8.1. Spray schedule against tea mosquito bug and anthracnose diseases
Months
October-November
December-January
January-February
InsecticidelFungicide
Quinalphos 25% EC 2 ml
+ Copper oxy-chloride 2 g/litre
of water
Endosulfan 35% EC 1.5 ml
+ Mancozeb 2 g/litre of water
Carbaryl 50% WP 2 g/litre
of water
90
Stages
Flushing phase
Flowering phase
Nut initiation stage
Crop Protection
gloeOSporoides. is c?-lled anthracnose. Research conducted in Kerala
Agricultural Uruverslty could evolve a 3-spray schedule against tea mosquito
bug and anthracnose disease (Table S.l).
Spraying must be done using a rocker sprayer or power sprayer for an
effective coverage of the canopy and better pest control (Plates S.10 and S.l1).
Resistant Varieties
Va.rietal screening conducted so far indicates that resistance is unlikely to
be encountered. However, in one of the accessions (Goa 11-6) a phenological
eva.sion has been noticed, which enables the accession to escape severe
infestation (Sundararaju, 1995). Similarly there are also reports that hybrids
H-3-17, H-1600, H-S-1, H-S-7, H-S-8 and H-15 showed moderate tolerance to
this pest. It will be worthwhile to identify varieties whose flowering phase
does not coincide with peak population of tea mosquito bug.
Root and Stem Borer
Stem borer (Plocoederus ferrugineus Linn., Cerambycidae) is another major
pest of cashew (Plate 8.12). It is a beetle and the larvae of it tunnel in to the
tree trunk and supporting roots. The female beetles lay eggs on the crevices
"fthe bark and on the collar region of the tree trunk (Plate 8.13). The eggs
llatch and larvae tunnel into the trunk and destroy the bundle sheath. Food
and water translocation is affected and tree gradually dies. Early stages of
attack can be detected from the chewed wood observed at the base of the tree.
The adult is a reddish brown longicorn beetle with the head and thorax
dark brown to black. It has a length of 25 to 40 mm. Egg is oval measuring
4.5 mm x 2 mm and dirty-white. It hatches in 4 to 6 days. The grub on
hatching bores into the living tissues of the bark and sapwood making tunnels
within them. It becomes full grown in 6 to 7 months, growing to a length of
7.6 cm (Plate 8.14).
Grub tunnels down into the root and bores into the heartwood wherein
itJorms a chamber tightly packed with fibrous tissues and frass for pupation.
The grub makes a calcareous cocoon within this chamber. Pupal period
lasts for 20 to 60 days and thereafter the adult beetle emerges. During early
stage of infestation, chewed wood can be seen at the base of the infected
trees (Plate S.15). Subsequently the infestation becomes severe. Larvae of
the stem borer can be noticed if the bark of the infected trees is removed
with a chisel and hammer (Plate 8.16).
The trees attacked by the grubs of Plocoederus ferrugineus die and dry
up. At the bore holes, gum and frass emerge. Trees become yellow and shed.
91
.- ... - --'-" -. \. "
--.--
The trunk of a severely infected trees is shown in Plate 8.17. Oozing of
a brown liquid (gummosis) and chewed wood in large quantity can be noticed
at tree base. Larvae of varying age will be harbouring in the infected trunl'
at the bark region.
The leaves become pale yellow during early stage of infection.
Subsequently the leaves become completely yellow (Plate 8.18). This is due
to the destruction of vascular bundles.
At advanced stage, the leaves falloff and branches start drying. During
course of time, the trees die completely (Plates 8.19 and 8.20). In neglected
plantations, on an average 5 to 10 per cent trees die every year due to the
stem borer damage.
Management
Several management strategies involving biological, mechanical, cultural
and chemical methods were tried against this pest. But, an effective and
economic control measure is yet to be evolved. However, certain measures
like phytosanitation, mechanical extraction, prophylactic treatments,
chemical control methods etc. are beneficial to check the damage.
Phytosanitation: Severely infested and dead trees of the plantation should
be uprooted and destroyed. Plantation hygiene is to be ensured to prevent
harbouring of the insect.
Pest surveillance: The trees, which are high-yielding, are to be examined at
there base at monthly intervals, especially during harvest (January to May)
for eggs and grubs of cashew stem and root borer. The trees look sick or
showing initial stages of infestation (gummosis) are to be examined critically
including stout root region and grubs are to be mechanically removed by
chopping the bark.
Mechanical control: Mechanical extraction of the grubs and swabbing the
tree trunk with 2% carbaryl solution minimizes the damage.
Neem-oil swabbing: Application ofNeem oil 5% (50 ml of Neem oil + 1,000
ml of water + 0.5 ml ofteepol or 5 g of bar soap) on collar portion upto 1 m
height and on exposed roots keep the insects away for a period of 3 months
(Plates 8.21, 8.22 and 8.23).
Chemical: Pouring 2% carbaryl solution in the soil at tree basin also helps to
minimise the incidence of stem borer. Soil incorporation of75 g ofSevidol (4
G) in the tree basin also minimises the attack of the stem and root-borer.
Bioagents: Mycopathogens viz. Metarhhizium anisopliae and Beauveria.
bassiana are known to cause mycosis of grubs of cashew stem and root
borer. The spores of M. anisopliae survive for 3 months under field condition.
92
Crop Protection
Mixing the spawn with organic materials viz. farmyard manure neem-cake
and cashew apple can increase the spore load in the field condition.
OTHER PESTS
Apple and Nut Borer
This (Thylocoptila paurosema, Pyralidae: Lepidoptera) is a serious pest noticed
in Andhra Pradesh and Goa. The larva is pinkish dark, sparsely hairy and
very active. Caterpillar bores into tender apples and nuts (Plates 8.24 and
8.25). The hole of entry is plugged with faecal matter. Attacked fruits shrivel
and nuts drop down prematurely. Spraying twice with endosulfan or carbaryl
controls this pest.
Bark Eating Caterpillars
This (lndarbela tetraonis, I. quadrinotata, Metarbelidae: Lepidoptera) is a
polyphagous insect, attacking a large number of fruit and forest trees.
Moths emerge with the onset of monsoon. Larva continues damage
throughout the year (Plate 8.26). Spherical single eggs are laid in cracks of
bark by the creamy white moth having brown markings on forewings.
Larva is brown to dark brown, sparsely hairy and about 5 cm long when
fully grown. Caterpillar bores short distances through the trunk or branches
(Plates 8.27 and 8.28).
At night, the larva comes out and feeds on bark of the tree. Small trees
may succumb and large trees may fail to flush, if infestation is severe.
Removal of the galleries plastered on the tree trunks, or pouring kerosene
pr dichlorvos during early stages of infestation reduces the damage .
. :LeafMiner
This (Acrocercops syngramma, Gracillaridae: Lepidoptera) pest is commonly
seen in cashew plantations. Small-sized silvery grey moth lays eggs on tender
leaves. The caterpillar mines through the leaves and as a result white blister-
like patches appear on the leaves (Plate 8.29). Spraying with monocrotophos
at the time of flushing checks the damage.
Thrips
This <Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus, Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thripidae:
Thysanoptera) is a highly polyphagous insect observed throughout the year.
These are minute, slender, fragile, soft-bodied, fast moving insects. Adults
have fringed wings. Nymphs and adults infest the leaves or inflorescence
and suck the sap. Panicles, nuts and apples show scab-like rough skin. Nuts
93
drop in severe cases of attack. If infestation is severe, spray dimethoate ot
monocrotophos (Plate 8.30).
Aphids
Nymphs and adults (Toxoptera odinae, Aphididae: Homoptera) are soft bodied,
ovate and brown. Adults may be winged or wingless. Both nymphs and adults
suck sap from tender shoots, inflorescence, apples and nuts (Plate 8.31)
Honey dew excreted by aphids falls on leaves below on which sooty mold
grows. Severe infestation results in shedding and drying of flowers , or distorted
nuts and apples. Normally the population is kept low by the natural enemies.
In population explosions, systemic insecticides like dimethoate,
phosphamidon or methyl demeton may be sprayed.
MealyBugs
Mealy bugs (Planococcus lilac in us, Ferrisia virgata, Pseudococcidae:
Homoptera) are soft-bodied, and covered with milky white coating on body.
Planococcus lilacinus is found on tender shoots and fruits while Ferrisea
uirgata infests the inflorescence resulting in shedding, and drying of flowers
(Plate 8.32). Honeydew excreted by mealy bug attracts ants and sooty molds.
Remove and destroy the affected parts.
Mites
Infestation occurs mainly in prolonged drought situations. Mites (Oligonychus
mangiferus, Tetranychidae: Acarina) feed on leaves, remaining on the
underside. Affected leaves loose luster, become whitish and crispy. Normally
chemical measures are not followed. If infestation is very serious, spray
sulphur, dicofol or ethion.
CASHEW DISEASES
In India, cashew diseases do not pose serious threats in plantations. But in
nursery, diseases are of great significance.
Diseases in the Nursery
Damping Off
This is caused by the fungus Phytophthora palmivora. In pre-emergence
damping off our seed rot. Seeds sown in the polythene bag rot before they
germinate. In post-emergence damping off, water-soaked lesions appear at
the base of germinated seeds. The cells rot and the seedlings die (Plates
94
Crop Protection
8.33a and 8.33b). This disease is more prevalent under ill-drained conditions.
Young are also attacked at the collar region which turn pale with
water-soaked, discoloured areas around stem, resulting in rotting and collapse
of seedlings.
Seedling Blight
This is by various fingi, like Pythium spp., Phytophthora palmivora,
Cylindrocladwm scoparium and Fusarium spp. The disease starts as water-
soaked irregular brown to black spots on young leaves, which turn yellow,
wither and drop (Plate 8.34). The most important characteristic of the disease
is wilting, withering and rotting of underground system. Collar region becomes
fibrous and roots discolour decayed or shred off. tntimately, the seedlings
wilt and dry up.
Root Rot
This is caused by Pythium spp. The roots of seedlings get infected, rot and
growth of the plant is retarded. Leaves become yellow. The disease is prevalent
in ill-drained condition, particularly during rainy season (Plate 8.35).
To control seed rot, seedling blight and root rot, it is necessary to
ensure better drainage by putting sufficient holes in the polythene bags
(container). Application of 2 g of Trichoderma or 10 g of Mycorrhiza per bag
at seed sowing, helps to prevent diseases. Drenching 200 ml ofmancozeb (3
g/litre) or copper oxychloride solution (2 g/litre) or metalaxyl + mancozeb (2
g/litre) or Potassium Phosphonate (3 mlflitre) is also effective.
Leaf Blight
This is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Pestalotia spp. and
Phytophthora Palmivora (Plates 8.36a, 8.36b and 8.36c).
Spraying of 1% bordeaux mixture or copper oxychloride (@ 2 g/litre)
effectively controls the disease.
Diseases in Plantation
Anthracnose
This diseases is caused by Colletotrichumgloeosporioides. The fungus infects
young shoots, tender leaves, panicles, tender nuts and young apples. Dark
brown sunken spots appear on the tender shoots and they coalesce resulting
in drying up of the shoots (Plate 8.37a, 8.37b, 8.37c, 8.37d and 8.37e). A
gummy exudate appear on the affected part. The shoot, panicle and the
95
tender nuts blacken and dry up. Affected apples become shrivelled and decay.
This fungus inflicts heavy damage along with tea mosquito bugs. Therefore,
it is necessary to adopt combined application of insecticide and fungicide to
control both tea mosquito bug and fungus.
A three spray schedule involving insecticides and fungicides is
recommended at flushing, flowering and tender nut stage against tea mosquito
and anthracnose. Spray application of quinalphos (25% EC@ 2 mlJlitre) along
with copper oxychloride (@ 2 g/litre) during flushing, endosulfan (35% EC @
1.5 mlllitre) along with mancozeb (@ 3 g/litre) at flowering and carbaryl (50%
WP @ 2 g/litre) along with mancozeb (@ 3 gIlitre) during tender nut stage
will effectively control tea mosquito bug and the fungus. It may not be
necessary to follow a 3-spray schedule in all the years. Depending up on the
pest load and severity of the damage the number of sprays can be regulated
to 2 or even one. If the damage is not severe, it is better to avoid pesticide
application.
The disease occurs anywhere on the brown bark from collar to the
branches at the distal end, but very common on fork or branches, as
superficial growth of white mycelia over the bark and subsequent gummy
exudations from the affected portion.
Pink Disease
This is caused by Corticium salmonicolor. Pink disease is more prevalent
during rainy season. Leaves ofthe affected branches become yellow and dry
up severe case, entire branch gets dried up (Plates 8.38, 8.39 and 8.40). To
control this disease, scrap the skin of the affected portion along with healthy
tissues and apply bordeaux paste. Ifinfestation is severe, prune the branches
and smear the wounds with b'o'rdeaux paste.
Gumnwsis
This is caused by Corticium salmonicolor, Diplodia natalensis and Ceratocystis
sp. Gummosis is characterized by exudation of a brownish liquid, which
later turns black in colour (Plate 8.41). Main stem and branches are affected
and longitudinal cracks can be seen on the affected branches from which
gum exudes. The affected portion may be chiselled out and applied with 1%
bordeaux paste.
Sooty Mold
This is caused by the fungus, Capnodium spp. Black fungal growth appears
on the leaf lamina and leaves dry up (Plate 8.42). Spraying of 1 % bordeaux:
mixture or 2% starch controls the disease.
96
Crop Protection
Red Rust
This is caused by the alga Cephaleuros virescens. Rusty red-coloured, cushiony
or velvetty spots appear on leaves. The spots are circular and appear on the
upper surface ofleaves (Plate 8.43). 1% bordeaux mixture or 0.2%
of copper oxychloride controls the dIsease.
Lea{Blight
This is caused by the fungus Pestalotia. Brown round spot appear on the leaf
surface. They coalese forming grey coloured spots tvith yellow boundaries
and dark dots inside the spot (Plate 8.44). Spraying of 1 % bordeaux mixture
can control the diseases.
Algal Growth on Trunk/Branches
Whitish and greenish yellow patches of algal growth are seen on the trunk
and branches, sometimes covering the entire surface giving an ugly
appearance. Apply bordeaux paste or spray copper oxychloride 3 gIlitre of
water.
97
Cashew Nut Production Technology
KERALA
Varieties
The cashew varietes viz. , Akshaya (H -7 -6), Amrutha (H -1597), Anakkayam-
1 (BLA 139-1), Dhana (H-1608), Dharasree (H 3-17)00, Mridhula (PTR-1-1),
Madakkathara-2 (NDR-2-l), Anagha (H-8-1), Madakkathara-1 (BLA 39-4),
Priyanka (H-1591), Sulabha (K 10-2), and Kanaka (H-1598) are suitable for
growning in Kerala.
Fig. 9.1. Cashew production in Kerala
Spacing (Normal Density)
7 m x 7 m to 10 m x 10 m depending on soil fertility. Wider spacing in fertile
soil and closer spacing in less fertile soils.
4 m x 4 m or 5 m x 5 m or 8 m x 4 m
. .q".---
SeasonJTime of Planting
June to July or September to October.
SysteJ11.S of Planting
The square system of .or the triangular system of planting may be
adopted. Plant populatIon at dIfferent spacing and systems of planting are
given in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1. Systems of planting
Spacing
lO.Om x 10.Om
B.Om x 8.0m
7.0m x 7.0m
7.5m x 7.5m
4.0m x 4.0m
5.0m x 5.0m
B.Om x 4.0m
Method of Planting
Treeslha
Square system Triangular system
100 116
156 180
204 234
177 204
625 720
400 460
312 360
Planting may be done in pits (60 em x 60 em x 60 em). Fill the pits with top
soil to 3/4 ofthe pit capacity. Organic manure (10 kg) and Superphosphate or
Mussorie phosphate (100 g) may also be applied. The grafts may be planted,
after carefully removing the polythene bag. While planting, the graft union
should remain 2.5 em above the ground level. Remove polythene tape that
remains around the graft union carefully. Staking should be done immediately
after planting to protect the grafts from wind damage.
Post Planting Care
Mulch the basins of the plants with organic materials. Cashew requires
regular weeding, pest and diseases control, manuring and irrigation from
first year onwards.
Irrigation
Newly planted grafts may be irrigated regularly during summer. Drip
irrigation or pitcher irrigation may be adopted. For adult trees, about 200
litres ofwater/tree may be applied at an interval of 15 days during summer.
In sloppy lands, pits of 60 em x 60 em x 60 em or trenches of 50 em width, 50
cm depth and convenient length may be taken in between rows (along the
99
contour) to conserve soil and water. This technique will not only conserve
soil and water but will also enhance the growth of cashew.
Weed Control
Weeding is to be done during August-September, either chemically or
manually. Application of paraquat @ 0.4 kglha, thrice at monthly intervals,
starting from July, will effectively control all types of weeds. Glyphosate
application@ 0.8 kglha, in June-July is also effective to control weeds.
Manuring
Fertilizer may be applied@500 g N, 125 g P20S and 250 g tree in
soils of medium fertility. Apply the fertilizers, either as a single dose from
September to October (North- East monsoon) or in 2 splits (50% between
June and July and 50% from September to October), Table 9.2.
Table 9.2. Nutrition in relation to tree age
Time/Age
At planting
I-year after planting
2-year after planting
Organic
manures
(kgltree)
10
15
20
30
40
50
Urea Super Phosphate I
(gltree) Mussorie Phosphate
(gltree)
110
275
550
825
1100
100
70
175
350
525
700
Muriate
of Potash
(gltree)
50
125
250
375
500
The above fertiliser recommendation will vary with soil, depending on fertility.
Method of Application
For adult trees, broadcast and incorporate the fertilizers over the entire
tree basin (15 cm deep) within a radial distance of 2 to 3 m within the drip
line, leaving 50 cm from the tree trunk. For young trees, broadcast and
incorporate the fertilizers over the entire tree basiIr(lO cm deep) within the
canopy. Weed the plantation before fertilizer application. Soil should be moist
at the application. Choose dry spells in between rains for fertilizer application.
Minimize root injury during application.
Plant-protection
Tea mosquito bug, stem-borer, thrips, leaf miner and blossom webber are
the common pests of cashew. Of these, the first-two are the major pests and
they are to be controlled.
100
. Mosquito Bug
the most notori?us pest of cashew. This attacks the tree during every
:on in every flushing, flowering and fruiting periods. Since it is a recurring
" regular control measures are necessary to protect the crop. A spray
ldule involving 3 sprays is recommended to control tea mosquito. The
, spray may be given from October to November (synchronizing with the
rgence of the new flushes). The second spray may be given between
~ m e r and January (synchronizing with the commencement of panicle
rgence) and the third spray may be given during January-February (at
; initiation/complete flowering). The following insecticides may be used
he above sprays in a rotational manner:
Insecticides recomended
Quinalphos (25% EC)
Endosulfan (35% EC)
Carbaryl (W,P. 50%)
Phosphamidon (85% W8C)
0,05%
0.05%
0.10%
0.03%
The same insecticide should not be used continuously in all the 3 sprays.
tation of insecticides would be desirable to counteract the tendency of
nsects to develop field resistance. Depending upon the canopy size, the
ltity of spray solution may be increased to ensure a better coverage of
:anopy. For grown up trees, 5 litres of spray fluid would be required at
volume discharge rate and 2 litres at the low volume discharge rate.
spraying, rocker sprayer with Hi-tree lance is preferable.
rtBorer
;her major pest of cashew, a beetle pest, the grubs of it tunnel into the
trunk and roots. The female beetles oviposit the crevices of the bark at
:ollar region of the tree trunk. The egg hatches and larva tunnels in to
:runk and destroys the bundle sheath. Food and water translocation is
:ted and tree gradually dies.
Manual removal of the grubs and treating the trunk and exposed roots
insecticides can help recovery. Remove the grubs by using a chisel and
mer. Stem padding with cotton wool soaked in monocrotophos 30 ml
) EC) per tree, helps to check stem borer. Application ofNeem oil 5% on
r portion upto 1 m height and on exposed roots along with soil application
vidol 75 g in the tree basin prevents the stem and root-borer attack for
Inths.
101
Anthracnose
Along with tea mosquito bug, anthracnose disease causes severe damage
and yield reduction. To control anthracnose and TMB, the following spray
schedule is effective. Spraying may be done on a need-based manner.
Chemicals
Prophylactic spray ofCarbendazim 0.1 %
Carbendazim 0.1 % + Quinalphose 0.05%
Carbendazim 0.1 % + Endosulfan 0.05%
Carbaryl 0.1%
Harvesting
Time
June
Flushing
Flowering
Nut initiation
The fruits will be ready for harvest about 2 months after fertilization of
flowers. The ripened fruits will fall down which can be collected manually.
The nuts can be extracted from the apples, dried under sun for about 2 days
and stored temporarily till marketing.
Intercropping
Pineapple is the most profitable intercrop. Tapioca, groundnut, pulses etc.
can also be raised successfully during the initial 3 to 4 years. Care should be
taken to manure both cashew and the intercrops adequately.
MAHARASHTRA
Varieties
The cashew varieties viz., Vengurla-l, Vengurla-4 ,Vengurla-6, Vengurla-7
are suitable for growing in Maharashtra.
Soil
All soils from sandy to laterite. Best soil is well drained sandy loam. Heavy
clay soils are not suitable.
Planting Material
Soft wood grafts.
Spacing
The optimum spacing is 7 m x 7 m (200 plantslha) and 8 m x 8 m
(156 plants/ha).
102
- -_._-_. .. :',
Fig. 9.2. production in ),Iaharashtm
l Density Planting
>ptimum high density of planting is 5 m x 5 m (400 plants/ha).
lize
>ptimum pit size is 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm.
on
>ptimum season is between July and August.
uring
:uitable dose is 100 kg farmyard manure/tree.
The suitable dose is 1000 g N, 250 g P205' 250 g per adult tree. In
st year lAth dose, 2
nd
year 1;2 dose, 3
rd
year %th dose and from 4th year
rds full dose.
,of Young Plantation
lte twice in a week during the first year and once in a week during the
_d year with 20 litres ofwater/plant.
t Protection
sprays of insecticides are recommended for the control oftea mosquito
!'he plant protection schedule is as follows:
First spray at flushing
Second spray at flowering
Third spray at fruitset
103
Monocrotophos (0.05%)
Endosulfan (0.05%)
Carbaryl (0.10%)
.. _-- ------
Harvesting
The harvesting commences from February and continues till May. The fallell
nuts are collected. Nuts are separated from the apples, dried for 3 to 4 days
and stored in gunny bags.
TAMILNADU
Varieties
The suitable varieties vit., Vridhachalam-1, Vridhachalam-2 , Vridhachalam-3
are suitable for growing in Tamil Nadu.
Fig. 9.3. Cashew production in Tamil Nadu
Soil
Best soils are red loam to laterite. Soil pH is from 6.2 to 7.8.
Planting Material
Soft wood grafts.
Season
The optimum season is between June and July or from September to October.
Pit Size
The best pit size is 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm. Pits are filled with 10 kg farmyard
manure and 1 kg neem cake at the planting. Stake the grafts after planting.
Spacing
The optimum spacing is 7 m x 7 m (200 plants/ha).
104
Manuring
The suitable dose is 50 tonnes offarmyard manurelha. The suitable dose is
N (500 g/tree), PP5 (250 g/tree), ~ (250 g/tree).
Intercropping
Groundnut, sesamum, horse gram, blackgram and cowpea.
Plant-protection
Tea mosquito Bug
For the control of tea mosquito bug, three rounds of spray is recommended.
First spray at flushing Monocrotophos (0.05%)
Second spray at flowering Endosulfan (0.05%)
Third spray at fruit set Carbaryl (0.10%)
Stem Borer
Trunk application of tar + kerosene at 1:2 ratio (upto 90 cm height) from,
second year onwards (yearly once).
ANDHRA PRADESH
Varieties
The varieties viz., BPP-4, BPP-8 are suitable for growing in Andhra Pradesh.
Fig. 9.4. Cashew production in Andhra Pradesh
105
Soil
Coastal sands, red sands, and red soil are suitable for cashew production.
Planting Material
Grafts.
Pit Size
The optimum pit size is 1 m x 1 m x 1 m in red soil and 60 em x 60 em x 60 em
in red sandy and sandy soils.
Spacing
The optimum spacing is 8 m x 8 m (156 plantslha) and 9 m x 9 m (123 plantslha).
The optimum size of high density planting is 4 m x 4 m (625 plantslha) and 5
m x 5 m (400 plants/ha).
Season
The optimum season vary as follows:
North coastal districts
Godavari, Krishna
Guntur, Prakasam, Nellore
MterCare
June to July
July
September to October
Stalling: Staking is essential for the young grafts.
Slwdi7l,g: Young grafts need shade during summer to protect from hot sun
and hot winds during June.
MllJclr.ing: Mulching is helpful in dry tract of East Coast in sandy and red
sandy soils.
Gap filling: 10 to 20% of grafts may die due to various reasons. Gaps are to
be filled immediately in the same season or in the next rainy season.
Weed Control
Weeds should be removed as and when necessary. Basins must be kept
weed free. The weeds in interspace may be removed by ploughing.
106
Manuring
The optimum dose is 500 g N, 125 g PP5 and 125 g tree/year.
First year: Farmyard manure (10 kg) and Neem cake (1 kg).
Second year: Neem cake (5 kg) or 1 Farmyard manure (10 kg) and Wh
dose offerlilizer recommended for adult trees.
Third year: Farmyard manure (20 kg) and 112 dose recommended for adult
trees.
Fourth year: Farmyard manure (30 kg) and Wh dose recommended for
adult trees.
Fifth year: Farmyard manure (30 kg) and full dose recommended for
adult trees.
Plant Protection
Stem Borer
Against stem and root borer early detection and mechanical removal of borer
grubs is effective. After removing the immature stages from affected trunks
and roots, apply carbofuran granules at the trunk to reduce further damage.
Regular application of coal tar and kerosene @ 1:2 ratio to the base of the
trunk up to 1 m height once in 6 months for all the plants as a prophylactic
measure.
Tea Mosquito Bug
The host plants like drumstick, neem, guava etc. are to be removed from
cashew plantation, the tree should be prunned properly, facilitating
penetration of enough sunlight and spraying monocrotophos (0.05%),
endosulfan (0.05%) and carbaryl (0.1%) during flushing, flowering and fruiting
seasons.
Harvesting
Collect the mature nuts, dry for 2 to 3 days and store. The yield/ha is about
1,600 kg/ha, from adult plantation.
KARNATAKA
Varieties
The varieties viz., VIlal-l, VIlal-2, VIlal-3, VIlal-4, Chintamani-1, UN-50,
NRCC-1, NRCC-2 are suitable for growing in Karnataka.
107
.4 _ : : = : ~
Fig. 9.5. Cashew production in Karnataka.
Spacing
The optimum spacing is 7.5 m x 7.5 m (177 plants/ha).
Planting Material
The grafts are best planting material.
Season
The best season is between May and June.
Planting
Take pits of 60-90 cube cm at 7.5 m apart and fill each pit with top soil and
20-25 kg compost/Farmyard manure/pit. Plant the grafts in the center of
the pits during June.
Remove the side shoots upto a height of 60 to 90 cm during the initial
years of growth to facilitate better canopy development. In the early years
of planting, intercrops like pineapple, sweet potato, tapioca, fodder legumes,
grasses, finger millet, groundnut, cowpea, horse gram etc., can be grown.
On adult cashew trees, black pepper can also be trailed. Removal of deadwood,
cris;:;-cross branches and lower branches helps to improve yield. This may be
done once between 2 and 3 years, from August to September.
Weed Control
Keep the plant basin and the plantation weed free.
108
11 ii,
Manuring
The optimum dose offarmyard manure@ 50 kg/tree/year.
Fertilizer dose
Fertiliser recomendations for different regions (gltree/year)
Southern dry and coastal region Hilly region
Year
N P20S ~
N P
2
0
S
K.p
I
60
60 60 100 80
n
125
125 125 200 80 60
ill
250 125 125 400 120 120
N
500 125 125 500 120 120
V onwards
500 250 250 500 120 120
Time of Application
September
Plant-protection
Name of the pest Control
Stem borer Remove the grubs and apply a mixture of 50 g of carbaryl and
50 g of copper oxychloride on the affected portion. As a preventive
measure, apply the same mixture between April and May and
from October to November.
Leaf miner Spray dichlorovos 10 ml or monocrotophos 15 ml in 10 litres of
water
Tea mosquito Spray 15 ml of monocrotophos at new flush stage, 20 ml of
endosulfan at panicle stage and 20 g of carbaryl at fruit setting
stage, in 10 litres of water
Yield
The grafts start yielding from third year after planting. The crop is harvested
from January to May depending on the varieties. Fully matured fallen nuts
may be collected. The average yield of raw nuts at 10 years of age is 8 to 10
kg/tree/year and it would increase to 15 kg or more thereafter. The nuts are
to be dried for 3 days under sun and stored in gunny bags.
WEST BENGAL
Varieties
The varieties viz., BLA-39-4, BPP-8, Jhargram-1 are suitable for West Bengal.
109
Fig. 9.6. Cashew production in West Bengal
Pit Size
The optimum. pit size is 60 em x 60 cm x 60 cm.
Spacing
The best spacing is 6 m x 6 m or 6 m x 5 m.
Planting Material
Grafts.
Planting Time
The best planting time is first week of July to second week of August.
Manuring
Supply farmyard manure @ 10 kg/pit + 200 g rock phosphate at the planting
from second year onwards, farmyard manure @ 10-50 kg/plant may be applied
during rainy season.
During September to October following quantities of fertilizers are to
be applied per tree.
Year Urea
360
720
1100
Fertilizers (gltree/year)
Super Muriate of
phosphate Potash
330 110
660 220
1000 330
NB: ~ above doses are the general recommendations. Based on soil fertility level the
fertilizer doses may vary.
110
Insect Pests
Tea Mosquito Bug
Tea mosquito bug is the major pest. This insect is very active from October
to March. If the infestation oftea mosquito bug is not severe, 2 sprayings
are sufficient at flushing and at flowering stage. Orchards should be kept
weed free to prevent insect attack.
Thrips
Inflorescence and nuts are damaged by thrips.
LeafandBlossom Webber
New leaves and flowers'are damaged.
Leaf Miner
The attack is severe from October to January. Growth and production are
severely affected.
Shoot Tip Caterpillar
New growing beettle shoots are badly damaged by this pest.
Control
To control the mentioned insects, 3 sprayings are recommended as follows:
Flushing :
Flowering:
Fruiting
Spray monocrotophos 35 EC @ 1.5 mVlitre of water
Spray endosulphan 35 EC@ 1.5 mVlitre of water
CarbaryI50%WP@2.5 gIlitre of water
Stem and Root Borer
Larvae of stem borer attack the root and tree trunk and leaves become yellow.
Mechanical removal of grubs by chisel and hammer and soil application of Carbaryl
@ 75 g/tree in the tree basin during November to April minimize the incidence.
Diseases
Die-back
White spots appear on the stem and later turns into pink colour. Stem gets
cracked. Infected branches become red and dry. Damaged parts may be
removed and 10% bordeaux paste may be swabbed to control this disease.
Bordeaux mixture (1%) spray is also effective.
111
Harvesting
April to May is the normal harvesting season. The fallen fruits may be
collected and nuts extracted.
Yield
Plants start bearing from third year and continue to produce nuts till 30
years or more (average yield ranges from 8 to 10 kg/tree).
ORISSA
Varieties
The varieties viz., Bhubaneswar - 1, Dhana are suitable for Orissa.
Planting Material
Soft wood grafts are suitable planting material.
Spacing
The optimum spacing is 7.5 m x 7.5 m to 10 m x 10 m (normal density
planting) or 4 m x 4 m (high density planting).
Season
July to August.
Pit Size
The optimum pit size is 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm.
Fig. 9.7. Cashew production in Orissa
112
Manuring
The optimum dose of farmyard manure is 10 to 15 kg/tree/annum.
The optimum dose offertilizer is 500 g N, 250 g ?205 and 250 g for
adult tree/year
I year 1I3rd dose of adult tree
II year : 213
rd
dose of adult tree
III year onwards : full dose of adult tree
50% fertilizer during June and 50% during September. Fertilizers may
be applied within a radius of 2 to 2.5 m around the tree at a depth of 15 cm
and covered with soil.
Weeding
May be done twice in a year.
Irrigation
At fortnightly intervals during the first year.
Plant-protection
To control shoot tip caterpillar, tea mosquito bug, leaf miner and flower
thrips, 3 spray schedule involving monocrotophos 0.05% (during November-
December at emergence of new flushes), endosulphan 0.05% (during
January-February at the emergence of panicle) and carbaryl 0.1% (during
March-April at flowering/fruitset) may be followed.
To control stem and root borer, phytosanitory measures are necessary.
The grubs may be removed mechanically. Swab the tree up to 1 m height
with coal tar and kerosene (1:2) or Neem oil 5% or carbaryl 0.25%, thrice in
a year during April to November. Soil incorporation of sevidol4G @ 75 g/
tree at the tree basin is also effective.
To control die-back, the affected stemlbranches are to be removed and
bordeaux paste (10%) may be swabbed on the cut portion. During May-June,
prophylactic spray of 1 % bordeaux mixture is effective.
CASHEW NUT PRODUCTION - ORGANIC WAY
The term organic cashew refers to the cashew nut produced without using
any sort of chemicals, fertilizers or pesticides at any stage of the production
process. Such cashew nuts will be free of chemical residues and are ofbetter
113
quality in terms of nutritional characteristics and taste. Organic cashews
are highly preferred by the health conscious consumers allover the world.
As organic cashew nut production permits use of only organic inputs, the
cost of production may be high due to high cost of organic inputs (Plates 9.1
and 9.2).
Varieties
As much as 40 high-yielding varieties are evolved by nine research centers
in India. These varieties differ in terms of yield potential, nut and kernel
size, apple color, size and weight, flowering habits etc. All these varieties
are suitable for organic cashew nut production.
Spacing
The usual spacing recommended for conventional cashew cultivation can be
adopted in this method as welL Spacings of7.5 m x 7.5 m for poor and 10 m
x 10 m for rich and deep soils and sandy coastal areas are appropriate.
Planting Material and Planting
Soft wood grafts are the best planting material. Planting may be done in pits
of size 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm, during the onset of rains.
Systems of Planting
The square system of planting or the triangular system of planting can be
adopted. While following a spacing of 7.5 m x 7.5 m, 177 graftslha can be
planted in the square system where as in the triangular system, an additional
15% more grafts can be accommodated per hectare.
It involves accommodating more number of plants per unit area during early
years and selective felling at later stages. On development of canopy pressure
and root level competition in subsequent years, pruning (in the early years)
followed by selective felling (during later years) may be followed. Cashew can
be planted initially at a spacing of 4 m x 4 m or 5 m x 5 m and maintained up
to 8 to 9 years depending on growth. Later, the excess plants can be thinned
out, to provide a spacing of 8 m x 8 m or 10 m x 10 m, during later years. The
advantage of the system is that, it can provide more than double yield compared
to normal density plantations, during the early years of the plantation.
Season of Planting
Choose the beginning period ofthe rainy season for planting the grafts.
114
Method of Planting
Planting may be done in pits filled with topsoil and organic manure (10 kgl
plant) to 314 of the pit capacity. The grafts may be planted carefully at the
centre of the pit, after removing the polythene bag. While planting, the graft
union should remain at least 2.5 cm above the ground level. Remove polythene
tape that remains around the graft union at planting. Staking should be done
immediately after planting to protect the grafts from wind damage.
Post-planting Care
Mulch the basins ofthe grafts with organic materials. Irrigation and weeding
are essential items of work to be attended to, at the early stages, for better
establishment Cashew requires regular weeding, pest and diseases control,
manuring and irrigation from first year onwards.
Irrigation
Newly planted grafts need irrigation regularly during summer periods. Drip
irrigation is an effective method. For adult plants, about 200 litres of water
per tree is required at an interval of15 days during summer months. However,
it may be noted that the irrigation water requirement depends on the soil
and climate of the area, age of the tree and the method of irrigation followed.
In sloppy lands, pits of 60 cm
3
or trenches of 50 cm width, 50 cm depth and
convenient length may be taken in between rows (along the contour) to
conserve soil and water. This technique will not only conserve soil and water
but also enhance the growth and yield of cashew trees.
Training and Pruning
The sprouts coming from the rootstock portion ofthe graft (that is from the
portion below the graft joint) should be removed frequently during the first
year of planting. Initial training and pruning of young cashew plants during
the first 3 to 4 years is essential for providing proper shape. The plants
should be allowed to grow as a single stem up to 0.75 to 1.00 m from ground
level. This can be achieved by removing the side shoots or side branches
gradually as the plants start growing from the second year of planting. The
flower panicles emerging from the grafts during the first and second year of
planting should be removed (de-blossoming) to allow the plant to put up
good vegetative growth. The plants may be allowed to flower and fruit from
the third year onwards. In adult cashew plantations, removal of dried or
dead wood, cris-cross branches, water shoots etc. should be done to at least
115
once in 2 to 3 years. This allows proper growth of the canopy and receipt of
adequate sunlight on all the branches.
Intercropping
Cashew is amenable for intercropping during the early years (up to 4 or 5
years) of growth. Intercropping trials conducted so far revealed that pineapple
is the most profitable intercrop in the early years. Pineapple can be planted
between two rows of cashew in trenches opened across the slope. Paired
row of pineapple suckers can be planted in each trench at 60 cm between
rows and 40 cm between two suckers with in the row. These trenches can be
opened at 1 m between two rows of cashew. Tapioca, groundnut, banaIla
pluses etc. can also be raised successfully during the initial 3 to 4 years.
Ginger, lemongrass and tapioca are also suitable as intercrops. Both the
crops (cashew and inter crops) are to be manured adequately and separatelY
to minimize competition. It is to be ensured that no chemical fertilizers or
pesticides are applied to the intercrops as well.
Crop Protection
The two major pests of cashew are tea mosquito bug (TMB) and stem borer
(SB). The following non-chemical means of pest management may be helpful
to keep these notorious pests under check.
Tea Mosquito Management
Smoke the plantation with organic wastes during flushing, flowering and
fruiting phases. This practice will not only keep the insect away but also
help to maintain a high level of carbon dioxide concentration in the
phyllosphere, which may help to increase the carbon dioxide assimilation by
the trees. Spray either neem oil (3 to 5%) or pongamia oil (2%) during flushing,
flowering and fruiting phases to reduce tea mosquito attack. Weaver ant
colony build up may be encouraged to minimize tea mosquito damage (Plate 9.3).
Resistant Varieties
Cashew varieties viz . H 3-17, Priyanka, Kanaka and K 22-1 are apparently
tolerant to tea mosquito bug. Research efforts are being continued to identify-
TMB tolerant varieties. Till such time, these varieties may be preferred
over the others, in endemic areas.
Stem Borer Management
Stem borer is the second maj or pest of cashew and control of this pest has
become very difficult. This pest is capable of destroying the cashew tree.
116

Main symptoms of attack are ofleaves, drying of twigs, presence
of holes at the base of stem wIth exudmg sap and frass.
Management Practices to Check Stem Borer
Plantation Hygiene
Remove severely infected trees from the plantation and keep it free of
inoculums so that dissemination of insect can be arrested.
Pest Surveillance
Monitor the trees in the plantation regularly and detect infestation at the
early stage itself. Once damage is detected, mechanically extract the grubs
and save the plant. After mechanical extraction, one of the following
treatments can be tried.
Coal tar and Kerosene mixture (1:2 ratio) may be used for swabbing
the tree trunk (up to 1 m height), 3 times a year, from September onwards,
at an interval of 60 days.
Swab mud slurry on the tree trunk (upto 1 m height), 3 times a year.
from September onwards, at an interval of 60 days.
Swab 5% neem oil on the tree trunk (upto 1 m height), 3 times a year,
from September onwards, at an interval of 60 days.
Nutrition
An adult cashew needs about 500 g ofN, 250 g of P205 and 500 g per
tree per year, to produce about 10-15 kg of raw nut, in a soil of medium
fertility. To meet the nutritional requirement of the tree, theoretically about
100 kg of farmyard manure may be necessary. Farm yard manure is
comparatively costly and its availability is also less. About 50 kg offarmyard
manure can meet half the requirement of the tree. The remaining
requirement of the nutrients can be met through the organic recycling from
the tree itself. In situ incorporation of recycled organic matter (dried leaves,
branches, dried panicle, flowers etc. of the tree) can contribute substantial
amounts of nutrients to the tree. This can be achieved by adopting a vertical
mulching technique. Cover cropping, green leaf manuring, in situ
compo sting etc are also advantageous to ensure nutrient supply. Considering
the cost and availability of organic manure, a few options to choose manure
are worked out and given below. In this recommendation, the quantity of
organic manure to be applied has been worked out on a single nutrient basis
(i.e., Nitrogen @ 250 g N/tree/year).
117
Table 16.1. Certain important manures, thir Nitrogen content and commonly recoIllID.ende<
dose
Manure source
Venmcompost
Poultry manure
Neem cake
FYMICompost
Percentage nitrogen
1.5
1.2
2.0
0.5
Quantity(kgltree)
17
21
13
50
Assumption.: Farmers may choose the source of manure based on availability and cost
Table 16.2. The average nutrient content of common manures are given below
Material Nutrient content (%)
N P
2
0
5 ~
Bone meal 3.5 21.0
Fish meal 4.1 3.9 0.3 -1.5
Poultry manure 1.2-1.5 104-1.8 0.8-0.9
Sheep manure 0.8-1.6 0.3 - 004 0.3-0.4
FYM
1.0 0.5 1.0
Compost 0.5 0.4 0.8
Groundnut cake 7.0 1.5 1.5
Castor cake 4.3 2.0 1.3
Neemcake
5.0 1.0 1.5
Gingelly cake
6.2 2.0 1.2
Coconut cake
3.0 1.9 1.8
Manure Application
Manures may be applied over the entire tree basin within a radial distance
of 2 to 3 meters within the drip line. Weed the plantation before manure
application.
Vertical Mulching
Trenches are to be dug across the contours and filled with dried leaves and
other organic wastes available in the plantation. A trench of 1.2 m length,
50 cm width and 50 cm depth, would be enough for each tree. These trenches
act as conservation trenches, for the collection of soil and water. Vertical
mulching helps to increase the subsoil moisture storage and to stimulate
the growth ofthe soil micro flora and ultimately help to promote the growth
and yield of cashew in a big way. Conservation trenches also promote tree
growth (Plate 9.4).
Cover Cropping
Cover crops like Mucuna bracteata and Pueraria phaseoloides may be grown
to prevent erosion of topsoil and also to add organic N.
118
Green Leaf Manuring
Glyricedia is potential green leaf manure that can contribute substantial
quantities of organic N to cashew nut based production systems. Glyricedia
may be raised as an inter crop specifically to add N for cashew (Plate 9.5).
Compost Preparation and Addition
Prepare compost or vermi-compost and in the farm, to ensure better organic
recycling.
Composting
Composting is largely a biological process in which microorganisms of aerobic
and anaerobic nature decompose organic matter and lower the carbon-
nitrogen ratio of the substrate. Compost is prepared from vegetable and
animal refuses collected in the farm or in towns or villages. The available
refuses in the farm are collected and stored till they form sufficient mass for
compost making. A trench of suitable size, (4-6 m long, 2-3 m broad and 1-1.5
m deep) is dug, the accumulated refuse is well mixed and a layer 30 cm in
thickness is spread all along the length and breadth of the trench. This layer
is well moistened by sprinkling cow dung slurry and water over it. A second
layer (30 cm thick) of the mixed refuse is then spread. The process is repeated
till the heap rises to a height of 45 cm to 60 cm above ground leveL The top
is then covered with a thin layer of earth. After three months of
decomposition, the mass is taken out of the trench and formed into a conical
heap above the ground, moistened with water, (if necessary) and covered
with earth. Mter another month or two, the manure will be ready for
application to field (Plate 9.6).
Vermi-composting
Vermi compo sting technology is a process by which all types ofbiodegradable
wastes such as farm wastes, kitchen wastes, market wastes, bio-wastes of
agro-based industries, livestock wastes etc. are converted to nutrient rich
vermicompost by using earthworms as biological agents. Vermicompost
contains major and minor nutrients in plant-available forms, enzymes,
vitamins and plant growth hormones. Eudrillus eugineae has been identified
as the best species of earthworm for vermin composting. Pits of size 2.5 m
length, 1 m bre'adth and 0.3 m depth are taken in thatched sheds with sides
left open. The bottom and sides of the pit are made hard by compacting with
a wooden mallet. At the bottom of the pit, a layer of coconut husk is spread
with the concave side upward to ensure drainage of excess water and for
proper aeration. The husk is moistened and above this, bio-waste mixed
with cow dung in the ratio of 8: 1 is spread up to a height of 30 cm above the
119
sq
ground level and water is sprinkled daily. After the partial decomposition of
wastes for 7 to 10 days, the worms are introduced @ 500 to 1000 numbers
per pit. The pit is covered with coconut fronds. Moisture is maintained at 40
to 50 per cent. When the compost is ready, it is removed from the pit along
with the worms and heaped in shade with ample light. The worms will move
to bottom of the heap. After one or two days, the compost from the top of the
heap is removed. Put back the un-decomposed residues and worms to the
pit for further composting as described above. The vermicompost produced
has an average nutrient status of 1.5% N, 0.4% P
2
0
5
and 1.8% with pH
ranging from 7.0 to 8.0. The nutrient level will vary with the type of material
used for composting (Plates 9.7 and 9.8).
Precautions
The compo sting area should be provided with sufficient shade to protect
from direct sunlight. Adequate moisture level should be maintained by
sprinkling water whenever necessary. Take preventive measures to ward
off predatory birds, ants or rats.
Pollination Support
Bee-keeping in the plantation is an excellent opportunity to promote
pollination and fruit set in cashew. Wherever possible, bee-keeping may be
adopted. Beehives may be installed at different places in the plantation which
will promote fertilization of flowers, enhancing nut yield. Honey production
will provide an added to the income ofthe farmer.
Harvesting Raw Cashew Nuts
The fruits will be ready for harvest about two months after fertilization of
flowers. The ripened fruits will fall down and the same can be collected
manUally. The nuts can be extracted from the apple, dried in sun for about
two days and stored for marketing.
120
PI.t .. 1.1. cashew Ue"
Atl",artf""" occIdenlal<l L
PI o 2.1 . GOfmina.ion oj seed
Plot. 2.7b. Colour o( young
Ioavos (Yellow red)
Cashew -A Moltograph
PLATES
Plale 1.2. Male and bisexual
"- "
Plate 2.2. Graft just planted
Plate 2.61>. \/anabc>1 in colour
of malured ~ u t > o
Pia .. 2.7e. Colour 01 yOLOng
".""S (Gree<> )'<lltow)
Pia .. 2.3. FifIe""'-yoar-oid tree.
" ,
, .. ,

Pial . 2.5. Growth and
_Iopmen. ot l",,(
Pl .... 2 .7a. Colour oj youn9
"'.YO' (Red)
.. , -..
. ..
~
~
. ..,

'.' .
'w.""':
PI ... ' .7d. CoIOlNol young
"'.ves IPurple)
PII't 2.8CI":). I Oblong
b ()boyat. (club-1I'I8i*I) Ov.t
PII" 2.10b. T,eel WIlt! uprighI
""'-'""'"
Pilil Z.l1b.
apf)Ie (oonocal_.llj
Plall Z.IZa. TeOder """ !age
(20 d.il1'I' Biter polilnallOn)
PIMa 2.1211. Tandor 113(}G
IIPI'l' pflo, PQlllrVltion)
CruMW - A .lfcmogroph

..
I b c d
,
Plait 2.t{1.f). Slilgelol
01' panicle
Pia .. 2. 1Oc. T ........ In
canopy
Pial, 2.11c. S"""," 01 ca"-
..,pIe (round)
Pia .. 2.12b. TI_ nl>\ WIg,
(25 days after
Plall 2.1ZI. Tonder nul stage
(50--55 dllyl oft (lf J)Olhnallon)
122
Pial' 2. 10 . Tre" ..... :11 uPflIInl
and comptel canopy
Pial, 2.111. ShapH 01' ca",-
apple (C(IIr>dflr;lll)
Plait 2. 11d. StlRPH 01 cashew
Ipploo (pynform)
Plall 2.12c. Tender ""I stage
(35 days after poIItnabOn)
Plaia 2.121. TenOO' ",,1 and luHy
ripened fru,IS on ''''''0 pan,cIe
L
, 1.10 2.1311. ripe-red
Plale 2.15a. Red colour 01
cashew apple
Plate 2.17. Cashaw In
"'811eland
" ,"'" 3.3. Flowe ... nl\M
pOllmnllon
Pint" 3.8. K22.'
- A Mon()J!roph
Plal0 2.1 3b. Cluster bearing
"'"
Plat. 2.1Sb. Yellow colour 01
..
Plel" 3.1 . S ...... ual and
male flower
E'IIIte :104. 'fender "uti! n1
early .""g .. or dc,"c1op,OOnl
I'IM" 3.7. Mndllkkalha ....
123

,
Plata 2.14(0-<1). DoW!lopmMloI
stag&! 01 cashew OUt and apple
Plate 2.16. Rool penetration In
a b asi soil
Ph. le 3.8. Madakkalhnn. 2
(N 1)1(.2.1)
CUi/hew - A MOfl ogropit
PJ,,'e 3.11. Kanah HI 1[>98) 1'1,,'e 3. 10. Dhana \H 160(1) PI"t .. 3.t I. I'riyanu (H 1591)
I'Jol" 3.1:1. J)hnrn.r ... (J 1317) !'Jnle 3. 1_1. Amrulha (11 1597)
J'ln' e 3.16. AQhn". (In.6) ]' 101., 3. 16. An.aghn (HS I) ]' bl<l3.17. \'cnl(Ur13 I
PI"te 3. 111. 2 ] 'tule 3.1 9. Veng"r",:J
l'l n'" 3.11. r. 1'1"le :1.22. Vengur!ra 6 1' 1.1" 3.23. VMgurla 7
124
I'lnte 3.24. SPPI
Plate 3.27. spp 4
l'lal<> 3.36. UUa l 3
Cashew -A Monograph
"I"te 3.25. B" I' 2
1'1"1,, 3.2;8. IWI' 5
I']a"" 3.M. Vllal l
Ph. l<> 3.:J7. Vil a] 4
125
I'h' IC 3.26. BPP:I
l' lnto 3.29. 1l1'1' 6
I'h,t .. 3.35. VII,,] 2
Plat" 3.38. Chinlamani I
Cashew A MorlOgroph
Plate 3.39. UN 50
I'h,le 3..10. NIlCC I
P lale 3.4 L. NRCC 2
I'lute :1 044. Goa I
j' ]" le 3.45. l'nU.IIl". I I'hlle 3AG. Purple P lal e 3.47. KGN I. a ca.hew
1']',le3.I9. II 1591 Plale 3.1\0" M 2&'"2
O""",ht tolorant
1'1"le 3.51. VenlfUmlto 5. . in laterite
Drought lo\"mnl

126
Coshelll -A /l{rJllogrrrph
lalorit""
' . .
. . .
, -. ~ . ..-):'
l'h,le ~ G Cash",, in coaol,,1
Inloril ..
PIOlc 5.5. Sc..,d nu'"
Plule 5.8. lO.d"yafu!r _ing
127
Pinto l' rocurt...J ",",m
!'I M" 1'>.2 1. Wedge s h"I><''<I
""inns
PIM" 5.13. Scion bank contai
nin!: hi!:h yielding v" cIQliu
I'IM" 5. 10. Ma\ lIccd ",,,m"
PI"te5. 19

Plnte 5.22. Scion. in""rted
in the
128
P htt .. .. ion
Plat., G.23. with
""Iyth"nc lUI'/!
I' h. ' " 5.27. .. maint:lincd
in
I'htte 1I.3U. "",." mnnths
"Ocr
I'ln.O! 11 .321>. M;<ro 8pr,nklcr
for irri,n,ion
I'IQ'C 5.35. TOI wo,ked

Cashew - ;\ MQllograplo
PI",,, 5.25. Craned leed1inll"
kept I'HrtiBI ohatle
I'[nt" 5.211. IS.daynfter
grafting
PI", ,, I. Six months
nn"r ll'rnfting
I'ln,c .,.
Pla.e 5.3IJ. TOI'workL..J
S)'cnr.ol<.l're"
129
I'l n. e 5,26. &iOO8
... ith oil' up
I'l",e 5.29. SI""", ing and
of ""nn.
r ....
::>t!r::! C .'

1iI'
I' h'''' ...

I'h,'e f..a'l. Gn,fl> III' "'In,'''''{''
mlo""",.d ,ni.,u,,', OIl
tho right ....."",1 on ,he
,')0 .... 5.:17. ,""IoU .... r.' ...... '.",'"
,'OIdol .. """", .. r ....... 1m""'"'" ....
d .. _"" , 1, 11<1, '.5 ,.., .... .r.....r'.n".1
Cashew - A /lfo/ lVJjrapll
1'1"le 6.3. I
Plnte 6.11. GrufUo
130
Plate 6.5. " .
I
; up
due 10 herbicide IIppl;(;Pllon
PI"., 6. 15. Removing watl!r
~ O O
1'1. ,e 6. 18. Appiyi'41 bordeaux
,".
1'1111., 6.U. ea.hew+cowpea
in\e"""ppi nl;
PI li'. I ~ . Pl3,forro for .... atl!r
"""",,,,,",ion
Plot., iI.?:1. l'iul e<>lIcction
Coshew - A Monograph
1'1",,, 6. 16. Remo,i ng 10,,"
lying bnm <;heg
Pla t" 6. 19. C .... hew .. pi ne
11 1."1,, intCl"CTOpping
P late 6.22. Cuh"", ..
pomq.'T"natl! intcrcroppi ng
I' la te 6.25. Con""rv3l ion
l",noh""
I'I .. te 6.28. Nul "xl,.,."lion
(rom apple.
131
I'late 6. 17. Wen pru"ed ,...,.,
inl"rcroppinG
Pial" 6.23. PCI>,,,,,"lrailed
on C!l 3 t>c",
Plole 6.26. l' I"lfonn to .'''"''''''''
""il and ","tl!r in sloppy M"n.
Plale 6.29. Dried caghcw noU
Plate 7. 1. Trne
nitr"l(en dclidency ")'mptoms
I'I" te 704. Fertilizor
appli ... t"'n in adull plan ..
".3. Pnnlcle dri<ld up
W "'. _";10 bug
Pial" 8.9. Die !>uk . ymptom
loy I .... """"'lUil<> bug
"ymplorns
I'l uto 8.1. AdulllOR m""quito
."
11.4. Tendor nuU d.ornllged '"
up d ... to lea
nuU
"'
Phu.o 8. 10. Power sprayer
132
1' 1"t.tl7.:I. npplieo
tinn in pl"" u
1'1"1,, 8.1;. FI""t.u '" po.nick- dried
up due l<! In """"lUlto i"f" union
1' 1" " , 8.. 11 . Sprs)' "Il"ain. 1 tea
mO"'luit.o hug
I'l nl" 8.1 2. Slem J,orec
Adult
Plale 8. Ui. Tree bru;e nt
of inf""IMion
l ' l. t e II- L8. Tree """,ct'O:ly l" r U)d
by ".",.bo",c .ho .. in }",lIo .. ing
I'late 8.2 I . Cleaninlf of
",r('<:ted IlOrtion
I' h" c 8.24. Ten,le. nut d.",.vOO
"" apple 00\<1 nut boRr .... <l, ....
Cashew - A M01Iogrc.ph

-

,
-
;

1'1"le 8.1 3. Egp of atcm
00"'
Ph"c 8.18. Ln,...."" of otem
,-,
Pl nte 8.19. T"' .... d ritod up duo
tollem bo",c
Plnte 8.22. IUl m"v;ng t he

Phlle 8.2.6. [nfeOllltion of apple
and no, bo",r on lendec nu'
133
"'''.. \
Larva
,
I Adult \
Eggs
,\

PI",,, Slcm borec.
ow to adult
Pinto 8.17. '!Too dnnoN; cd by
I tem bo"" at mdoanred ALago
PI "t" 8.20. 'rr ... killed by
OIem bocec
Plate 8.26. /n<kz.w/a la rva
I'I ... 8.30. O.mllp:'o ",rid.".
nu\.B I' t hei l>"
"1.,,, 8..311<:. due
t" IhWI(>lIa.p
Cashew -A MOI/OtJr"ph
"Ia.e 8.28. Trunk showing
,..,tt)"n ""ric
1'1"." 8.31 . .rr<!Cl<!d
by aphid.
-
.
:... ..a. .,...' . .
f .' 'CO l ' . ., I.
r<'j(,", ' __ '"
J4.. . -. 'L.,6
, . . .
8.36R. L....f blight due
to op
Plnte 8.37n. Brown le.iono
on nusllel
,,.
1'la 1c 8.29. Omn"ll'" On tcndce
leo,,,,,, by "'af m,nce
j, '#'
.. ' \ .
, .
I I .J
Pl.te 11.14. blijth,
Plnte 8.36b. Leaf blollhl due
,<> Phytophthoro "I',

, "
Ph" .. B.:!7b. Sympt..- on
young ",,"Veil
PI .. ,,, 11..:11c. I)l)ing "p or
panicle
PI., .. 8..38. ooloun!d
r""fIal ,nfenion on branch ...
1'1 .. '0 &.41. (;umm .... i .
.
. . ( :tf .. ,
:

,
, ,
I'h" .. 8.44. IAlAf bligh'
Pin, .. D.!I. Wenvce nnUo atc
hcl nK "lIow,," I" "vee
.".hew
COMew - A Mcmosroph
1"1 ..... 8.37 d . J)t)'lnK 01

1'1 .. ,,, 11..:19. Whi", r"n"al
onft;on on
l' I.te 8.42. $ool.)' m,,1d
PI " , ,, 9.1. Organic
in en.hew
"I",,, 9..!. Con..,,,,,,,,,,,.
I,romote trCQ wrowt h
135
PI.,,, 8.31". Dry.n ..,
"""
Pl.te 8.4(1. !>r-W,d bno ........
due '" ponk d'lI(>....,
1'1. ' 08.43. RI "'0'
!'Ia'e 9.2. Olll""lcnll), rom .. ,d
plurI'
PI"I" lU I. Compost
Plnl" 0.0. Honey bee.
1' 1"1" 10.3. Nuu of Va tying
. i,e
Ph' le 10.lSh.
",.
1'1111" JO.St!. Bold whole nulA
CUllhew - A Monograph
Pluta 0.7. Vcrmicompoot
Plnte 10.1. Frui lJ! nllaining
maturity
Pial" 10.4. LfI'l;e and "mall
",.
Pilote I O.lSc. Smnll .i:wd nuts
t , t f
1 , f f
Pi nt., IO.M. 1I0id ""U.
136
1'1"1,, 9.8.
PI" I!! 10.2. MnturOO "1'1'1"
and nUll!
Plat<! 10.5a.I .... l"J;c nuUl
It c t
ltlt
1'1" le 10.&1. Lon): nulJl
Ph,t" 10.6. Lonl.";wd, ,,n)
orlhc nut
1'1., ,, 10.7. Raw nub or
..,Iour
1' 1",,, 10. 10. Dried up due 10
tea moo",,;lo bUll
PI "le 10. IS. L<>ngitudin.1
teet,on of"raw nu'
Pial" 10.IB. nub
"ncr drying
PIMle 10.19. Storing ...... nub
,n Ifllnny bog in the s tore room
On dOllnRge , nvolving .... ndbag.
Pin ., 10.B. hnrnRlurt!d nuta
dri<!d
Plllk 10.11. Longiludin .. l
tee' ,on or dried ;mm .. t ure nuta
P l ate 10. 14. Longitudinal
",""ion of bad nul.
I' IDI" 10. 11. f"i Uing in hag"
P l atc 10.20. Open pan
137
...
,
. \ .
. , .,., '
1 ... ... . )
-
I
, .
. ,
PI ... " 10.12. D ... od up
immature nula
P ial .. 10.llI. Judging nu.
lUI
PI ... " 10.18. Weighing nuto
Plate 10.22. Shelling
l'lnle 10.25. furn .. "" provid.
ing energy 1.0 the Dorma
PI"le 10.28. llemov,ng black
.. pou (rom kernel
Ph.te 10.3 1. Stenm rt>IlII ter
Pint .. 10.30&. Cuttinlj nuU
.. Iter . tc .. m maning
Plat e 10.23. Kl!rnels in the
80=.
Plate 10.26. Peeling I< ..,ninll
Plate 10.29. Gr.dee orkerneb
IlII per .landlU'd fixed
PI .. te 10.32. Puttinlj nbU! into
.te8m rOMter
PI"'e 10.311. Removing
kernel. after <btting
138
Pl ale 10.24. Electric Dormn
Plnte 10.27. Grnding kernelS
to diffe ..... nl 8!.andards fixed
Plate t o.3O. Steam I,,,,nernwr
Pl at .. 10..93. Steam ro .... l..,)
"""
PI .. I .. 10.36. Rtow nul
cahbmwr
l' l.tc 10.43. Vo=um
machine
,
j
Pilote 11.2. Oil hath roa.ter
139
Cashew -A MDllograph
Pi .. ..., 11.5. Aluminium ""nta' l'h' le 11.6. Conlll.iner& ( plulie,
ine" kernel.
,
Pi nt" 11.1 1 Humidifier P lale 11 .1 3. Vibnllory oie"e

11.1 4.
Plnte 11. 16. OJ!' mnch,ne
Ph. le 11. 17. Moi.ture meier \' h'le 11. 18. machine PlalC
)40
Phil.., 12.2. While
14'
Plnte 12.7. Brollen kernel.
P", te 13..3. Cashew nut ehell
liquid ItU"", in abolv" ground
drum.
Ploa" 13.9. Tel ta WUIO
tunnin extraotlQn
1'10,10 15.2. Bral.ed chlclten
"'Ith cRoho,,'
J>I.te 13.1. Cub .... nut ohc>U loq.
u'" Il<><ed in und .... IJ"'Und dtu ....
Plate 13 . .oj. ShU. {rom
steam roosted nut.
Plnte 13.7. Tnnn,,' In nuld
form
PlnlO 14.1. CA$how applo
!'latc Hi.3. Spicy chicken
wilh cashew nut.>
142
Plate 13.2. Cashew nut shell
liqu,d ""Irnet<! rrom ex""lIer
Plot'" 1:1.5. She.'" rrom
drum .. ",.led nuta
Plnte 13.8. Tnnnin In S<llid

PI"wll).1. Stir rrl"" egg.
with
Pl nte 15.4. FI.h 'N' nuto
P l.t" lG..!I. C..she", lind m,x<l<i
{roit
1'1",., 1 T....,.t<ld b,...,ad
"';lh cIIlIImw and C1'"ah lilling
P1"'e IG.I7. Cuhe'" cuk ..
Cashew - A !t[cHlw;:roph
Ph.te 1&.6. ",,<I
"".hew ,art
P I"..., 11\.9. Chicken & p""eer
k.ofla curry
PIa, .. 1&. 12 ru"" f1!>Ur
with esv and ..... hew nul
Pl"te I 5.11\. LnmbmachbouB
PI .. te IG.1S. Cuhew lind
eUAuml tart
1<'
Pln' e 1G.1. Rhi nes g.luluh
Pl ,,'e 15.10. ea.hew and
Ithoya barf,
PI.'e IG. 13. ... & coeon
lllyered cake
Pl .. t e Sum,,)ino oaka
Plote 15. 16. Coeonut pudding
Cashew Nut Processing
C
ashew nut is the most important economic product of the cashew tree.
Fully mature nuts yield best quality kernel. Therefore the fruits should
be allowed to mature (Plates 10.1 and 10.2) and fall before collection.
Nut Characters
Cashew nut differs in their size (weight, length, breadth and thickness),
shape, colour and kernel characters (Plates 10.3, lOA and 10.5a-f). Broadly
raw nuts can be grouped in to three catogories viz. small, medium and large,
based on nut weight. Generally nut weight varies from 3 to 15 g. The nut
length may vary from 3 to 6 cm where as the nut width varies from 3 to 4
cm. The nut thickness varies from 2.5 to 3.0 cm.
The length, width, thickness and weight of a random sample of cashew
nuts of different size groups (small, medium and large) recorded at Cashew
Research Station, Kerala Agricultural University, Madakkathara are shown
in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1. Length, width, thickness of nuts of varying size
Nut size
Small
Medium
Large
Length (mm)
37.26
47.80
60.01
Nut Quality
Width(mm)
29.86
34.74
39.65
Thickness (mm)
28.05
28.99
31.05
Mean wt. (g)
4.56
9.90
12.80
It is a matter of prime concern for the cashew nut processing industry. The
nut quality decides the kernel out turn, which in turn decides the profitability
of the processing industry. Therefore, it is essential to procure good quality
raw nuts with desirable characters. The longitudinal section of nut at varying
stages of development is shown in Plate 10.6.
144
Cashew Nut Processi1lg
Desirable characters of good nut
~ p l e should contain more bold nuts capable of yielding more bold
whlte wholes.
Moisture level of nut should not exceed 8 to 10 percentage.
Kernel recovery should not be less than 25%.
Nuts should not be black or damaged due to pests, diseases etc.
Kernel is the most important economic part of the cashew. Its content
in the raw nut decides entirely the value of the nut. The kernel content
depends 0I?- the size of the nut, the variety from which it is originated, the
level of mOl sture content and extent of pest damage. The longitudinal section
of cashew nut is shown in Fig. 10.1. Cashew nut has three distinct parts viz.
shell, testa and kernel. The approximate physical composition of nuts of
varying size is shown in Fig. 10.2.
Fig. 10.1. Cross section of cashew nut Fig. 10.2. Components (%) of cashew nut
On an average, raw nut contains 63% shell, 28% kernel and 9% testa.
The external Cashew Nut Shell Liquid bearing protective covering is called
the shell. Testa is a thin brown membrane that covers the kernel. The
centrally located white portion of the nut is called kernel. Nut size is one of
the most important characters that decides the nut quality. Based on size,
nuts can be classified in to small, medium and large. The characteristics of
small, medium and large sized nuts are shown in Table 10.2.
Raw nuts with weight less than 5 g can be treated as small. Raw nuts
with weight more than 5 g and less than 9 g forms medium. Raw nuts with
weight more than 9 g can be treated as large.
The physical composition of nut vary with its size. The shell content of
small nuts is around 60% whereas in medium and large nuts, it is around
65%. The testa content of small nuts is around 11.0% whereas in medium and
large nuts, it is around 8.0%. The kernel content of small nuts is above 28.0%.
In medium and large nuts the kernel content is around 27.0%.
145
Table 10.2. Shell, testa and kernel content in raw nuts of varying size
(small, medium and large)
Characters Small nut Medium nut Large nut
(3.5 to 5.0 g) (5.0 to 9.0 g) (above 9 g)
Size <5.0g 5.0-9.0g >9g
Mean nutwt. 4.16g 8.90g 12.9g
Mean shell wt. 2.51g 5.80g 8.31g
Mean kernel wt. 1.19g 2.07g 3.51g
Mean testa wt. 0.46g 0.68g 1.08g
Kernel % 28.60 27.0 27.21
Testa % 11.05 7.80 8.37
Shell % 60.35 65.20 64.42
Raw nuts differ in colour as well (Plate 10.7). Good quality nuts generally
posses bright ash colour. The colour depends on the stage of harvest, moisture
content and method of storage. Fully matured nuts collected during the first
phase of the harvest are bright. Nuts collected from immature nuts and
those damaged by rains may show dark colour. Storage of raw nuts in moist
environment also affects the colour. In certain cases, though the shells show
black colour suggesting poor quality, they may contain good kernels. Such
blackening may be due to the effect of poor storage environments.
The processing industry demands bold nuts with bold kernels. For
realising maximum kernel out turn, it is necessary to have well matured
nuts with high shelling percentage. In small farms, farmers harvest partially
mature or immature nuts, dry and sell, meet their day to day requirements.
Damage of nuts due to rainfall during the harvesting phase also results poor
quality kernels. Storage of nuts without proper drying also cause damage to
kernels. Nuts from the market will contain nuts of varying size and kernel
quality. Therefore, it is necessry to test the quality of raw nut prior to
procurement.
Methods to Judge the Quality of Raw Nuts
Different tests are being adopted to judge the quality of raw nuts. Cutting
test, floating test, count test and test for moisture content enable us to
judge the quality of raw nuts.
Cutting Test
This test is a physical method of quality evaluation. It involves cutting samples
of raw nuts longitudinally and physical examination ofthe kernels on their
fillage and quality. Normally 1 kg of raw nut will be subjected to cutting
test, to examine the extend of white kernels, damaged kernels, discoloured-
ones and the kernel out turn. In factories, raw nut price is fixed based on
146
cutting test. The recovery of good quality kernel should not be less than
25% to qualify the nut as good quality.
Kernel recovery is low, if the nut sample contains more dried immature
nuts. Fungal infection, thrips damage, heat stress etc. cause drying up of
immature nuts (Plates 10.8 and 10.9).
Panicles and tender nuts dry up due to tea mosquito bug at early stages
of development and they may not contain good quality kernel (Plates 10.10
to 10.12). Therefore, such nuts should be separated from good quality ones.
Depending on the extent of pest infestation and stage of maturity, the
damage to kernel differs. Good quality nuts will contain white kernels and it
will be full of kernels (Plate 10.13). Bad quality nuts will contain no or
deteriorated kernels (Plate 10.14).
Floating Test
This test is another method of quality evaluation (Plate 10.15). Dense nuts
usually contain good quality kernels and they sink in water. Poor quality
nuts with poor kernel development or damaged kernel may float while dipping
in water. The percentage of floats in raw nuts in a sample indicates the
quality of raw nut.
If the number of floaters in a sample is more than 24 per 100 nut, such
lots may be treated as under bad quality.
Count Test
This refers to the number of nuts per kg of raw nut. It may vary from 100 to
300 nuts/kg. More the count, less will be the kernel size.
Moisture Content
The allowable level of moisture content in raw nuts is 8 to 10%. Raw nuts
having moisture above 10 percentage may indicate signs of low quality.
Harvesting immature nuts, improper drying, improper storage of dried nuts,
prolonged storage (beyond 12 months), exposure to moisture etc. are some
of the causes of quality deterioration in raw nuts.
According to Prabhu (2001), the following quality parameters are to be
considered while importing raw cashew nut.
(a) Count of raw cashew nutslkg: not less than 180 nuts per kg
(b) Number of floaters/lOO nuts: not more than 24
(c) Percentage of bad nuts in floaters: not more than 15%
(d) Total kernel yield: not less than 25%
147
Drying Raw Nuts
At the time of harvesting, the raw nuts may contain 12 to 16% of moisture.
Since the raw nut processing is an activity spread over different months, it
is necessary to store the nuts over 6 to 12 months before processing. To
prevent damage of kernels during storage, the moisture content of the raw
nut is to be kept below certain critical level. For safer storage, should be
less than 8 to 10%. Drying the raw nuts for 2 to 3 days enables in bringing
down the moisture content to safer levels.
Sun-drying of raw nuts (Plate 10.16) for 2-3 days may bring down the
moisture content to safer level. Well-dried nuts when pressed with hand
produce a shrilling noise indicating that they can be safely stored.
Storage of Raw Nuts
To minimise damage, it is necessary to store nuts in moisture proof store
houses. Usually dried raw nuts are packed in gunny bags, which can hold 80
kg nuts (Plate 10.17 and 10.18). It is not advisable to store the gunny bags on
the floor as it may absorb moisture from the soil and cause damage. It is
desirable to keep the bags on racks keeping a minimum distance of 30 cm
from the ground and walls of the store. A single layer of sand bags are used
to spread on the floor as donnage, to avoid direct contact with floor (Plate 10.19).
The store should be dry and free from insects, birds, squirrels, rats etc.
METHODS OF CASHEW NUT PROCESSING
Cashew nut processing can be defined as the extraction of the kernel from
raw nuts, by manual or mechanical means without contamination from
cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL). The nut consists of an epicarp containing a
viscous resinous liquid and an endocarp (white kernel) covered with a thin
membrane called testa. The main objective of cashew nut processing is to
derive as many white whole kernels as possible without contamination from
CNSL and testa. Contaminated kernels when consumed may cause irritation
and burning sensation to mouth and throat.
Constraints in Processing
Cashew nut processing becomes combursome due to the presence of the
highly corrosive material called CNSL. The major constraints in cashew
nut processing are
Irregular shape of the nut
148
_00 .0.0
Cashew Nul Processing
Tough leathery nature of the shell with CNSL
Corrosive nature of CNSL
are of cashew nut processing. The best
processmg method IS one that Yields as many white whole kernels as possible
per unit weight of nuts. The recovery of whole kernel should also be the
maximum. In a best processing method, the white wholes yield should not
be less than 60%.
Processing Systems in India
Cashew industry in India is concentrated in Kollam district of Kerala,
Dakshina Kannada district ofKarnataka, Panruti area of Tamil N adu and to
some extent in Goa and Maharashtra. The processing systems followed in
Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Goa are same (Fig. 10.3).
Kollam
The industries at Kollam (Kerala) so far have been concentrating on drum
roasting followed by both manual shelling and peeling. But, of late, these
industries start introducing steam roasting and machine cutting. The raw
nuts after humidification are also subjected to drum roasting or oil-bath
roasting. The roasted nuts are shelled mannually. Kernels are dried in the
borma, cooled, peeled, graded and packed for marketing.
Mangalore
In Karnataka, the processing involves steam roasting, machine cutting and
manual peeling. Wherever steam roasting and machine cutting are followed,
CNSL extraction either by pressing or by solvent extraction is also followed.
All the other steps are same as described under the processing system followed
in Kollam.
Panruti
In Panruti area of Tamil Nadu, there is a special type of processing. Here,
instead of drum roasting and steam roasting, raw nut is dried in the hot sun
and subjected to cutting. All the other steps remain more or less the same
as the system followed in Kollam and Mangalore areas.
Indian cashew industry as on today, largely depends on manual labour
for cashew nut processing.
The processing system followed in Africa and Brazil is mostly mechanical
involving more amounts of machineries.
149
Kollam, Kerala
Raw nut
I
"
Hmnidification
I I
,..------""---, "
I Drumroasting II Oil bath roasting I
I I
" "
Manual shelling
I I
I SbclJs I I
I Testa r-J Manual peeling I
l
Grading I
Rehumidification ]
I
..
Packing
!
Marketing
Magalore, Karnataka
Raw nut
I
..
Hmnidification
I
"
Steam roasting

I I
"
Drying
Shell waste
Testa H Manual peeling
I
"
Grading
I
"
Rdmmidification
I
..
Packing
I
..
Marketin . g
Fig. 10.3. Cashew processing systems in India
Panruti, Tamil Nadu
Raw nut
1
Sun drying
I
!
Manual shelling
I I
r----; Drying
Shell waste
Testa r
J
Grading
Packing
Marketing
__- "7_-_- -=-___ __ .
Africa
The method followed is almost entirely mechanical (Fig. lOA). Raw nuts are
calibrated to three size groups, washed, humidified and subjected to roasting
in CNSL bath at 190 to 200C. CSNL are extracted by centrifugation. Nuts
are cooled, calibrated for 8 size groups and subjected to cutting and kernel
separated mechanically. Extracted kernels are dried in borma, peeled, graded
and then packed for marketing.
CNSL
CNSL Tank
Exhaust Shells
Fig. 10.4. Cashew processing system followed in Africa
151
Brazil
The processing system is entirely mechanical in Brazil (Fig. 10.5). Raw nuts
are calibrated first, cleaned, washed, humidified and roasted in CNSL bath
at 190C. CNSL will be removed by centrifugation and shelling are done by
cetrifugal cracking. Extracted kernels are dried from the borma. Peeling is
done either by using air, steam or man power. Electronic sorting machine is
used for grading. Kernels are then packed and sent for storage or marketing.
Air peeling
Steam peeling
Hand peeling
Fig. 10.5. Cashew processing system followed in Brazil
Methods of Processing
The processing methods can be broadly classified into three, based on the
man power and level of mechanisation involved, viz., Manual method, Semi
mechanical method and Fully mechanical method.
152
The steps invol.ved e r the above three methods are indicated in the
process flow chart given III Table 10.3.
Table 10.3. Process flow chart showing steps . .
. h' I In processIng under manual
seml-mec amca and mechanical methods of processing. '
Manual method Semi mechanical method M h . I
ec anlca method
1. Cleaning
2. Roasting
i. Open pan roasting, or
ii. Drum roasting, or
iii. Sun roasting, or
iv. Conditioning and
oil bath roasting
3. Cooling
4. Shelling
5. Hot chamber treatment
6. Cooling
7. Peeling
8. Grading
9. Rehumidifying
10. Packing
1. Cleaning 1. Cleaning
2. Grading 2. Grading
3. Steam roasting
1. Stearn roasting
4. Cooling
5. Cutting
4. Cooling
5. Cutting
7. Cooling
8. Peeling
9. Grading
7. Cooling
8. Peeling
9. Grading
10. Rehumidifying
11. Packing
10. Rehumidifying
11. Packing
Manual Method of Processing
In the manual processing method, all the steps involved in the processing
are undertaken by human labour. Although this is time and energy
consuming, the quality 9fthe kernels is of high order. The steps involved in
the manual method of processing are given below.
Cleaning: Raw nuts may contain dust, sand, small stones, twigs, other
foreign matters etc. and they are to be removed first. The nuts are passed
through a sieve to remove such particles. Large objects are removed
manually.
Roasting: The purpose of roasting is to prepare the nuts for shelling and to
extract the kernels without breaking and CNSL contamination to kernels.
There are four different methods of roasting viz., (i) Open pan roasting, (ii)
Drum roasting, (iii) Sun roasting and (iv) Oil bath roasting in vogue. They are:
Open pan roasting: In open pan (Plate 10.20) roasting, raw nuts are roasted
for a short time in an open perforated roasting pan, on wooden fire with
frequent stirring just enough to burn the outer shell and to drive out the
volatile CNSL. The roasted nuts are then mixed with wood ash to absorb
CNSL. Mter cooling, the shells are cracked with a small wooden rod and the
kernels are extracted. In this method, the nuts are to be stirred frequently
for uniform roasting. But CNSL can not be recovered. Here, most of the
kernels get burnt at tips and broken into pieces.
153
Drum roasting: In this method, the nuts are continuously fed into a roasting
drum. The drum maintains its temperature by boiling CNSL that is oozing
out of the nuts while passing through the drum. The drum is kept in rotation
by hand, for about 3-4 min, and the roasted nuts are discharged from the
lower end of the drum. The discharged nuts will be immediately covered by
ash to absorb CNSL remain on the surface and sprayed with little water.
The roasted nuts will be cooled and taken to the shelling yard (Plate 10.21).
The yield of the whole kernels and the kernel quality are reported to be
quite high in this process.
The main disadvantages are
Loss of valuable CNSL which has good commercial value.
Exposure of workers to considerable heat and acid fumes.
Sun roasting: This is a special technique followed in Panruti area of Tamil
Nadu. Here the raw nuts are kept under hot sun over 1 or 2 days to ensure
a high degree of drying. The raw nuts become brittle due to severe heat
from the sun. The nuts thus roasted by sun will be subjected to kernel
extraction with the help of cutting knives.
Oil bath roasting: It is also known as hot bath method in which conditioning
(humidification) of nut is important. The purpose of conditioning is to
encourage bursting of cells containing CNSL during roasting. This is also
called humidification. Nuts on storage will have moisture content of 8 to
10%. Before roasting, the nuts are to be brought to a moisture content of
about 16%. One simple way of conditioning is to put the nuts ill heaps on
sloppy floor and to spray them regularly with water for 8 to 48 h. The heaps
are then covered with moist gunny bags. Over humidification can result
recovery of desert grades and under humidification may yield scorched grades.
Over humidification can also lead to germination of seeds resulting in green
veins in the processed kernels. After humidification, nuts should be air dried
to eliminate adhering water on surface.
The conditioned nuts are placed in wire baskets and immersed in a
tank containing CNSL kept at a constant temperature of about 170 to 200
D
C
for about 90 sec. The oil bath roasting equipment consists of a rectangular
vessel, 1 m wide and 1 m deep with a flat bottom, embedded in a brick work
furnace. The vessel is made of mild steel (thin plate) and filled with eNSL. A
belt conveyer is provided to move the cashew nut through the hot CNSL. By
adjusting the conveyer, it is possible to adjust the roasting time. The time
required for oil-bath roasting is 95 sec for small nuts, 100 sec. for medium
nuts and 110 sec for large nuts. During roasting, the shells get heated and
the walls of the oil-bearing cells get ruptured, releasing CNSL into the bath.
154
The nuts release 4 to 7% of CNSL. There is an over fl 1"
. h ow mec lamsm m the
contamer to store t e expelled CNSL to a storage tank.
The roasted nuts will be centrifuged to remove th '1 Th
. . h e 01 . e nuts are
then mlXed Wit wood ash or sawdust, cooled by passing air and t f;
shelling. The CNSL flowing out of roaster is cooled and collected s:
late:dfilled drums for export. The advantages of
Ol - a roastmg are, I provi es umform roasting, yields more white whole
kernels and reduces loss of CNSL.
After roasting, the nuts are to be cooled to facilitate shelling. For
thIS the roa.sted nuts will be spread over the ground for 2 to 4 h.
After coolIng, they wIll be taken to shelling yard for shelling.
Shelling: In the manual method, the roasted nuts are placed on a flat surface
and cracked with a wooden mallet (Plate 10.22). The hands of the persons
involved in are to be protected with gloves. On an average, a person
can shell one nut III about 6 seconds, or 10 nuts/min. In an eight-hour working
day, this amounts to about 4,800 nuts (approximately 30 kg of raw nuts)
which may yield about 7.5 kg of kernels.
Methods to prevent personal hazards, viz., Shelling hazard are discussed
here.
As CNSL is highly a corrosive chemical, it can inflict burns and blusters
in the hands of workers involved in shelling and peeling. To protect the
workers from the shelling hazard different methods are followed. The
workers should wear gloves as a safety measure. Workers also use wood
ash, kaolin, calcium oxide, coconut oil, gingelly oil, mustard oil etc. as
smearing agents to protect the hands.
Hot chamber treatment (Borma): The kernels after extraction are to be
dried in order to reduce the moisture and to loosen the testa adhering to the
kernel. For this purpose, the extracted kernels will be subjected to a hot
chamber treatment. A commonly used hot chamber is called Borma (Plates
10.23, 10.24 and 10.25).
Borma is a metallic chamber used in most of the factories. The kernels
are placed on trays (100 cm x 50 em x 10 em) with wire mesh bottoms and
loaded into the chambers. Each tray can hold about 7 to 10 kg of kernel to a
depth of 5 em. The temperature inside the borma is maintained at 80
D
C in the
upper trays to 60
D
C in the lower trays. A furnace indirectly heats the chambers
from below (Plate 10.25). Cashew shells are used as fuel in the Air
vents are provided at the top and sides of the chamber for the escape ofmOlsture.
To get uniform drying, the position of trays is changed at an of
30 min. The normal duration of drying varies from 6 to 7 h. The mOIsture
155
content of dried produce (kernels) should be in the range of 3 to 4%. Excessive
drying may cause high breakage.
Cooling: After drying in the Borma, the kernels embedded with testa will
be cooled for 24 to 48 h by spreading over wet grass mats, or on moist gunny
bags. Humidifiers are used to cool the kernels coming from Borma. After
cooling, the kernels will be sent to the peeling yard.
Peeling: Peeling is the removal of testa from the kernels. The kernels after
drying become brittle and can be easily peeled. Testa that adheres to the
kernel are removed by sharp knives. One person can easily peel about 10 kg
of kernels per day (Plate 10.26).
Hygienic practices are to be ensured for the production of quality kernels.
Peeling operation should be done on clean tables using clean equipments,
utensils etc., to avoid any physical, chemical or biological contamination.
Only healthy and clean workers are engaged for processing.
Grading: The kernels after peeling are taken to the grading section. Here,
the kernels will be sorted according to size and colour (Plate 10.27).
Grading requires great skill. On an average one person can grade 80
kg of kernels in 8 h/day. Black spots if any on the kernel will be removed
with the help of a knife (Plate 10.28). Electronic sorting machines are also
available for grading. Grading is done according to internationally accepted
specifications, based on size and colour of kernels or parts of kernels.
These specifications were originally established in India. The colour
of the kernel depends on the method of processing and the quality of raw
nut. Nuts that have been lying in the plantation in humid conditions may
yield discoloured kernels. Similarly damaged, pest affected and immature
nuts may also yield poor quality kernels. White whole kernels are classified
according to their weight and expressed as number of kernels per pound
(lb). This is also called as "kernel counts" (Plate 10.29).
The Cashew Export Promotion Council ofIndia (CEPCI) conforms grade
specification and recognizes 26 different grades of kernels. After grading
kernels are rehumidified and packed.
Semi Mechanical Method of Processing
In this method, all the steps involved under the manual method remain
more or less the same except the followings:
These are, grading of raw nuts (before roasting), steam roasting (instead
of open pan or drum or sun or oil-bath roasting) and cutting (instead of
shelling). These three steps are under taken with the help of machinaries
and all the other steps are undertaken by human labour.
156
ofraw nuts: For convenience in processing, nuts are grouped into 2
to 3 SIze (small, medium and large) based on nut weight. Depending
upon the SIze, :nuts may require different timings for roasting. Nuts are
conveyed and dIscharged through 3 separate calibrated hoppers for grading.
The graded nuts are separately taken for roasting.
Steam roasting: This system involved two major equipments, a steam
generator and a steam roaster (Plates 10.30, 10.31 and 10.32).
The steam produced in the steam generator will be sent to the steam
roaster, which is filled with raw nuts. The temperature inside the roaster
will be around lOODC. The nuts will be kept in the roaster for about 22 min
for roasting.
Cooling: Cooling is done by spreading the roasted nut on the ground for 12
to 24 h (Plate 10.33).
Cutting: Kernel extraction is done with the help of cutting machines (Plate
10.34).
A pair of nut-shaped knives is used with a mechanical device mounted
on a table. The nuts are brought to the knives and pushed between the
knives. The knives cut through the shell, leaving the kernel intact (without
breakage). The shell and the kernel drop on a conveyer. At each table, 2
persons work, the first person cuts the nuts and a second person opens
them and separates the kernel and the shell with help of needles (Plate
10.35).
The daily output is estimated to be around 40 to 50 kg raw nut/person!
8 hr/day. This method yields about 90% whole kernel. Nuts smaller than 18
mm cannot be cut using cutting machines.
Fully Automatic Method of Processing (Oltremare System)
An Italian private company OLTREMARE S.P.A., founded in 1960, is entirely
devoted its activity to the cashew industry. OLTREMARE is now known as
the world-leading manufacturer of cashew nut processing plants and service
provider for the cashew business. The main activities ofOLTREMARE system
are:
Production, installation and commissioning of mechanical cashew
processing plants.
Conduct feasibility studies (agricultural and industrial).
Establishment and management of cashew plantations.
Technical assistance and training in cashew cultivation.
Technical assistance during the assembling and running of the plants.
157
Financial and economic assistance to developing countries through
international banking institutions.
Conduct economic studies to prove the project feasibility.
Agronomic assistance to improve cashew cultivation.
Commercial assistance for world-wide kernel marketing.
OLTREMARE system of cashew nut processing is well known for higher
degree of automation and sophistications. Flexibility is one ofthe principal
peculiarities of OLTREMARE plants. They can meet different capacity
requirements according to the availability of raw material. There are also
small-scale plants for the industrial exploitation of small-sized crops or new
plantations whose full production is expected within a few years.
OLTREMARE has been operating allover the world to advise and develop
cashew nut industry in the producing countries.
Since, 1960 OLTREMARE has installed its plants in countries like Benin,
Ivory Coast, Togo, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau,
Madagascar and Venezuela. OLTREMARE has taken up projects in Asia and
in particular Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines and China in this regard.
OLTREMARE implemented projects with the financing ofinternational
institutions such as ADB (African Development Bank), WB-IDA (World Bank
- International Development Association), EDF (European Development
Fund), IFC (International Finance Corporation), CDC (Commonwealth
Development Corporation), EIB (European Investment Bank) and with the
General Directorate of Co-operation ofthe Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Other customers are private companies whose projects have been financed
through loans by international commercial banks.
The OLTREMARE mechanical processing of cashew nuts involves the
following stages:
1. Cleaning and calibration
2. Washing and humidification
3. Roasting, centrifugation and cooling
4. Shelling and pneumatic separation of the shells
5. Drying
6. Peeling, grading and sorting
7. Packing
Cleaning and calibration: The bags are individually taken from the
warehouse, opened and emptied into the feeding hopper. By means of a
dosing feeder, nuts reach the cleaning unit, pass on a vibrating screen, and
158
-
c ..........
-----.
through an aspirator, dust and other foreign matters (leaves t t)
d
Th ' WIgS e c. are
remove. e nuts pass through an 8-size calibrator, graded and stored.
Washing and Before processing, the calibrated nuts go
th.e washmg umt. After washing, the nuts are placed in the
humIdIfication area where they are regularly moistened to obtain the required
moisture content before roasting.
Roasting, centri(ugation and cooling: The nuts are unloaded into the feeding
hopper and carned by the bucket elevator into the kiln hopper. From there
nuts are fed into the roasting kiln by a dosing feeder. The nuts are conveyed
to the bottom of the tank, where they expel the CNSL. After crossing the
bottom of the roasting tank, the nuts get back to the surface and fall into the
centrifuges. While passing through the centrifuges, the CNSL is drained
from the nuts, and then the nuts are conveyed through a cooling tunnel into
hoppers placed before the shelling lines.
Shelling and pneumatic separation of kernel and shells: The nuts are
discharged from the conveyors to the footbridge hoppers feeding to the
automatic shelling machines. Inside the shelling machines, the shell is split
into two halves and partly separated from the kernel. Both kernels and
shells fall into the vibrating screen placed underneath. This screen allows
the kernels to drop on a conveyor belt as the shells and unshelled nuts
remain on the upper side until the end of the shelling line. An aspirator
sucks the empty shells, and the unshelled nuts proceed to separation benches.
The kernels are then cleaned and passed through the super calibrator where
whole, broken and rotten kernels are separated. Whole and broken kernels
are stored in separate containers to feed the dryer.
Kernel drying: Kernels are dried to reduce the kernel moisture up to 3.5 to
4% for mechanical peeling. The working temperature is around 80 to 85C.
The discharged kernels are kept in a cooling room.
Peeling, grading and sorting: The whole kernels are passed through a rock.et
peeler, which is a cylinder provided with a central bar fitted with springs.
The cylinder and the central bar rotate in opposite directions thus facilitating
the separation of the testa from the kernels. All the kernels pass through a
super calibrator where they are divided into whole and broken kernels.
Unpeeled kernels are sent to the air peeler. After passage into the air peeler,
almost all the kernels are completely peeled. The small fraction that is not
peeled completely goes for a second passage into the air peeler and e,:entually
to the manual finishing. The broken kernels proceed to a pneumatic blower
for final cleaning before entering a grading kern.els, peeled
kernels, and peeled pieces are sent to the sortmg machme for the
separation of scorched and dessert types from whIte ones.
159
Packing: After grading, the kernels are vacuum packed, by grade, into plastic
bags followed by 50-lb. carton boxes.
The OLTREMARE mechanical processing system consists ofthe following
machinaries, viz., Calibrator, Roaster, Centrifuges, Automatic shelling and
separation system, Dryers, Peeling machine, Size grading machines, Colour,
sorting and grading machines and Vacuum packing machines.
Calibrator: This is a mechanical system developed for sorting raw nuts
according to size. The OLTREMARE specific calibration ensures precise
grouping of nuts based on their size (Fig. 10.6 and Plate 10.36).
Roaster: The roaster is one of the most important units of the OLTREMARE
CAUBRA110N SYSTEM
C - Nominal nut size
VARIANCES NOT ALLOWED
MORE ACCURACY
Fig. 10.6. Oltremare calibration system
processing system. The important components of the OLTREMARE roaster
and their functioning are briefly indicated (Plate 10.37).
Charging Hopper and Elevator
The hopper is placed below the ground level and it is made of electro-welded
carbide steel. A dosing vibrator for nut extraction is mounted at the bottom
of the hopper. The dosing unit is mounted on springs with oscillating blades
and it is controlled by an electro-magnet. The latter rests on a cast-iron
support, which is bolted to a heavy cast constituting the base ofthe dosing
unit. The base and the springs on which the channel is mounted are
engineered to absorb the vibrations transmitted to the channel itself. The
moisturized nuts are fed into the kiln-loading hopper by a bucket elevator
whose structure consists of electro-welded steel modules. The buckets are
made of galvanized cast-iron, and are riveted to the PVC belt. The driving
head and the idle head are machine tool manufactured steel-castings.
160
- ..
Hopper - Dosing Unit - Kiln
The a steel framework supported by a shaped structure.
A IS at the bottom of the hopper, progressively
and contmuously feedmg the kiln. The extractor is a cam-controlled vibrator
The kiln consists of a sheet-metal tank for CNSL. The nuts are fed into
tank by the dosing unit, and then a lath conveyor at the bottom of the tank
carries them forward. The conveyor consists oflaths and paddles connected
between two chains, which are carried forward by the head drum. The tank
is covered with refractory bricks, housing two burners controlling the CNSL
temperature. A stainless steel pipe is housed at the bottom ofthe tank. The
combustion fumes pass through the pipe and warm up the bath.
Roasting Unit
This unit consists of a roasting tank filled with CNSL, made of carbide steel,
and duly insulated to increase the efficiency. The tank is 5 m long and can
hold 5 cubic meters of CNSL maintained at a given temperature by a heat
exchanger placed at the bottom of the tank. The exchanger works with
diathermic oil heated by a shell burner. The CNSL inside the tank is stirred
to increase the thermal exchange. A lath conveyor feeds the nuts inside the
tank, driven by a speed variator determining the roasting time. The CNSL
temperature inside the tank is maintained constant by a diathermic oil flux
regulator, which is controlled by a thermometer. The nuts are directly
unloaded into the centrifuges without use of any elevator.
CNSL Level Control
An overflow control device is placed on the tank side to keep the CNSL level
constant, and discharging the excess quantities into a decantation tank.
Supplementary Equipment for the Kiln
The kiln unit is provided by a service ladder, to reach the upper parts of the
unit and a working platform. Some pipes for air circulation may be housed
into the refractory covering. The air is blown into the nut-extracting unit by
a fan. The aspirating hood is made of shaped welded steel. It held by a
supporting framework through which it can easily be moved sldeways for
maintenance operations.
Aspirations and Fumes Circulation in the Kiln
An electro-welded steel pipe is placed on top ofthe aspiration hood
the CNSL fumes. A fan at the end of the pipe blasts fumes. A umt to
collect the condensed hot smokes is mounted on the eXIt.lme f?r the fumes,
which are finally released outside the unit through a bnck ChImney.
161
._ .\.:1
Centrifuge
The centrifuge is an extractor draining the CNSL from the roasted cashew
nuts. The machine is composed of a main structure, a differential unit and a
scroll for nuts and filter basket (Plate 10.38).
Main Structure
This structure supports the differential unit and at the same time allows
nuts and CNSL canalization into two different discharge outlets. The basic
frame of the machine is made of electro-welded steel sections and, through
appropriate vibration-damping devices, it supports the bullring of the main
structure. The latter is built with welded steel. Inside there is the CNSL
collector and outside, the hollow space let the drained nuts pass.
Differential Group
The group is composed of a hard alloy cast iron box Gh25, fastened to the
main structure. Inside the differential box primary and secondary shafts are
assembled. They give differential motion to the scroll and basket. They are
made of alloy steel with inserts of AISI 304 steel. The gears are assembled
on the shafts (made of alloy steels with nickel-chrome). The gears are engaged
with the planet wheels sustained by the 2 planet wheels carrying plates. All
gears are subjected to case hardening, hardening and grinding treatments.
A pump driven by the primary shaft ensures lubricating oil circulation, whose
temperature is kept to the desired level by a cooling group outside the
machine. The motion is given to the group by pulleys and V-belts.
Scroll for Nut and Filtering Basket
The main and secondary shafts carry the filtering basket. The scroll allows
in the axial area the passage of nuts coming from the roasting section, and
raise them outside, and so it drains them. This frame is made of alloy electro-
welded steel and it uses special wear-resistant steels and alloy steels. The
filtering basket is made of galvanized carbide steel.
Steam Roaster
Steam roasting is an alternative to CNSL roasting. With the OLTREMARE
continuous steam roaster for cashew nuts it is possible to roast the product
following the traditional Brazilian and Indian practices with the following
advantages viz., continuous operation, roasting in accordance with constantly
monitored parameters, homogeneous roasting of the entire product,
maximum thermal efficiency, low steam consumption resulting in energy
saving and possibility to mechanized loading and unloading and thus reducing
labour.
162
Cashew Nllt Processing
. The ?LTREMARE continuous steam roaster for cashew nuts is now
aVaIlable l.n ~ w models viz., SN 300 for 300 kglhr in input, and SN 500 for
500 kglhr In mput.
Automatic shelling and separation system: This involves a 'shelling system'
and a' shell- kernel separating system'.
Shelling System
The automatic shelling line manufactured by OLTREMARE is an integrated
system to shell and separate calibrated nuts of different sizes (Plate 10.39).
The system processes all sizes of cashew nuts. After shelling, the kernels
are automatically separated from the shells, for drying and peeling.
The'S' shaped bucket elevators carry the shelled nuts to the separation
benches. The supporting structure is made of electro-welded carbide steel.
The chain consists of plastic buckets suitable for food usage. The buckets
are connected to the steel shaft. The conveyor chain is made of nylon. Both
driving and idle heads are aluminum castings, connected by steel rods. The
elevator is equipped at both ends with horizontal pieces to facilitate product
load and discharge. The pieces are made of steel and are finished with a
protective layer of paint and lacquering coating.
Shell-kernel Separation System
The shell-kernel separation system includes: Grading sifters, Shell-nut
conveyors,Pneumatic system for the transportation and recycling of unshelled
nuts, Percussion cyclones, Aspiration of shells and Final cleaning of the
kernels
Grading Sifters
The 3-sized vibrating separators receive the kernels. They sort shells, whole
nuts and kernels. The movement of the sifters is controlled by levers and
eccentrics, which in turn, are controlled by a pulley-belt system. At the end
of the separation benches, the shells, the kernels, and the residuals fall
respectively into the shell-nut conveyors, the kernel conveyor and the small
piece conveyor. The unit is made of electro-welded steel.
Shell-nut Conveying Unit
The vibrating conveyors and the separation bench make up the main part of
the unit. The shells and the nuts advance through the vibrating channels.
At the end of the line, the heavy parts (nuts and possible shells and kernels
still not properly divided) fall into the recycling line, while the shells are
pneumatically eliminated. The construction is made of electro-welded shaped
steel.
163
Pneumatic System for the Transportation and Recycling of
Unshelled Nuts
The non-shelled nuts and the possible shells or kernels still not completely
separated fall into the containers from where they are sucked by the air of
the fans and then fed into the percussion cyclones.
Percussion Cyclones
The kernels that are not completely shelled, are pneumatically conveyed to
the cyclones where they bump into a wall to complete shelling. The kernels
and the shells then fall again into the sifter placed underneath and go back
to separation.
Aspiration of Shells
At the end ofthe shell-nut conveyors are mounted several aspiration inlets
through which the empty shells are separated from the kernels to be conveyed
to the separation cyclones. The aspiration inlets may be adjusted by means
of side deflectors. This construction is made of electro-welded steel.
Final Cleaning of the Kernels
The kernels are fed from the conveyor belts into an open vibrating channel
mounted on levers and controlled by a tap and an eccentric. The movement
is driven by an electric motor and a pulley-belt transmission system. This
unit also controls the conveyors placed under the aspiration unit. The
supporting structure is made of electro-welded steel.
Pneumatic Transportation of Shells
The pneumatic transportation system connects the shelling unit to the
exterior thus enabling the automatic discharging ofthe shells. The first part
of this unit includes acid resistant pipes and PVC bends of medium thickness,
collecting the shells falling from the sifters. The shells are pneumatically
conveyed into the separation cyclones connected to the bottom to one another
by means of a flange with two discharge radial valves. The body of these
valves is a cast-iron mold housing a star-shaped rotor mounted on a steel
shaft. The valves evacuate the shells outside the factory through the
discharge pipes.
Dryers
OLTREMARE cashew kernel continuous dryer (Plate 10.40) consists of one
or more standard modules, assembled in series to attain the desired drying
capacity. A final module is placed at the end ofthe drying system, similar to
the previous ones but used to cool the kernels. A single module has the
164
dimensions of the drying room (1.5 m x 4.0 m) for total 6 sq m and consists of
a kernel feeding hopper over a slotted belt allowing a hot air blast coming
from the bottom of the dryer. The air is conveyed from the outside by an
electric fan and sent to a thermal exchanger, which can be operated
electrically or by steam or diathermic oil. The choices of the regulation
system are based on air temperature, air speed and product stay period
inside the dryer. The regulation devices are the followings:
Thermal exchanger temperature regulation device.
Adjustment of air inlet and outlet into the drying room.
Conveyor run/stop device.
Feeding hopper shutter regulation.
An aspirator is placed on the dryer upper hood to ease the hot air flux.
If cooling system is used, a hot air recycling device is also foreseen from the
cooler to the first module ofthe dryer, which can be used as a pre-heater.
The dryer is supplied with slotted belt cleaning device to keep the mesh
system constantly open and ease the air flux.
Peeling machine
Peeling is done mechanically, either by a Rocket peeler or by an air peeler
(Plate 10.41).
Rocket Peeler
The peeling unit mechanically peels the kernels. The kernels advance into
the lower part of the cylinder and the peeling springs, mounted in packs on
an eccentric shaft, peel them while rotating. The cylinder is made of slotted
sheet metal and turns clockwise. It is provided with a front and a back strap
lying on 4-rubber wheel. A disk, which is welded to the front strap and
supported between two pulleys, prevents the axial displacements of the
cylinder. The eccentric shaft turns counter-clockwise holding the block of
the spring-carrying pack. Sheet-metal slides facilitate the inlet and outlet of
the kernels, while a hopper discharges the detached peels. The supporting
structure is made of shaped-steel.
Air Peeling Machine
The machine includes a feeding hopper and a dosing vibrator. The kernels
are discharged from the dosing vibrator into an intermediate hopper to slow
down their fall into the peeling machine. The latter includes a PVC belt
carrying several nylon paddles fixed to the belt. Both belt paddles and slotted
steel sides bound. The kernels are thus conveyed to an area of air turbulence.
165
The air is blasted through two interval led rows of opposite ventilation ducts.
It passes through the slotted iron-sheet and removes the testa that is not
yet completely detached. The kernels fall on to a slide placed underneath
and are fed into the super-calibrator. The detached testa falls onto the lower
hopper and from there, through an intermediate pipe, into a sac. Cast-iron
pulleys support the PVC belt. A V-belt-gear-motor unit powers it. The machine
is fully cased and supported by a profiled electro-welded structure.
Grading machine: A super-calibrator is used for grading kernels according
to size. The super-calibrator includes a steel rotor provided with parallel,
zinc-plated wires carrying out a triple grading of whole kernels and splits.
The splits drop onto a conveyor for split kernels. The whole kernels drop on
the sorting bench where this operation is manually completed. The rotor is
mounted on stay rods supported by the main shaft. The rejected parts pass
through the string-rotor and the accepted parts are discharged through the
front slide. Cylindrical nylon brushes placed over it grant the continuous
cleaning of the rotor. The main shaft is mounted on bearings. It is controlled
by a pinion and transmission belt system. A reduction gear motor drives the
movement.
Colour sorting and grading machine: OLTREMARE C.S.M. is the brand
name of a new series of colour sorting machines suited to process quite a lot
of products (Plate 10.42). With the aim of obtaining the highest purity and
quality standards from products with more than 2 colours in the cashew
industry, OLTREMARE has successfully installed a double system on the
same machine. This system actually allows the separation among waste,
desert scorched and unpeeled kernels without handling the product, thus
avoiding costly breakage. The OLTREMARE C.S.M. colour sorting machines
take advantage of long years of experience in cashew nut processing. The
machines are engineered with special devices to preserve the brittleness of
the kernels during the whole colour separation process.
OLTREMARE Whole Cashew Kernel Electronic Grading System
The system consists of a feedbox (containing the product to be graded) and a
vibrator that conveys the single kernels on a double conveyor belt. A vision
system based on cameras measures each kernel. This information is sent to
a computer, which elaborates the data. The kernel is thus classified according
to pre-determined class standards (each class represents the international
classification grades). After classification, an air-compressed flow separates
the kernels, which fall into different boxes according to the grade. The system
is engineered in such a way as to avoid breakage. This system is actually far
more precise than manual grading. Power consumption is very low. No
labour is required, thus avoiding unhygienic handling of the kernels.
166
Vacuum pac/ling machine: Vacuum packing replaces conventional system
of packing in tins. Here packing is done in cheap and technically equivalent
flexible barrier bags. Bags are available in various sizes to pack 100 g to 50
lbs of kernels. After filling kernels in the flexi bag, air inside is evacuated
with a vacuum packaging machine (Plate 10.43) and sealed safely. Bags have
excellent barrier properties and high puncture resistance. They also enables
product visibility, better seal strength and high aroma retention. Compared
to tin packing, vacuum packing in flexi bags allows saving of space during
transportation. Recently, this method of packing is gaining considerable
popularity in the cashew industry.
Home Scale Processing
Home scale processing - a new concept is emerged particularly in the
Maharashtra. Here, small scale processing units involving a small steam
generator along with roaster, cutting machines, electric borma and packing
machines are used by the villagers for local processing of raw nuts (Plate
10.44 and 10.45).
The steam roaster is having a capacity to process 80 kg raw nut at a
time. Either firewood or cashew shell is used as a source of energy. The raw
nuts are steamed for 30 min, cooled for 12 h and subjected to cutting. All
other steps in processing are similar to other processing methods.
The advantage of the system is that this provides employment to a
large number of rural women. It promotes supply of kernels in the local
markets. This also enables the farmer to get a better price for his produce.
TERMINOLOGIES IN CASHEW NUT PROCESSING
Shelling out turn
The term shelling out turn refers to the quantity of extracted kernels along with its
testa from 1 kg of raw nuts. The shelling out turn can be worked out as follows:
Weight of kernels with testa
Shelling out turn = / 100
Weight of raw nuts
The shelling out turn can be in the range of 30 to 35%. Normally, from
1 kg of good quality raw nuts, 600 to 700 g of shells, 250 to 310 g of kernels
and 60 to 80 g of testa can be expected.
Shelling percentage
The term shelling percentage Kernel out turn refers to the quantity of kernels
extracted from a unit weight of raw nuts expressed as a percentage. The
shelling percentage can be worked out as follows:
167
Kernel weight
Shelling percentage = . h X 100
Nut welg t
Shelling percentage depends on the quality of raw nuts. Nut size,
moisture content, pest damage, nut maturity etc decide the shelling
percentage. The shelling percentage normally varies from 25 to 31%. In
exceptional cases, the values may be as low as 20% or as high as 35%.
Count
The term 'count' refers to the number of kernels per pound of cashew kernel.
The shelling out turn, shelling percentage and the kernel count of
cashew vary considerably among cashew varieties. A study conducted by
Kerala Agricultual University, on the processing characteristics of cashew
varieties revealed that the varieties H 1598, M26/2 and R1608 were best as
higher shelling percentage, higher amount of white wholes yield, more bold
kennels (ranging from W210 to W240), less kernel pieces, less kernel rejects
and less husk (Abdul Salam, 1998).
ESTABLISHMENT OF A CASHEW NUT PROCESSING FACTORY
The components of a cashew nut processing factory include Land, Buildings,
Drying yards, Roads, Free space around, Water supply, Power, Transport
facilities, Equipments and Labour (skilled and unskilled).
The requirement of the above components depends on the processing
capacity envisaged for the factory.
Land
The land requirement depends on the processing capacity proposed. A
minimum of 2.5 acres of land is required to construct a processing factory
with a capacity to process 2,000 tonnes of raw nuts/year.
Buildings
Buildings are necessary for working space, office, storage etc. Work space
involves space"for shelling, peeling, grading and packing, rest room, canteen,
office room, toilet, generator etc. In India cashew nut processing factories
with tiled roof (Plate 10.46) and concrete roof (Plate 10.47) can be seen. In
modern factories, concrete roofing is preferred.
Other Components
The other components of a processing factory and their purpose are indicated
below.
168
Drying yard
Space for creche
Canteen building
Gas cylinders store
Generator room
Toilet block
Washing area
Overhead water tank
Water tank
Well
Roads
Free space
Resting place
Power
Transport facilities
Equipments
Roasting
Cutting
Drying and cooling
Peeling
Grading
Packing
Office equipments
Other equipments
To dry raw nuts
To maintain the children of workers
To run the workers' canteen
To store the gas cylinders
To accommodate the generator
For toilet purpose
For personal hygiene
To install water tank
For continuos water supply
To ensure water supply
For mobility of vehicles
For free movement Electricity equipment
For workers
Though cashew factory is not primarily
demanding considerable electric power,
modern factories need electricity for
various purposes viz. lighting, pumping,
operating certain electrical equipments,
computers etc.
For the transportation of raw nuts,
kernels etc. the factory needs trucks. For
mobility of staff, light vehicles like motor
cycle and motor car are also necessary.
Following are the major items of
equipments required.
Small industrial boiler
Cutting machine, Cutting table, Utensils
Borma, Humidifier, Hot air drier
Peeling table and chair, Knife, Utensils
Grading table and chairs, Cyclone
separator, Pieces segregator
Vita packing machine, Tin sealing
machine, Flexi bag packing machine,
Platform balance, Electronic weighing
balance etc.
Computer, Printer, Fax
Generator, CNSL drums etc.
169
Labour
Skilled workers
Shellers
Peelers
Graders
Packers
Supervisory staff
Manager
Deputy Managers
Office Assistants
Factory Supervisors
Supporting staff
Watchers
Fitters
Head loading workers
Cooks
Drivers
The following types oflabour are necessary
for the processing factory.
For shelling or cutting the raw nuts
For peeling the kernels
For grading the kernels
For packing the produce
Person responsible for supervising the
whole activity
To assist the manager
To maintain the accounts
To supervise the workers
To protect the properties, produce etc.
To repair the machinaries
To transport materials
To operate the canteen
To run the vehicles
The number of persons under various categories depends on the
processing capacity of the factory.
PROCESSING FACTORY -A MODEL
The plan of a model processing factory, with capacity to process approximately
2,000 tonnes of raw nuts per year and space requirement are mentioned
here (Fig. 10.7).
Land Requirement
Minimum 2 to 2.5 acres.
Buildings
A factory with above processing capacity needs buildings with minimum
space of 5,150 m
2
to accommodate the boiler, shelling yard, borma, peeling
yard, grading yard, packing area, storage space etc (Table 10.4). This includes
space for labour amenities (1,500 m
2
) to provide resting place, toilets, bath
rooms etc.
170
-'+ '-r
Borma
Drying yard,
.
..
Shelling
. 4.:
"& ', '
t','
. ,'1
',' ", . . ...
't", ': ,', , .' .. '

Fig. 10.7. Layout plan ofa model cashew factory
(Processing capacity 2000 t of raw nuts per year, Area: 2.5 acres)
Storage Capacity
MM,.
To store about 2,000 tonnes of raw nuts, the factory needs a storage space of
950 m
2
(Table 10.4). In addition, approximately 500 m
2
area may be set apart
for extraction and storage of CNSL.
Drying Yard
For proper drying of the raw nuts, sufficient drying yards are necessary. An
area of 1,200 m
2
may be provided for this purpose (Table 10.4).
Roads
To enable mobility inside the factory, sufficient roads are to be laid out.
Approximately an area ofl,200 m
2
may be necessary for this purpose (Table 10.4).
171
Length Breadth .Area
1
BuUdfngg
Toiiet Mock frff women
Grz {;vlindern p.wre
building
CaveretJ area
Building for work piace & expeller
f'or work
Creche and rest room
Packaging room (export)
Gr;Ullng and packing
Over fu!ad water tank
Washable area
Generator room & tempOFdl"'J store
Steam generator room
Water trmk Hz. well
Labour amenities
Z Storage
Storage building for taW nuts
Storage building for kernels
CNSLStomgc
g Drying yards
Drying yard I
Drylrig yu:rd II
4 Uoads
5 rccspBee
1 Buildings
2 Storage
3 Drying yard
4- Roads
5 Free space
Total
Free Space
(m) em) (m2)
lfJ
5
13
13
30
100
9
25
30
5
20
10
7
Sub-total
25
30
Sub-total
35
25
2
2
11
6
1,5
20
9
10
15
4
3
4-
4-
20
15
20
20
20
10
143
78
450
2,000
81
250
450
20
60
40
28
20
1,500
5,150
500
450
500
1,450
700
500
1,200
1,000
.1\f,\AAI'
5,150
1,450
1,200
1,200
1,000
10,000
To enable freedom of movement; some space may be left all around.
Approximately an area of 1,000 m
2
may be necessary for this.
Well, Water Tank and Overhead Tank
It is necessary to ensure good quality water supply to meet the factory
requirement. Well water or pipe water may be assured with storage tank
and distribution lines.
172
In all, a mlOlmuIll of 2.5 acre (10,000 m
2
) may be necessary for
establishing a cashew nut processing factory with an annual processing
capacity of 2,000 tonnes of raw nuts.
Power
Although a cashew-processing factory does not warrant high amount of
power, it needs electricity for light and related purposes. Power is necessary
for electrical appliances, fans, computers, printers etc.
Equipments
A cashew nut processing factory requires different type ofequipments for various
purposes viz., steaming, roasting, shelling, drying, humidifying, packing etc.
Besides packaging materials and various containers for storing the produce at
different stages of processing are also necessary .The equipments requirement
of the above mentioned factory and their cost are given in Table 10.5.
Approximate cost of the equipments (as on 2002) is around Rs. 3.226 millions.
Table 10.5. Equipments required for the factory and approximate cost
Purpose Item Numbers
Roasting
Cutting
Peeling
Grading
Packing
Office equipments
Other equipments
Foundry
Small industrial boiler
Cutting tables each with 2 machines
Utensils
Drying and cooling Borma
Humidffier

(set for 4 persons)
Utensils
Grading table and chairs
(set for 4 persons)
Cyclone separator
Pieces segregator
VITA packing machine
Tin sealing machine
Platform, electric weigh balance
Computer and printer
Fax
Furniture, fanete.
Generator
CNSLdrums
1
65
1
1
50
16
1
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
4
Total
Amount
Rs.lakhs
2.51
4.50
0.50
8.00
0.20
3.00
0.50
0.96
0.60
0.25
0.30
2.00
2.00
1.00
0.15
2.00
3.00
1.00
32.26
The factory also needs a small foundry unit for undertaking repair to
machineries, sharpening the knives, repair to equipment, welding purposes
173
peeling, grading and packing. In addition, persons for accounting, supervising,
watching etc are also necessary. The details of the man power requirement
for a factory with capacity to process 2,000 tonnes of raw nuts per year (by
providing work for 300 days in an year) is given Table 10.6. This factory may
need about 128 persons for shelling, 207 persons for peeling and 64 persons
for grading. Two persons are necessary for packing. About 69 persons are
required under different categories including supervisory staff. This include
Manager (1), Deputy Managers (2), Supporting staff (16), Supervisors (15),
Fitters (5), Watchers (10), Cook (1) and Outside workers (19). In all, this
factory may need around 470 persons for undertaking various operations.
Table 10.6. Man-power requirement of a factory with a capacity of 2000 tonnes of raw
nuts per year
Sl. No. Supporting staff
1 Shellers
2 Peelers
3 Graders
4 Packers
5 Manager
6 Deputy Managers
7 Supporting staff
Cost of Processing
No.
128
207
64
2
1
2
16
Sl.No.
8
9
10
11
12
Supporting staff
Supervisors
Fitters
Cook
Watchers
Outside workers
Total
No.
15
5
1
10
19
470
In India, the estimated cost of the processing of 1 kg ofraw nut varies from
Rs 8/- in un organised sector to Rs 12/- in organized sector (2009).
174
Processing Equipment and Packaging
A
cashew nut processing factory requires various items of equipments
for roasting, cutting, drying, grading and packing. The requisites for a
cashew nut processing factory are enumerated here.
EQUIPMENTS
Small Industrial Boiler
It is an equipment used for generating steam for steam roasting. Usually
firewood or cashew shell wastes are used as fuel. The steam pressure is
maintained at around 4 bar and steam is allowed to pass into the chamber
containing raw nuts (Plate 11.1).
Oil Bath Roaster
This is an equipment used for roasting nuts under oil bath (Plate 11.2). This
allows uniform roasting and saving of eNSL.
Cutting Machine
This is a machine working with pedal operated mechanism. Two such
machines are mounted on a table to enable work two persons on the same
table (Plate 11.3).
Needles for Kernel Extraction
Special type of needles as shown in Plate11.4 are used to extract kernels
coming out of the cutting machine.
Containers
Aluminium and plastic containers of different size (Plates 11.5 and 11.6) are
used to carry the roasted nuts, extracted kernels and shells within the factory.
Steel Stand
Steel stands (Plate 11.7) are used to keep the aluminium containers near
the working tables.
Borma
This is a hot chamber used to remove the moisture of the kernel and to
facilitate easy removal of testa. There are 4 chambers, each with 10 trays
and each tray can hold 7 to 10 kg of kernel (Plates 11.8 and 11.9).
Leakage Testing Machine
This is a device to test the leakage oftins before packing. This is essential to
prevent entry of air into the tin so as to avoid damage to kernels (Plate
11.10).
Humidifiers
Humidifiers are used to cool the kernels from Borma. This will also enable
peeling easy (Plate 11.11). Humidifier generates water vapour for cooling.
Balances
These with varying capacity are required to record the weights more than
12 kg (Plate 11.12). In standard packing, the tins contain 11.34 kg kernels.
Sieving Machine
Vibratory sieve (Plate 11.13) and sieving machine (Plate 11.14) are equipments
used for segregating kernels in to varying size groups. The sieving machine
(Plate 11.15) is useful to separatre broken kernels and testa.
Coating Machine
Ifvalue addition is prefered by coating with sugar or of similar nature, coating
machine (Plate 11.16) may be necessary.
Moisture Meter
This is an equipment used to estimate the moisture content of kernels before
packing (Plate 11.17). The allowable level of maximum moisture in kernels
at packing is 5%. The safest level is 3 to 4%.
Filling Machine
This is used to fill 8 tins at a time (Plate 11.18).
176
Vita Packing Machine
This machine helps vacuumisation of the kernel containing tin and filling
the same with carbon dioxide (Plate 1l.19).The tins are sealed (Plate
11.20) to prevent entry of air. Sealed tins are then packed in cartons
(Plate 11.21).
CNSL Storipg Drums
These are drum.s with 500 to 1000 litres capacity to store CNSL.
Furniture and Other Equipments
Peeling table and chair, utensils (aluminium and plastic) of varying size for
carrying the kernels, platform balance, electronic balance etc. are also
necessary for various purposes.
Office Equipinents
Computers, telephone, fax machine etc. are other items necessary for a
processing factory.
Other EquiplD.ents
Wooden equipments specially designed for spreading and gathering of raw
nuts (Plate 11.22) are also necessary for the factory.
PACKAGING
The purpose of packaging is to contain a product and to protect the same
without affecting its original quality till it reaches the user for
consumption. Packaging makes products easier to handle and to increase
product life. It is necessary to identify a container, which is functionally
sound and fit for its intended purpose. Packaging materials should be
cheap, durable, handy and eco-friendly and should never cause any health
hazard.
Re-humidification of Kernels
Cashew is a high value commodity and therefore, packaging is to be done
carefully to maintain quality and to avoid external contamination. Before
the kernels are packed, they are to be rehumidified up to moisture content
of 4-5%. Otherwise, they may become brittle and can break during
handling. For rehumidifying cashew kernels, they may be placed in a
special chamber with a humid atmosphere.
177
Packing Kernels
For cashew nut packing, 2 methods are commonly followed tin packing and
flexible packing. These methods have their own advantages and disadvantages.
Tin Packing
Prior to packing, it is to be assured that kernel moisture percentage is less
than 4-5%. Graded and rehumidified kernels are packed in tins of 11.34 kg
capacity from which the air is subsequently replaced by carbon-dioxide or
nitrogen. After this, the tins are hermetically sealed with the help of
'VITAPACK' machine. The purpose of filling with an inert gas is to avoid
infestation during transit. Packed tins are tested for leak after a day's storage.
Two tins (22.68 kg) are packed in a cardboard case and 700 such cases form
a container load for shipment.
Advantages
It can withstand rough handling and storage in ports and is suitable for both
large and small users
Disadvantages
The opening of the tins is cumbersome and prone to accident or injury.
Leakage is very common in tin packaging, leading to easy pest infestation.
The tins are not easily recyclable and the cost is also very high.
Flexible Packing
This is one of the latest packaging system available for packing kernels.
Here packing is done with the help of specially prepared flexibags. With this
machine 50 pounds of kernels are filled in each flexibag. The bag is
vacuumized and filled with gas mixture in the ratio of70:30 of CO
2
and N
2
.
In the past 3 decades, food packaging technology has gone through a
major change. New technologies such as aseptic packaging and modified
atmosphere packaging have been introduced on a large-scale. This technology
uses flexible materials for packing. Developed countries prefer mechanised
handling for economy and speedy operation. Disposal of packaging waste
including recycling is a serious concern in the importing countries.
In the flexible packaging system, cashew nuts are packed in plastic
pouches (Plates 11.23 and 11.24). Such pouch is very strong and can keep
oxygen and moisture out. The filled pouch is sealed in a vacuumed chamber,
with a controlled back flush of inert gas in automatic sequence. This system
has several advantages over the tin packing system.
178
AdvantageS
These are higher container loadability (50 Ibs size), the plastic pouches are
recyclable and easier to handle, the automatic system reduces human error,
higher shelf life and reduced pest infestation and the speed of packing is
high and cost is reasonable.
Different flexi packing systems viz., moulded vacuum packaging system
(MVP) (Plate 11.25) in-line moulded vacuum packaging system (Plate 11.26),
high speed moulded vacuum packaging system (Plate 11.27) and carousel
MVP bulk packaging systems (Plate 11.28) are available for packaging. The
success of the flexible pouch packing system has made the industry confident
of ability to adopt new technology.
Tins frequently lose their hermetic seal, CO
2
escapes and without this
protection, kernels become infested and flavour declines. Flexible packaging
has a very low failure rate and failure is immediately detectable. The
important quality considerations for this package are the correct mixture of
N2 and CO
2
and minimum vacuum. High vacuum levels can result in cashews
being stuck together (blocking or clumping). Ifkernel moisture is high (over
5%) kernel will block together.
Important
Filling kernel is to be done within 10 days of cutting otherwise
kernel damage will be more.
If shipment is not done in 2 months, dry the kernels again and refill
the tins.
Commercial Information for Exports
The commercial information for exports of cashew kernels from India, is
provided by The Cashew Export Promotion Council of India.
Export of cashew kernels from In.dia is subject to voluntary quality
control and pre-shipment inspection. Inspection of cashew is conducted either
under the consignment - wise inspection or under in-process quality control
scheme. It is ensured that the product is processed and packed as per the
standards prescribed by drawing samples from the finished product.
Packaging and Standard Weight
Cashew kernels in bulks are packed in four gallon prime tins with a net
weightofl1.34 kg in each tin. The filled tins are then vacuumised and filled
with carbon dioxide gas and sealed. Two such tins of the same grade are
packed in a carton for export. The net weight of a carton is thus 22.68 kg (50
179
Ibs). Some manufacturers also pack in tins of 10 kg net to certain markets to
suit the requirements of buyers.
International Clearance and Shipping Agency
International Clearance and Shipping Agency (lCSA) is one ofthe agencies
available as General Agents for arranging ocean transportation, air freight,
inland transportation, customs clearance, warehousing and distribution etc.
This agency serves as agent of Mitsui Steamship Company Ltd. (MOL), Tokyo
(J apan), one of the largest shipping company in the world for arranging ocean
transport. MOL operates regular container services from all major ports of
India. More details can be obtained from their office at International Clearance
and Shipping Agency (ICSA) 158, Linghi Chetty Street, Chennai - 600 001.
Shipping Specifications
The overall dimensions of a carton are: length (490 mm), breadth (240 mm),
height (350 mm) and overall volume (0.041 m
3
/carton).
Cashew shipments from India are mainly in containers of size 20 ft
(6 m), which carry about 6801700 cartons. Orders for less than a container
load are also accepted.
Freight is charged per cubic metre (volume basis). Freight for full container
load is fIxed. It is more economical than freight for part container load.
Other Information
There are regular shipping facilities from India to all parts of the world.
Major shipments in India take place through Cochin port. Other ports are
Tuticorin, Mangalore, Chennai and Mumbai. Frequent shipping services
are available from Indian ports on India-USA, India-UK, India-Australia,
India-J apan, India-Middle East and India-Singapore routes.
Members of the Cashew Export Promotion Council of India, who are
manufacturer exporters and merchant exporters of cashew kernels are the
major sources for cashews from India. Cashew kernels in bulk as well as in
consumer packs are available throughout the year from India. India also
exports cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), a versatile raw material used for
manufacturing paints, varnishes, laminating resins, brake linings, epoxy
resins, foundry chemicals etc.
Major Buyers of Kernels
Major buyers of kernels are U.S.A, Netherlands, U.K, Japan, U.A.E,
Australia, France, Canada, Saudi Arabia, Israel, Italy, Spain, Singapore,
Germany, Greece and Russia.
180
--
._;, c
Export Specifications and Quality
C
ashew kernels are graded before packing and marketing. Broadly, kernels
are grouped under 4 grades (based on size and quality) considering visual
characters.
First grade
Second grade
Third grade
Fourth grade
Whole, good, big-sized kernels of export quality.
Whole, good, medium-sized kernels of export quality.
Halved and broken-sized, sold locally.
Rejected and spoiled, sold locally.
The wholes are again size-graded manually, on the basis of kernels per
pound (lb). Such grading is done according to internationally recognised
specifications, based on size and colour. Kernels are classified according to
their weight and expressed as number per pound. This is referred as 'counts'.
GRADE SPECIFICATION FOR CASHEW
Grade specifications for cashew are formulated by India, America and UN I
ECE. Being the largest producer of cashew kernels, India has taken the lead
in establishing grade specification for cashew kernels. Similarly, being the
largest buyers, American and European trade organizations also have
formulated specifications for cashew kernels.
A. Grade Specifications of India
Grade specifications ofIndian cashew kernels for export have been laid down
by the Govermnent ofIndia under the Export (Quality Control and Inspection)
Act 1963. The Act prescribes 33 different grades of cashew kernels. Of these,
only 26 grades are commercially available and exported which are mentioned
in Tables 12.1 to 12.6 and Plates between 12.1 and 12.6.
Table 12.1. White Wholes- characteristics, count, maximum moisture percentage and
broken percentage
Grade Trade Name Colour/' Countl454g Moisture% Broken%
characteristics maximum
maximum
W-180 White wholes White/pale ivory/ 170-180 5 5
light ash.
W-210 White wholes White/pale ivory! 200-210 5 5
light ash.
light ash.
W-320 White wholes White!pale ivory! 300-320 5 5
light ash.
W-450 White wholes White!pale ivory! 400-450 5 5
light ash.
light ash.
Table 12.2. Scorched Wholes- characteristics, count, maximum moisture percentage and
broken percentage
Grade Trade Name Colourl COUI).tl454 g Moisture% Broken%
characteristics maximum maximum
SW Scorched Scorched/slightly N.A. 5 5
wholes darkened
SW-180 Scorched Scorched/slightly 170-180 5 5
wholes darkened
SW-21O Scorched Scorched/slightly 200-210 5 5
wholes darkened
wholes darkened
wholes darkened
wholes darkened
wholes darkened
Table 12.3. Dessert wholes- characteristics, count, maximum moisture percentage and
broken percentage
Grade Trade Name Colour Countl454g Moisture% Broken%
maximum maximum
SSW Scorched Over-scorched,
wholes immature, shrivelled, N.A. 5 5
seconds speckled, discoloured
and light blue
DW Dessert Deep scorched,
wholes deep brown, N.A. 5
deep blue, speckled,
discoloured and
black spotted
182
Table 12.4. White Pieces characteristics, count, maximum moisture percentage and
broken percentage
Grade
Trade Name Colour
CountJ454g Moisture% Broken%
maximum maximum
B
Butts White/pale ivory/ N.A.
5 5
light ash broken
cross-wise
S
Splits White/pale ivory/ N.A. 5 5
light ash
LWP Large White White/pale ivory/ Broken into 5 Nil
pieces light ash
more than two
SWP
SInall white White/pale ivory Smaller 5 Nil
pieces or light ash thanLWP
BB Baby bits White/pale ivory/ Plumules and 5 Nil
light ash broken smaller than SWP
kernels
Table 12.5. Scorched Pieces- characteristics, count, maximum moisture percentage and
broken percentage
Grade TradeName Colour CountJ454 g Moisture% Broken%
maximum maximum
SB Scorched butts Scorched/slightly N.A. 5 5
darkened
SS Scorched splits Scorched/slightly N.A. 5 5
darkened
SP Scorched pieces Scorched /slightly Pieces 5 Nil
darkened
SSP Scorched Scorched Islightly Smaller than 5 Nil
SInall pieces darkened SP
Table 12.6. Dessert Pieces- characteristics, count, maximum moisture percentage and
broken percentage
Grade Trade Name Colour CountJ454 g Moisture% Broken%
SPS
DP
Scorched
pieces
seconds
Dessert
pieces
Scorched, immature,
sluivelled,speckled
discoloured and
light blue.
Deep scorched,
deep brown
deep blue, speckled,
discoloured and
black spotted
183
maximum maximum
Broken 5 Nil
into pieces
Broken 5 Nil
into pieces
B. Grade Specifications of America
The Nut and Agricultural Products Association of Food Industries of America
has laid down the following 5 specifications for cashew kernels.
i) First Quality Fancy
Kernels with uniform colour (white, light yellow, pale ivory or light ash-
grey).
ii) Second Quality Scorched/Colour Variation
Kernels with yellow, light brown, light ivory, light ash- grey or deep ivory
colour.
iii) Third Quality Special Scorched/Colour Variation
Kernels with yellow, brown, amber, and light to deep blue. They may be
slightly shrivelled, immature, speckled, blemished or otherwise discolored.
ivY Fourth Quality
Kernels may qualify as first quality, except that they have pitted spots.
v)D essert
Kernels may be deeply scorched, deep yellow, deep brown, deep amber or
deep blue. They may be scrapped, shrivelled, speckled, blemished or
otherwise discoloured and may have pitted spots.
Grading Based on Size
Size grouping is the most important consideration in first quality/ f ~ y
cashew kernels, but it is optional for other whole grades (Table 12.7).
The quantity of broken kernels or pieces in whole kernels shall not
exceed 10% by weight. The quantity of pieces present in butts and splits
shall not exceed 10% by weight. The quantity ofthe next lower size grade in
pieces shall not exceed 5% by weight.
Table 12.7. Grading based on size
Size designation
W 180 (or SLW)
W210 (orLW)
W240
W320
W450
Kilo
266-395
395-465
485-530
660-706
880-990
184
Count per
Pound
120-180
180-210
220-240
300-320
400-450
Whole(W)
A cashew kernel is classified as whole ifit has the characteristic shape ofa
cashew kernel and not more than 1/8
lh
of the kernel has been broken off.
Butts (B)
Kernels, which are broken cross-wise (size less than 7/8, but not less than 31
8 of a whole kernel) and the cotyledons are still naturally attached.
Splits (S)
One half of a cashew kernel that has been split length-wise, provided not
more than 118 of this cotyledon has been broken off.
Large Pieces (LP)
Pieces of splits that are less than 7/8 of the cotyledon and not passing through
a sieve of aperture 4.75 mm (USA No.4).
Small Pieces (SP)
Pieces of splits that are less than 5/8 of a cotyledon and not passing through
Small Brazilian Pieces (SBP)
Pieces of splits that are less than 5/8 of a cotyledon and not passing through
Granules (G)
Fragments of splits and plumules not passing through a sieve of aperture
1.70 mm (USA No. 12).
Tolerance for Defects and Damage in Raw Cashew Kernels
The following limits are fixed as maximum limits for damage and defects in
raw cashew kernels (Table 12.8). To determine complaints with these
tolerances, one should use established analytical procedures. Tolerances for a
lower grade include the kernels defined by the lower grade but not the defects
that are specific to the lower grade. Percentages are determined by weight.
C. UNIECE Specifications
The important features of UNIECE standards for cashew kernels are as
follows:
185
Table 12.8. Tolerance for defects and damage in raw cashew kernels in percentage
Items First Second Third Fourth Dessert
quality quality quality quality
scorched! special
colour scorched!
variation colour
variation
SERIOUS DAMAGE
Insect damage 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Mold, rancidity, decay 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Foreign matter 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Maximum serious damage 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
DEFECT$
II Quality scorchecll
colour variation 5.0
5.0
III Quality special
scorchecllcolour variation 1.5 5.0 2.0
IV Quality
0.5 1.0 2.0
Dessert
0.5 2.5 7.5 2.5
Superficial damage (scrapes) 1.0 2.0 5.0 1.0
Adhering testa
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 5.0
Maximum defect
8.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Whole
Whole kernels of characteristic shape. The presence of a small hole at the
proximal end of the kernel or a central split or crack is not considered a
defect.
Brollens
"Kernels where one-eight or more of the original kernel is broken off (Plate
2.7). Designations ofbrokens are as discussed here.
Butts
Kernels of not less than 3/8
th
of a whole kernel, which have been broken
crosswise but the cotyledons are still naturally attached.
Splits Kernels split lengthwise naturally.
Pieces
Kernels, which have broken into more than two pieces.
Minimum Requirements
In all classes subject to the special provisions for each class and the tolerances
allowed, the cashew kernels must be:
186
clean, practically free from any visible foreign matter.
free from living or dead insects, whatever their stage of development be.
free from visible damage by insects, mites or other parasites.
free from mould or rancidity.
free from adhering testa or shell liquid .
free from any foreign smell or taste.
moisture content equal to or greater than 3% but not greater than 5%.
CLASSIFICATION
Cashew kernels are classified in to three classes as indicated below, according
to their quality and colour (Table 12.9).
Table 12.9. Designations of classes
Class Quality
Extra Class Superior quality characteristic
of variety or commercial type
Class I Good quality
Class II Do not qualify for inclusion
in higher classes, but
which satisfy minimum
requirements specified above
Class II Immature and speckled kernels
are permitted provided they
do not affect the characteristic
shape of the kernel
Extra Class
Colour
White, Pale ivory,
Pale ash-grey,
Light yellow
Light brown,
Light ivory,
Light ash-grey,
Deep ivory, Yellow
Light brown,
Amber, Light blue
Deep brown,
Deep blue, Discolored,
Black spotted
Optional
designation
White
Scorched
Scorched
seconds
Dessert
Kernels of this class must be of superior quality. They must be characteristic
of the variety or commercial type. They should be white, pale ivory, pale
ash-grey or light yellow and should be uniform.
Class I
Kernels ofthis class must be of good quality. They should be oflight brown,
light ivory, yellow, light ash-grey or deep ivory as a result of overheating.
187
Class II
Kernels, which do not qualify for inclusion in the higher classes, but satisfy
the minimum requirements specified above. Immature and speckled kernels
are permitted provided they do not affect the characteristic shape of the
kernel. Their colour may be light or brown, amber, light or deep blue. The
kernels may be discoloured and black spotted.
Grades Based on Size
Kernels are classified based on size, as wholes and broken. The characteristics
and specifications ofthe wholes and broken are given below.
Wholes
Sizing is compulsory in Extra class, but optional for class I and class II.
Grade specifications based on size are shown in Table 12.10.
Table 12.10. Grade specifications based on size
Size Number ofkentels
designation
Broken
W150
W180
W210
W240
W280
W320
W400
W450
W500
per kg
265-325
326-395
395-465
485-530
575-620
660-706
707-880
881-990
990-1100
per pound
121-150
151-180
181-210
220-240
260-280
300-320
321-400
401-450
451-500
Grade specifications for broken kernels are shown in Table 12.11.
Table 12.11. Grade specifications for broken kernels
Designation
Large pieces
Small pieces
Very small pieces
Baby bits or granules
Characteristic
Not passing through a sieve of aperture 4.75 mm.
Passing through a sieve of aperture 4.75 mm but not passing
through a sieve of aperture 2.80 DUD.
Passing through a sieve of aperture 2.80 DUD but not passing
through a sieve of aperture 2.36 DUD.
Plumules and fragments of kernels passing through a sieve
of aperture 2.80 mm. but not passing through a sieve of
aperture 1.70 mm.
188
Tolerance
Mineral Impurities Tolerance
Acid insoluble ash must not exceed 1 g/kg.
Size Tolerances
For Whole kernels that have been size graded, the quantity of kernels of
next lower size grade (NLSG) shall not exceed 5% by weight for extra class,
and 7.5% by weight for class I and class II at the time of packing. For all
Whole kernels, whether or not size graded, the quantity ofbrokens or pieces
for extra class, class I and class II shall not exceed 5% by weight.
For butts and splits, the quantity of pieces present for extra class, class I
and class II shall not exceed 5% by weight.
For piece grades, the quantity of pieces of the next lower piece size
designation for extra class shall not exceed 5% by weight of extra class, and
for class I and class II, by 7.5% by weight of class I and class II at the packing.
METHODS TO MAINTAIN QUALITY STANDARDS
Cashew is a high value commodity and large quantities of kernels are being
exported regularly. High levels of quality specifications are being stipulated
in terms of physical, chemical and microbiological purity in the international
market. The quality tolerances of different classes are mentioned in
Table 12.12.
It is imperative to take all possible measures to prevent physical,
chemical and biological contamination of kernels at all stages of processing
for quality produce. Th,e size, colour, shape and weight of kernels should be
Table 12.12. Quality tolerances
Tolerances allowed
Total defects
Superficial damage
Immature or shrivelled (deformed)
Coloured kernels of next lower grade (NLG)
Speckled or spotted (black or brown)
Presence of testa
Insect damage
Mouldy, rancid or rotten
Foreign matter
189
Permitted defects
percent by weight of kernels
Extra Class I Class II
8 11 14
125
125
5 7.5
0.5 0.5
115
0.5 0.5 1
0.0 0.5 1
0.05 0.01 0.05
as per standards fixed. Following are certain common problems related to
quality.
Problems Related to Quality
The problems are as follows:
Pest problem
Pesticide residues
Microbial contaminations
Personal and premises hygiene
Non awareness regarding quality specifications
a. Pest Problem
Common pests observed in cashew nut processing factories are insects, mites,
rats, microbes, birds etc. Seven species of insects are reported to infest
cashew kernels. They are Necrobia rufipes (Copra beetle), Tribolium
castaneum (Red flour beetle), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Saw toothed beetle),
Alphitobius pice us (Black fungus beetle), Tenebroides mauritanicus (Cadella),
Ephestia cautella (Almond moth) and Plodia interpunctella (Indian meal moth).
They are to be controlled by using safer insecticides.
Control Measures
The control measures include row nuts and raw nut storage, house flies,
cockroaches, rats etc.
Raw nuts and raw nut storage: Any ofthe following insecticidal application
can be adopted on the storage area.
1. Pyrethrin 0.5% + Piperonyl butoxide 5%@5litre per 100 m
Z
2. Malathion 25% WDP (2% @ 5 litre per 100 m
2
)
3. nDVP + Malathion 50 : 50 (2.5%)
4. Fenitrothion 1% (EC)
Fumigation of empty gunny bags using Durofume or methyl bromide
(16 mg/litre for 25 h) in a chamber or gas proof sheet. Fumigate factory once
in a month.
Clearly follow the cautions given on the directions for use of the
pesticide. The kernels and the containers should never come in contact with
the insecticides. The person applying the insecticide should wear coat, mask,
190
and hat to avoid personal hazards. Ensure use of recommended insecticides
only, and avoid use of banned insecticides like DDT, BHC etc.
House flies: Eliminate the housefly breeding centres and protect the doors
and windows with a double door of which one fitted with a suitable wire net.
Use special type oflights, which can trap flies.
Cockroaches: Clean environment helps to keep away the cockroaches. Sealing
the holes and breaks in the floor and the walls is also beneficial.
Rats: They posses another major threat to the cashew factories. Never allow
wastes to heap up and make the factory rat proof. Close the drainage outlets
coming from the factory with nets to prevent entry of rats. Use rat -traps
and poisons viz. zinc phosphate.
All major species of rodents are prevalent in processing units. To achieve
satisfactory control of rat menace an integrated approach on the lines detailed
below may be useful.
Traps: Different types of rat-traps are available.
Poison baiting
Fumigation
Good house keeping
Using zinc phosphide, barium carbonate.
Rat burrows may be fumigated using any fumigant
like methyl bromide, phosphine or HCN or
acrylonitile or EDB.
Dispose offgarbages, refuses and wastes regularly.
Keep the cashew kernels well protected and
inaccessible to rats. Processing halls and rooms
must be filled with tight fitting doors.
Birds: Sparrows, crows and pigeons usually harbor around factory. Birds
contaminate the premises and carry mites and microflora. Their castings
often contaminate the kernels. Provide nylon nets for doors and ventilators.
b. Pesticide Residues
The processed kernels should be free of pesticide residues. Banned pesticides
viz. BHC and DDT should not be used at any stage for pest control. Packaging
materials, if possible should be biodegradable and environmentally friendly.
Pesticide residue analysis of samples should be done before export.
c. Microbial Contamination
The fungsl flora associated with normal kernels included Aspergillus flavus,
Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium sp., Rhizopus sp.,
Cladosporium sp. and Curvularia sp.
191
The following methods may help to avoid microbial contamination.
Keep the moisture content of kernels less than 5 to 6%.
Ensure personal hygiene of workers.
Hand washing in disinfectant solution, before the workers start work
on peeling, grading and packing must be scrupulously followed.
Use of gloves and caps by workers must be insisted.
Peeling and grading operations must be done only on tables.
Dust proofing of processing rooms must be done regularly.
Use dehumidifiers to maintain dry atmosphere in storage rooms.
Regular cleaning offactory to avoid infection.
Store testa and rejected kernels away to prevent breeding and spread
of pests.
Avoid keeping good kernels with infected kernels. Factory environment
and utensils must be always clean. Unhealthy workers and unclean handling
should not be allowed. To ensure quality products the following steps may
be useful.
In the godown: The godown area may be frequently applied with safe
pesticides. Before keeping raw nut, wooden planks or pest free dry sand
must be spread on the floor. The sacks containing raw nuts may be arranged
at least two feet away from the walls and four feet away from the roof. To
eliminate micro-organisms and insect pests, walls and roof of the factory
sheds must be free from breakage. Ensure that the raw nuts are dried enough
while storage (moisture not more than 8 to 10%).
During roasting: Clean the nuts before roasting and grade the nuts according
to size. Avoid excess roasting and in drum roasting, the drum is to be free of
cracks. The speed of the drum should be uniform. Nuts coming out of the
drum after roasting may be sprinkled with water to minimize fire.
In steam roasting, the heat, pressure and duration may be regulated
to ensure quality kernels. Steam roasted nuts may be thinly spread over the
floor for cooling.
During shelling: Care should be taken to minimize breakage of kernels,
after shelling, may be kept either in tins or in aluminium containers.
Processed kernel should not be kept open. It should always be covered with
plastic sheet.
192
During peeling and grading: Peeling and grading operation must be done
only on the table. Remove the infected and damaged kernels immediately
Grade the kernels correctly according to size, colours and count in the right
way. The broken bits may be separated using appropriate sieves.
During filling and packing: During vita packing, ensure that the machine is
working properly. carbon dioxide may be filled in the tins only when the
vacuum inside the tin reaches a pressure of 26" Hg. The tin should be clean
while packing. It should be free from moisture, rust or any other
contamination. The tin should not allow leakage of gases. All the tins should
be subjected to leak test. Before filling tins are to be cleaned using a vacuum
cleaner. Paper packing cases and plastic covers should be kept under clean
environments so that microbial infection may not occur. Tins packed with
kernels a day may be kept with separate code for identification. Avoid
breakage/damage oftin or carton while storage or transport.
Equipments: Use utensils and handling equipment that can be cleaned
thoroughly and which cannot allow harborage of insects. Avoid uses of mat
baskets, bamboo mats, reed mats and gunny cloth. Allow only metal and
plastic trays or vessels as containers. Fumigate and vacuum clean sieves
and hoppers.
d. Personal and Premises Hygiene
Water and soap facilities are necessary in every block to ensure personal
hygiene.
Cleaned toilets with regular supply of water are essential.
Purity of water sample should also be confirmed.
Labourers suffering from diseases may not be engaged for work.
Ensure better ventilation in the factory.
Avoid keeping up food waste near by.
Clean the factory regularly.
Workers should not scratch the heads or other body parts or inserting
fingers in the nose or ears, removing pimples etc. while doing work.
Prevent pan chewing, beedi smoking etc. Clean machinery regularly
away infected kernels from the processing factory.
e. Non Awareness Regarding Quality Specifications
To provide sufficient awareness regarding the importance of i n t i ~ i n g
quality, it is necessary to provide regular training to all workers on vanous
aspects of quality specifications and methods to achieve the same.
193
A sense of environmental and physical cleanliness must be inculcated
among labourers. Ensure better health care to the workers. Train workers
for better handling of kernels in a clean way. Keep the storehouse of raw
nuts away from the kernel handling area. Inspect raw nuts and kernels
frequently and destroy the infected ones.
Food safety: Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) and Hazard Analysis &
Critical Control Points (HACCP) are two food safety programmes that are of
key importance to all food manufacturers. GMPs defines minimum standards
for personnel, facilities, tools, equipment, lot controls and records. HACCP
list the dangers to food safety and purity in a process and the controls
necessary for each hazard identified.
Personal hazards: CNSL injury as CNSL is highly corrosive and it can inflict
burns and blisters, particularly in the hands of workers involved in shelling.
The workers should wear gloves as a safety measure. In local processing
factories, workers use wood ash, kaolin, calcium oxide, castor oil etc. as a
smearing agent to protect the hands.
NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS OF CASHEW KERNELS
The role of balanced diet is very important in contributing a long and healthy
life. Over consumption of food of animal origin like meat and eggs leads to
many heart diseases. Fats of animal origin are saturated in nature. It is a
well known fact that excess consumption of saturated fats is bad for health.
Like meat and eggs, cashew nuts are also rich in proteins, carbohydrates
and other minerals (Table 12.13).
Cashew kernels contain 21% protein, 47% fat, 22% carbohydrate, 5%
moisture and 1.3% fiber. It also contains P, Ca and Fe. Among the nuts,
cashew nut serves as the richest source of carbohydrate. It is an excellent
food, a balanced mixture of proteins, fat and carbohydrates.
'l'able 12.13. Chemical composition of cashew kernels
Constituents
Proteins
Fats
Moisture
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Phosphorus
Calcium
Iron
194
Percentage
21
47
5
22
1.3
0.45
0.05
5.0mg/l00g
o:J!r. - . ____
The quality ofa protein is determined by the amino acid content of the
protein (Table 12.14). Cashew nut proteins are richer in essential amino
acids (tryptophan, methionine, threonine, leucine, isoleucine and valine)
compared to those in almond and peanut. Cashew nut proteins contain
relatively lower amount oflysine and phenylalanine. Inclusion of cashew in
the daily diet would ensure an excellent supply of protein. Replacement of
animal food with cashew will reduce the risk of heart disease.
Table 12.14.
Total nitrogen (g/100 g kernel) and essential amino acid content
(lllg/gm ofN) of selected food
Amino acids Cashew nut
Peanut
Almond
Total N(gIlOO g) 3.39
4.05
3.33
Arginine 650
690
660
Histidine 130
140
140
Lysine 290
230
460
Tryptophan 110
60 50
Phenylalanine 270
310 300
Tyrosine
240
180
Methionine 90 60 100
Threonine 200
170 170
Leucine 510 400 480
Isoleucine 320 240 280
Valine 360 280 310
Soman, 2000.
Cashew nut (100 g) supplies over 47 g offat. The consideration is mainly
based on the nature of the fatty acids present in the nut. Like all plant
products, cashew kernels are cholesterol free. In cashew nuts, the ratio of
monosaturated fat: saturated fat is about 4 : 1.
Of the cashew fat, 82% is saturated and 18% unsaturated. The fatty
acid content per 100 g of cashew nut is shown in Table 12.15. The ratio of
saturated: monounsaturated: polyunsaturated fatty acids is 1 : 3 : 1. Relative
abundance of m.onounsaturated fatty acid is an advantage since it is believed
to be as efficient as polyunsaturates in lowering serum cholesterol. There
exists a balanced ratio between saturated fat and poly-unsaturated fat (Table
12.15), approxim.ately 1:1. The predominant poly unsaturated fatty acid found
in cashew is Omega - 6, which is an essential fatty acid.
Table 12.15. Fatty acid per 100 g of cashew nuts
Item
Saturated fatty acids
Monounsaturated fatty acids
Polyunsaturated acid
Soman, 2000.
195
Percentage
10.1
29.4
9.1
A Versatile Health Food
Besides carbohydrates, proteins and fats, cashew nut is a good source of
calcium, vitamin A, Band E. The daily diet requirement of a normal adult
and contribution from 100 g cashew kernels are shown in Table 12.16.
Table 12.16. Daily diet requirement of a normal adult and contribution from
100 g cashew kernels
Particulars
Requirement for Contribution by
daily diet of a 100gof
nonnal adult cashew kernels
Calories
3000-3500 600
Proteins
60-75 g 21g
Carbohydrates
375g 22g
Fats
6Sg 47g
Phosphorus
1.44g 0.45g
Calcium
0.6Sg O.05g
Iron
0.015g 5g
Vitamin A 4000l.U 32211.U
VitaminB
I
400l.U l11I.U
VitaminE 46mg
Cashew is a versatile health food and with its rare combination offats,
carbohydrates and proteins. The cashew nut is a source of high energy and
snack food of great taste. Cashew is cholesterol free and can be consumed by
all. Sizeable quantities of daily nutritional requirements can be met by 100
g cashew kernels. About 600 calories of energy are provided by 100 g cashew
kernels. Cashew kernel is the nature's capsule containip.g various nutrients,
vitamins and minerals in a balanced form, which can effectively meet the
nutriti.onal requirements 01 people 01 all age.
196
By Products of Cashew Industry
CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUID
C
ashew shell contains about 35% of a sticky resinous liquid called CNSL.
This is one of the valuable by-products of cashew processing industry.
Cardol is used in colouring fish nets, painting furniture, books and other
stationery to prevent the attack of insects especially the silver fish. Cardol
is also used as external application for leprosy, ring worm etc.
The liquid is extremely dense, brownish, sticky bitter caustic with
smokes that irritate and gives off choking fumes (Plate 13.1). CNSL is
separated from shells during roasting of cashew nuts in the oil bath process.
This method enables about 90% of the CNSL recovery.
The other methods are as follows:
a. Steam roasting of nuts, remove shells by cutting and extract CNSL
using expellers (Plate 13.2). The extracted CNSL are stored in large
drums of capacity 500 to 1,000 litres (Plate 13.3).
b. Solvent extraction of the shells with commercial hexane gives
superior grade liquid. Under steam roasting about 15% CNSL yield is
possible with expellers. An additional 5% extraction is also possible, by
solvent extraction.
Fresh cashew nut shell liquid obtained by solvent extraction, consists
chiefly of two highly reactive phenolic compounds, viz., (a) Anacardic acid -
about 90% and (b) Cardol- about 10%.
Both these materials are mixtures of phenolic compounds.
CNSL is an improtant raw material in the paint, chemical, brake linings,
clutch facings, plastic and wood industries.
The composition of CNSL is given in Table 13.I.
Table 13.1. Composition ofCNSL
Characteristics
Density at 29C
Acidity index
Iodine index
Molecular weight
Mandai, 1992
Specification of CNSL
Anacardic acid
1.001
157.8
210.0
352.6
Cardo!
0.9795
20.2
310.0
488.0
The standard laid down by the Indian Standard Institution (lSI) for CNSL is
given below (Table 13.2).
Table 13.2. Specification ofCNSL
Particulars
Specific gravity at 300C
Viscosity
Iodine value
Inso!. Intoluene, moisture,
Value
0.95-0.97
50-600
220-250
ash, volatile matter, dirt 1 % each
Polymerization (time in min) 19
Acid value 15
(About 600 g ofanacardic acid can be obtained from 5 kg of raw cashew or 2.5 kg shells).
Applications of CNSL
CNSL and cardol have got extensive uses in automotive brake lining and
clutch facing applications. They can be used as wide-spectrum flame
retardants, adhesives, matrix resins for composites and brake-lines etc. A
series of multi-purpose resins are prepared by simple chemical modifications,
viz. introducing phosphorous and or bromine into CNSL. Certain polymeric
products and industrial chemicals are produced using CNSL.
Polymeric Products
This includes friction-lining materials (for automobile brakes and clutches),
surface coatings, paints and primers, varnishes, cashew cements, specially
coatings, adhesives and binder resins (plywood adhesives, epoxy resins) etc.
CNSL is used as foundry core oil. It replaces linseed oil in this respect.
Industrial Chemicals
These include bactericides, fungicides, insecticides, disinfectants, emulsifiers,
dye-stuffs, anti-oxidants, plasticizers, stabilisers, ion-exchange resins etc.
198
-A
--
."- :.--- --:==-. -=:..;.-- - ~ . : . ; . : ~
By Products of Cashew Industry
CNSL-based surface coatings possess excellent gloss and surface finish
with optimum levels of toughness and elasticity. CNSL-resin is added to
synthetics by paint/varnish manufacturers to control propelties and to reduce
cost. It's anti-termite and anti-microbial properties are well known since
ancient times as it protects the bottom of the boat.
CNSL is indirectly used in the manufacture of typewriter rolls, and
industrial flooring tiles. Lightweight plastics, composite panels suitable for
partitions, flush doors etc have been developed using CNSL resins.
CASHEW NUT SHELL CAKE
Shells from the steam-roasted nuts (Plate 13.4) and shells from drum roasted
nuts (Plate 13.5) are valuable by products of cashew industry. Cashew nut
shell cake is the residue of the extraction process. It has high burning
properties and is popularly used as a substitute for wood. It can be used as
an eco-friendly fuel, replacing wood for heating boilers and dryers in refineries
and other industries. Cashew shell, after extraction of CNSL can be used for
manufacture of particle boards in packaging industry.
CASHEW TESTA
Cashew testa (skin of kernel) is a valuable byproduct of cashew industry
(Fig. 13.6). The chemical composition of testa is given in Table 13.3. Testa
contains 24 to 26% tannin and 52 to 57% fibre. Large quantities of testa
become a source for the manufacture of commercial tannin. Tannin is widely
used in the leather industry. Tannin in fluid and solid forms are shown in
Plates 13.7 and 13.8 respectively. Large amount of testa waste (Plate 13.9)
after tannin extraction is also emerged from commercial tannin industry.
This can be used as an organic manure.
Table 13.3. Chemical composition of testa
Constituents
Moisture
Tannin
Non-tannins
Insolubles (fibre)
Oil
CASHEW KERNEL OIL
Percentage
9-11
24-26
10-11
52-57
3-4
This is a light yellow edible oil that can be obtained from cashew kernel by
cold pressure extraction as of cashew kernel weight.
199
Cashew Apple Utilisation
C
ashew apple, a highly potential nutritional source, is almost entirely
wasted now. In Goa, cashew apple juice is fermented and distilled for
production of alcohol. Cashew apple is juicy and swollen. It is a rich reserve
of vitamins and minerals. Normally the apple is 5 to 15 fold large by weight
compared to cashew nut, at ripe stage. Cashew apples can be of different
size and shape. The ripe apple is very juicy and fibrous with thin skin. When
fully ripe, it gets detached from the pedicel and falls down. In Brazil, cashew
is a popular fresh fruit and dwarf types are being evaluated to fulfil the
market requirements of fresh cashew apple in terms of red colour, high
sugar, low tannin etc.
The moisture content of cashew apple ranges from 85 to 89%. Cashew
apple contains 0.2% protein, 0.1 % fat, 11.6% carbohydrates, 0.9% crude fibre,
261 mg minerals/100 g, vitamins like thiamin - 0.02 mg/100 g, riboflavin- 0.5
mg/IOO g, nicotinic acid - 0.4 mg/IOO g and vitamin A - 39 IV (Augustin,
2001). Cashew apple grows steadily until nut maturation and thereafter it
grows very rapidly and gets ripen (Pratt and Mendoza, 1980). Removal of
nuts initiates rapid growth and early ripening of cashew apple. Thamburaj
et ai. (1980) reported that under Periyakulam conditions, fruit maturity in
cashew was completed in 49 days. Augustin and Unnithan (1982) reported
that the increase in dry weight in cashew apple was slow up to 36 days from
fruit set and there after it was rapid. III the early stages, growth rate of
cashew nut was faster than the apple. Chattopadhyay et ai. (1983) reported
that the growth patterns of cashew apple and kernel were different. Initially
the nuts grow much faster than the apples, but in later stages, apple size
increases more rapidly and outgrow the nut. Both pericarp and kernel attain
maximum size in about 30 days. Kumar et ai. (1984) analyzed the physical
parameters of growth of fruit in cashew. They found that optimum fruit
development occurred 70 days after fruit set.
Cashew j.pple Utilisation
Naidu et al. (1998) found that cashew fruits reached peanut stage 8
days. Fruit growth \\ras completed ill 35 days from peanut stage. Apple showed
a slower increase ill dry weight, till 28 days after peanut stage followed by a
sudden spurt in growth.
Research done in India and abroad has conclusively proved that cashew
apple is nutritionally rich and it caP be utilized for the production of various
edible items. Cashew apple juice and residue left after extraction of juice
were found to cOlltain fructose, glucose, sucrose, maltose and acidic
substances. Water-soluble polysaccharides in juice were mainly starch and
arabino galantine (liaq et al., 1975). In cashew apples, Mudambi and Rajgopal
(1977) found that Vitamin C content increases with maturity up to the half-
ripe stage. Augustin and Unnithan (1982) found that soluble carbohydrates
and ascorbic acid content increased up to the final stages of maturity in
cashew apple. Chattopadhyay et al. (1983) also reported that total and reducing
sugar contents increased with maturity of cashew apple. Champakam (1983)
recorded that ascorbic acid content in cashew apple increased steadily from
25 to 55 days after fertilization and decline towards the last stage of maturity.
Simple pressing can yield good quantity of juice from apple. Extraction
can be done by using screw press, basket press, cashew juice expeller or
hydraulic press for maximum juice (Augustin, 2001). Kerala Agricultural
University has developed techniques for preparing cashew apple products
viz., soft drink, syrup, jam, candy, canned cashew apple, chutney, pickle,
and vinegar and even fermented products like wine and alcohol (KAU, 1996).
In Brazil, fleshy cashew apple provides a number of bypro ducts like different
kinds of sweet jam, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages etc. of which the
most valuable is the concentrated juice.
Rotting of cashew apples and spoilage is a major problem in its
utilization. Presence of an astringent and acrid principle that produces a
tingling sensation on tongue forms another problem. The astrigent taste is
due to the presence of tannin. Sastry et al. (1962) found that there was a
sharp decline in tannin and progressive increase in ascorbic acid as the
fruits ripened. Technologies are available to remove this astringent principle
and for the effective utilisation of cahew apple.
Apple Yield
There was significant difference in apple yield among 18 varieties under
trial at Cashew Research Station, Madakkathara, Kerala Agricultural
University, and this was consistent during different years of harvests (Table
14.1). Among the varieties, apple yield was highest (18.68 tonneslha/year)
with the variety H-1598 (Fig. 14.1). The apple yield of 11 varieties (T-40, V-
4, V-5, V-3, AI, M-33/2, H-1608, VTH-30, H-1600, M-26/2, M-4413) ranged
201
Table 14.1. Varietal variation in cashew apple yield (kg/tree/year) during different years of harvest
Variety 4 YAP 5 YAP 6 YAP 7 YAP 8 YAP 9 YAP 10 YAP 11 YAP 12 YAP 13 YAP 14 YAP Total of Mean of Juice
11 years 11 years <;C
H1598 57.03 30.86 118.36 141.02 125.63 138.30 124.40 108.52 67.40 87.58 161.78 1160.88 105.53 70.00
M44/3 41.90 66.87 77.84 81.15 80.70 102.75 104.83 54.23 59.33 63.03 93.91 826.54 75.14 82.00
M26/2 32.29 57.99 120.26 79.66 75.41 79.60 73.80 116.31
H-1600 32.00 44.16 120.86 74.64 57.12 65.05 165.42 96.30
VTH30 21.06 24.83 72.57 58.8884.74 57.02 89.98 106.48
H-1608 32.31 26.22 99.50 75.05 70.65 79.03 72.25 77.13
M3312
Al
V3
V5
V4
T40
H2I15
T129
VTH59
H2I16
V2
22.64
35.72
19.76
8.84
13.17
13.02
18.61
15.33
22.37
16.17
12.62
40.80
23.33
24.09
21.38
25.10
26.95
12.59
33.49
24.87
12.77
34.48
H161O 6.22 7.95
SE m 12.73 20.64
CD (0.05) 25.97 42.09
129.47
102.22
104.98
68.17
98.19
71.45
90.25
64.86
79.14
75.64
31.33
56.81
41.72
45.38
62.68 45.80 76.33 115.27
83.09 138.99 63.29 86.63
69.38
11.03
88.73
65.76
60.10
106.62
76.23
76.00
65.48
78.91
65.61
65.71
79.76
29.81
61.66
42.67
65.18
99.28 41.62 25.41
46.94 35.44 34.96
95.77 72.29 71.32
39.16 145.76
60.22 58.60
29.33 92.75
46.51 67.88
44.24 67.18
31.49 68.46
44.56 71.91
29.27 51.16
22.34 24.14
40.83
76.58
90.83
59.78
82.43
60.89
39.06
64.63
49.59
42.08
27.12
55.32
60.21 50.80
42.51 40.29
86.72 82.19
44.03 57.52 89.31
30.73 35.26 63.60
96.85 60.41 87.58
56.17 42.61 116.61
46.95 50.26
6.83 55.61
106.29 33.47
86.02 77.37
70.94 120.14
57.62 79.85
49.54 68.40
77.26 62.78
38.54 33.26
59.31 54.16
15.58 48.43
10.94
0.01
0.02
17.18
26.92
54.93
87.44
41.56
68.79
87.47
103.74
37.47
37.00
74.58
40.77
52.31
36.61
58.04
16.13
32.90
826.18 75.11 72.80
785.14 71.38 69.00
760.40 69.13 71.00
747.53 67.96 72.00
745.81
735.46
720.06
715.02
687.50
622.66
60Ll5
545.52
540.43
500.40
430.35
419.73
67.80 69.00
66.86 71.00
65.46 77.00
65.00 86.00
62.50 76.00
56.61 68.00
54.65 71.00
49.59 69.00
49.13 66.00
45.49 71.00
39.12 45.00
38.16 69.00
Fig. 14.1. Variation in apple yield (Mean of 11 years harvest-tonneslhalyear) of 18 cashew
varieties
from 10 to 13.3 tonneslhalyear. Apple yield was lowest with the variety H-
1610 (6.75 tonnes/ha/year).
The apple yield pattern ofH-1598 over the years (Fig. 14.2) shows that
a young tree at fourth year after planting gave 57 kg of apple/tree, whereas
an adult tree at 14 years after planting gave 162 kg of apple/tree. The data
clearly suggests that the cashew hybrid H-1598 is superior to others with
respect to apple yield. A decline in apple yield noticed during 12 years after
planting is due to a decrease in nut yield observed in that year due to an
adverse weather.
180]
180 ,
140
120
1
100
;t 80
I
,
!
I
..,
.j
"
80
40
.20
o
iDo
I
;:
...
'"
F
III
F
,
,u
F
'31
'"
F
".
F
F
, ..
-==
u
~
,.
,
!
.
Fig. 14.2. Apple yield pattern ofH 1598 (kg/tree/year) from 4'h to 14th year of planting
Juice Content
The juice percentage of apple ranged from 45% with the variety V2 to 86%
with variety V5. H-1598. the variety which gave the highest apple yield,
203
contained 70% juice. The juice contents of 11 varieties viz., H-1598, M 44/3,
M 26/2, VTH 30, H-1608, AI, V3, V5, V4, H 2/15 and H 2116 were above 70%.
Juice Yield
This differed considerably among varieties (Fig. 14.3), the highest being
from H-1598 (13.08 tonneslhalyear) and the lowest from V2 (3.12 tonneslhal
year). The juice yield oflO varieties viz., AI, M33/2, V4, H-1608, VTH-30, H-
1600, V3, M 26/2, V5 and M 44/3 ranged from 8 to 10.9 tonneslhalyear. The
highest juice yield from the variety H-1598 is due to its highest apple yield
and high juice content (70%).
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
IU' ~
I
i
lUi,
, !
r:
5 5 5
3 S 3
iiilliii
L .. :
i
I
.. UI
wi
I
UP
I
~ ~ S !: I a I ~
_ ~ ~ 0
S f ; ~
=
l i ji; E
~
~ ~
... ::
Fig. 14.3. Variation in juice yield (mean of 11 years harvest in tonneslhalyear)
of cashew varieties
Apple weight
Apple weight differed considerably among varieties (Fig. 14.4). The lowest
apple size was with the variety V5 (27.13 g) whereas highest with the variety
M 33/2 (87.31 g). Next to M 33/2, the variety with heavy apple was VTH-59
(83.62 g)followed byH-1610 (80.22 g). The apple weight ofH-1598, that gave
the highest apple yield, was 66.9 g (Abdul Salam, 2002 unpublished).
Fig. 14.4. Variation in apple weight (mean of 11 years harvest) of cashew varieties
204
" ,---- ---.. '.::-:.:..:Ji.,
CashelJ} ,Apple Utilisation
Lenka et at. (1998) evaluated 13 varieties of cashew for the apple
characters and fOUnd significant variation in length, breadth and weight of
apple. Sapkal et at. (1992) compared apple characters of9 varieties of cashew.
There were signiflcant differenceS between varieties as length, diameter,
volume and weight of apple.
Apple to Nut Ratio
The apple to nut ratio ranged froIIl 6.27 (V5) to 12.21 (T40). Six varieties viz;
H-1598, M 33/2, VTH-59, T129, V2 and T40 cashew showed apple: nut ratio
exceeding 10.
Ghosh and Kundu (1989) reported significant variation among varieties
in apple weight, size, specific gravity, juice recovery, TSS, acidity and
reducing sugar content. They stated that many types were suitable for
processing.
Varieties like H-1598 are capable of yielding as much as 18.68 tonnes
of cashew apple and 13.08 tonnes of juice/ha/year. Varieties H-1608, VTH
30, V4, V3, H-1600 and Al also possess desirable traits as nut yield, apple
yield, juice yield and nut size. As such, 8 varieties viz; H-1598, M 26/2, H-
1608, VTH 30, V4, V3, H-1600 and Al cashew out of the 18 tested, can be
considered for comm.ercial exploitation (Abdul Salam, 2002 unpublished).
Vitamins and Minerals
The vitamin content of cashew apple is higher when compared with other
common tropical fruits viz; pineapple, banana, orange and grapes (Table
14.2). Vitamin B2 content of cashew apple is about 5-fold when compared
with pineapple and grapes.
Table 14.2. Vitamin and mineral content of cashew apple compared to other
major tropical fruits
Item
Vitamin B2 (Mg)
Vitamin C (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorous (Dlg)
Iron (mg)
Cashew apple
99
240
41
11
3
Pineapple
20
24
16
11
0.3
Banana
60
10
8
28
0.6
Orange
30
49
33
23
0.4
Grapes
20
40
The vitamin C content of cashew apple is 5 to 10 fold more than pine
apple, banana, orange and grapes. The minerals viz., Ca, P and Fe content
of cashew apple is considerably higher than pineapple banana, orange and
grapes.
205
Utilization of Cashew Apple
The cashew apple can be productively utilized for the preparation of various
fermented products like alcohol, vinegar and non-fermented products like
juicc, syrup and jam. Technologies are available for the production ofthese
preparations. From the juice extracted from 1 kg of cashew apple, a bottle
(750 ml) of cashew apple syrup can be prepared. The cashew apple can also
be used for the production of alcohol. The mean recovery of alcohol from
applc' is around 1.5%. This indicates the huge economic potential of cashew
apple that is being wasted today. In India, during 2000-2001, about 0.45
million tonnes of raw nuts were produced. At a mean apple to nut ratio of
10, this works out to an apple production of 4.5 million tonnes at national
level.
The cashew apple waste, obtained after extraction of juice can be utilized
for the production of cattle feed. It can also be utilized as a fibre source for
human diet, after appropriate processing. From the global cashew area of
2.7 million ha, the raw nut output is estimated to be 1.3 million tonnes. This
mean!';, the cashew apple output of the world is around 13 million tonnes.
Skillful integration oftechnology for the production of raw nut and processing
of cashew apple can go a long way to enhance income to the farmers.
Products from Cashew Apple
Cashew apple (Plate 14.1) can be used for the production of several products
viz., syrup, squash,juice,jam, vinegar, alcohol etc .. The methods of production
of a few products viz., syrup, squash, juice and alcohol are briefly indicated.
Extraction of Cashew Apple Juice
Different methods (manual and mechanical) are used for extracting cashew
apple juice. Among them, mechanised process is more efficient. Iron equipment
should not be used to prepare any cashew apple products, as this will blacken
the product. The extracted juice after clarification can be used for the
production of syrup, jam, candy, pickles, chutney, alcoholic beverages etc.
Freshly harvested, fully ripe apples are to be taken and washed
thoroughly. Then the apples are passed through juice extractor and the
required quantity of gelatine solution is added in the juice to precipitate the
tannin. The precipitate oftannins settles down rapidly and the supernatant
is siphoned out to obtain the clarified juice. The Kerala Agricultural
University has developed methods for utilization of cashew apple (KAU,
1996).
About 50 to 60% raw juice with 9 to 10% soluble solids can be obtained
using screw press. The apple contains tannin, which gives an astringent
206
::a: : : ~
taste. Among the apples of different colour, yellow ones are less in astringents
than red one. The fully matured ones are less astringent and hence preferred
for the preparation of various products. The tannins present in the raw juice
can be removed by different methods.
i. Mix gelatine @ 0.5 g1kg of raw juice and allow to settle. Decant the
clear juice and discard the sediment (gelatine may be dissolved in
water by heating) or,
ii. Mix polyvinyl pyrolidine @ 1.4 g/kg of raw juice. Allow the precipitate
to settle and decant the clear juice. Or,
iii. Mix about 125 ml offresh 'rice boiled water' and allow to settle. Decant
the clear upper layer and repeat the process using 125 ml of rice boiled
water.
To prevent spoilage ofthe raw juice, potassium meta bisulphate@ 2 g/kg
and citric acid @ 5 g/kg may be added along with the clarifying agent. The
clarified juice can be stored for further use. Standard products viz., syrup,
squash, ready to serve beverages etc. can be made, using the clarified juice.
Preparation of Cashew Apple Syrup
Wash cashew apple and extract the juice. 25 kg of apple gives about 10-12
litres of juice by hand pressing. Clarify tbejuice by adding polyvinyl pyrolidine
and then filter the juice through a muslin cloth. Add items "iii to v" as
mentioned above, under brisk stirring and then filter. This may now be
bottled. Dilute 1 part ofthe syrup to 5 parts of water before use.
Materials required
Fully ripe cashew apple
Polyvinyl pyrolidine (PVP)
Sodium benzoate
Sugar
Citric acid
Preparation of Cashew Apple Squash
25 kg
109
6g
lOkg
l50g
Wash the fruits and extract the juice. Clarify the juice by adding PVP and filter
tbejuice through muslin cloth. To the clear juice, add the other items "iii to v"
as mentioned earlier and stir well. Bottle the juice and store in a cool place.
Cashew apple
Polyvinyl pyrolidine
Sodium benzoate
Sugar
Citric acid
Materials required
207
25 kg
109
6g
3kg
100g
Preparation of Cashew Apple Juice
Extract the juice by pressing and clarify the same by adding PVP. Filter the
juice through a muslin cloth. To the clarified juice add items "iii to v" as
mentioned one by one under stirring. The juice can be used as such or after
blending with other fruit juices. The cashew apple juice can be blended with
lime juice, orange juice or pineapple juice at a ratio of75:25 and served.
Cashew apple
Polyvinyl pyrolidine
Sodium benzoate
Sugar
Citric acid
Cashew Liquor
Materials required
25 kg
109
6g
500g
8g
Cashew apple is extensively used for the production of cashew Fenni in Goa.
Portuguese missionaries first brought cashew plant to Goa during 16
th
century
and they taught the Goan population the art of distillation of liquor from
cashew apple mostly for medicinal purposes rather than as an intoxicating
drink. Cashew Fenni is being used in Goa, to cure various ailments ofinfants
and aged persons. It is taken with aerated water and ice. Medicinal properties
of cashew Fenni are reported by Augustin (1980). Cahew Fenni is used to
cure ailments viz., worm sickness in children, cold, body ache, fever or flu,
tooth ache, fresh wounds and cuts, cramps and catches due to chilly weather,
muscular pain, irregular movement of bowels, low blood pressure, loss of
sleep for aged people, diarrhoea and cholera. Cashew Fenni bottle has
enjoyed, for centuries, the status of a family doctor in every house of Goa.
A method of cashew liquor production was standardized by Kerla
Agricultural University. Cashew liquor 1 litre can be obtained from 8litres
of cashew apple juice. Methods have also been standardised for imparting
different grades of flavour to the distilled product viz., strong flavour of
cashew, mild flavour of cashew, free from cashew flavour and blended flavour.
Pleasant smell of cashew is agreeable to many. This could be obtained by
keeping the liquor in wooden cask. Such storage gives colour to the produce.
Cashew liquor has no obnoxious smell, stringent taste and hang over, instead
offers a feeling of freshness on the following day ofits consumption. It does
not create constipation, instead helps free movement of bowels. (Augustin
and Unnithan, 1982). The cashew liquor distillery can go a long with nut
processing industry or similar types of distilleries.
Quality of cashew liquor depends primarily on the raw materials and
the manner in which they are processed. Controlled fermentation and
208
-:-------:s:as-----
.. .-:.
CasheW ,Apple Utilisation
distillation and keeping cashew liquor in wooden cask gives a product offine
characteristics which are importa.nt from consumer's point of view.
Other Products from Cashew Plantation
Wood
Cashew plantations yield large quantities of wood at the replanting, which is
being used as fuel wood. Cashew wood can also be used for pulp making as
well as for the packing box industry. It is also used to fill the marshy soils to
provide a better soil strength.
209
Cashew Nut Recipes
C
ashew nut is widely used for the preparation of a wide variety of food
stuffs. The receipes for a few preparations, developed by the Cashew
Export Promotion Council of India, is given below.
A. CHINESE DISH
(i) Stir Fried Eggs with Cashew (Plate 15.1)
Egg, beaten
Sesame oil
Salt
Cashew nut, boiled & drained
White pepper powder
White soya sauce
Spring onion, chopped
Peanut oil
Cashew cream
Method
It includes following steps:
6 no
30g
1/2tsp
150g
1I2tsp
5ml
30g
30ml
100ml
In a medium-sized bowl combine the eggs with cashew cream, salt,
peanut oil, soya sauce, pepper, cashew nut and half of chopped spring
onion.
Heat a wok or large skillet. Add the sesame oil and stir-fry the mixture
until the cashews are wilted about 2 min.
Cashew Nut Recipes
Then add the eggs and continue to cook until the eggs have just set.
Quickly place on a platter and serve at once.
Accompaniment
Lettuce leaves, glazed spring onion, tomato sauce, chilli, vinegar and cashew
filled rice flour dumplings.
This is ideal for breakfast.
(ii) Braised Chicken with Cashew (Plate 15.2)
Broiler chicken
Light soya sauce
Rice wine/dry sherry
Dark soya sauce
Sesame oil
Cashew nut, split
Cornstarch
Sugar
Sauce
Chinese mushroom, dry
Peanut oil
Ginger, peeled
Chichen stock
Cornstarch
Spring onion
Method
It is enumerated here.
lOOOg
15ml
30ml
15ml
15ml
1/2tsp
lag
5g
30g
50ml
6 slices
250ml
lag
30g
Cut the meat into dices about 3/4 inches. In a meidum-sized bowl
combine soya sauces, wine, sugar, cornstarch and the chicken and
keep for 30 min.
Soak the mushrooms in warm water for 20 min and cut into halves.
Heat the wok until it is hot. Add the oil and ginger slices and stir-fry
for 2 sec.
211
Then add the cashewnuts, and mushroom with the chicken and stirfry
for 10 sec.
Add the chicken stock and corn starch and cook until it is done.
Discard the ginger pieces. Finish with sesame oil.
Remove and serve garnished with slices of green onion.
Accompaniment
Noodles or rice dishes, chilli vinegar and soya sauce.
This is ideal for lunch
(iii) Spicy Chicken with Cashewnuts (Plate 15.3)
Chicken breast (boneless) 600g
Cornflour lSg
Salt 109
Cashew nut, whole 200g
Peanut oil 50ml
Garlic, finely chopped
109
Ginger, finely chopped
109
Dark soya sauce 20ml
Rice wine/dry sherry 20ml
Sugar 5g
Ajinomoto
19
Sesame oil 1 tsp
Tomato puree SOmI
Capscicum lS0g
Chicken stock 100ml
Red chilli paste 109
Green gram, sprouted 30g
Method
The steps are as follows:
Cut the chicken in 112 inch cubes. Combine it with 5 g salt, cornflour, garlic,
ginger, soya sauce, wine, sugar, chilli paste and ajinomoto in a small bowl
and keep the mixture for 20 min.
212
Cashew Nut Recipes
Wash the cashewnuts in a warm water.
Dissolve together with tomato puree, salt and stock.
Heat oil in a wok or skillet.
When it is hot, add the chicken cubes, capsicum, cashew nuts and stir
to keep them from sticking.
When the chicken turns white, in about 10 sec, add the stock mixture
and stir. When the corn flour is cooked, sprinkle with sesame oil.
Serve garnished with sprouted green gram, accompanied with cashew
fried rice. This is ideal for dinner.
B. FRENCH DISH
(i) Fish 'N' Nuts (Plate 15.4)
Fish fillets
Salt
LimelWine
White pepper
Parsley, chopped
Oil
Butter
Refined wheat flour
Egg
Cayenne pepper
Cashew bits
Sauce
Butter
Lemon
garlic, crushed
Parsley, chopped
Salt
Method
The preparation offisn 'N' nuts is follows:
213
SOOg
1I2tsp
15ml
1I4tsp
1I2tsp
100ml
30g
30g.
1 no
1I4tsp
100g
100g
112 no
2 flakes
109
19
Grate lemon rind and extract the juice.
Mix the lime rind, salt, pepper, wine and parsley and marinate the fish
for 30 min.
Dust the fish in flour, and dip in beaten egg and roll in cashew bits and
gently press with palm to shape.
Heat oil and butter together in a shallow pan and fry the fish to light
brown colour and remove.
Melt butter for sauce along with the lemon juice, garlic, parsley and salt.
Serve the fish garnished with glazed peas, chateau potatoes, hot sea
soned butter, bread, etc.
This is ideal for lunch.
(ii) Chicken Anassu (Plate 15.5)
Chicken
Chicken breast (8 no)
Lime
Butter
Salt
Tomato puree
Egg
Cashew, powder
Cashew, minced
Vinegar
Parsley
Flour, refined
Method
The preparation of chicken anassu is follows:
1200g
112 no
IS0g
Sg
30ml
2no
50g
lS0g
20ml
lSg
70g
Flatten and marinate the chicken with salt, pepper and vinegar or
white wine. Refrigerate for 30 min.
Meanwhile mix together butter, lime juice, salt, cashew powder, parsley
and roll in butter paper into cylinders. Cool for 30 min Cut into 8
portions.
Place 1/8
Lh
of butter at the centre of each piece of chicken and fold the
sides of chicken to the centre.
214
----
Cashew Nut Recipes
Roll in flour, then dip in beaten egg.
Roll in minced cashew and gently press to retain the shape.
Fold in butter paper and refrigerate for 1 h.
When needed, shallow-fry in oil until the cashew turns light brown.
Drain oil and serve immediately with accompaniments.
Accompaniment
Potato gaufrettes (200 g), Carrot, shaped (200 g), Cauliflower head (200 g), Green
peas, glazed (200 g), Bacon, sauted (200 g) and Hot pepper sauce (300 mi).
It is ideal for dinner.
C. GERMAN DISH
(i) Mushroom and Cashew Tart (Plate 15.6)
TarlDough
Flour
Fat
Butter
Salt
Garlic, crushed
Water
Filling
Mushroom
Cashewnut
Cheese sauce
Parsley, chopped
Salt
Butter
Pepper
Onion, chopped
Method
Mushroom and cashew test is prepared as follows
200g
50g
SOg
4g
4 flakes
as required
lOOg
200g
300ml
l5g
5g
30g
2g
lOOg
Prepare a tart dough with the given ingredients and keep for 30 min.
215
Make 5 mm thick sheet and cut into 8 tarts of uniform size.
Place each one in a"U" shapped tart mould and refrigerate for 10 min.
Meanwhile melt butter and fry onion, mushroom and cashew bits. Mter
1 min add cheese sauce and seasoning.
Fill this mixture into the tart and bake at 200C for 10 min.
This can be taken as an evening snack or cocktail titbit or as a break
fast dish.
Acompaniment
Ripe mango or pineapple with cherry and half-boiled egg.
(ii) Rhines Goulash (Plate 15.7)
Beef, undercut 800g
Cashew, split 200g
Redwine 50mI
Flour 30g
Potato 300g
Carrot 300g
Button mushroom 150g
Celery, sliced 50g
Onion, cubes 100g
Basil 109
Capsicum
100g
Dill leaves 109
Tomato concasse lOOg
Tomato puree
lOOg
Dumpling
Flour
100g
Water
50ml
Salt
2g
Paprika, powder
1I2tsp
Ham, chopped
lOOg
Butter
50g
Cashew cream
100g
Butter
30g
216
Brown stock
Caraway seeds
Method
Cashew Nut Recipes
. ~ . ~ ~ ... _ .. - -- ~ = : . -.. -: ..
lltr
1I2tsp
The preparetion of Rhines goulash is enumereted here.
Make a soft dough with the dumpling ingredients and keep for 1 h.
Divide into balls of 20 g.
Poach in beef stock and remove. Retain the stock.
Cut the beef into large cubes and apply salt and red wine.
Heat butter and brown the meat in it.
Add flavouring, vegetables, salt, pepper, flour and saute further on low fire.
Mter 5 min add stock, tomato concasse, cashewnut, capsicum and
simmer till cooked. Add half of dill and basil leaves.
When cooked, place dumplings on a service bowl and pour the stew
over that.
Garnish with dill and basil leaves.
Accompaniment
Brown bread or steamed breads.
(iii) Cashew and Mixed Fruit Strudel (Plate 15.8)
Dough
Flour
400g
Egg
1 no
Butter
30g
Water
200ml
Salt
6g
Filling
Apple, diced
800g
Cashew, chopped
150g
Bread crumb
50g
217
Sugar, brown
Garam masala
Nutmeg, grated
Butter
Sugar powder
Egg
Lime juice
Fresh cherry
Cinnamon powder
Garnish
Sugar powder
Method
Cashew and mixed fruit strudel is prepared as follows:
100g
1 tsp
1 pinch
50g
50g
114 no
10ml
50g
19
20g
Make an elastic dough with the ingredients of "dough" and keep for 1 h.
Mix together all the ingredients for filling.
Roll and flatten the dough into a large rectangle and pull and stretch
with hand to a size of 24" x 18".
Place the filling uniformly on the longitude and firmly roll to the opposite
side to form a cylinder.
Seal the edges with beaten egg and trim off the extra dough from the edges.
Bake at 200C for 20 to 25 min. When cooked, remove from the oven
and sieve icing sugar on the top.
Slice diagonally into 2 em thick pieces and serve with fresh cherry and
any fruit based sauce.
This is an ideal dessert.
D. INDIAN DISH
(i) Chicken and Paneer Kofta Curry (Plate 15.9)
Kofta
Chicken breast, shredded
Cottage cheese, shredded
218
250g
150g
Green chilli, strips
Ginger, crushed
Garlic, crushed
Green chilli, crushed
Red chilli powder
Garam masala powder
Lime juice
Salt
Gram flour
Cashew Nllt Recipes
Coriander leaves, chopped
Fat (absorption)
Cashew nut, splits soaked overnight
Curry
Groundnut oil
Ginger paste
Green chilli paste .
Salt
Garam masala powder
Mace whole
Ajwanwhole
Red chilli whole
Butter
Onion, boiled and pasted
Garlic paste
Cashew paste
Cumin powder
Coriander powder
Cinnamon whole
Cardamom whole
Bay leaf
Method
109
lSg
lSg
109
Sg
1I2tsp
lOml
7g
SOg
20g
100g
100g
SOg
10 g
20g
109
1/2 tsp
2g
2g
Sg
SOg
lSOg
109
100g
Sg
11/2 tsp
2g
2g
1 no
Preparation of chicken and paneer kofta curry is enumerated here.
Combine all the ingredients for kofta and keep for 1 h.
219
Divide into 12-16 even-sized balls and deep-fry in fat and remove.
Heat oil and fry the onion, ginger, garlic and green chilli paste.
When the raw smell has gone, add the powdered ingredients and salt.
Add 800 ml water and simmer, until cooked flavour is obtained. Add
cashew paste.
Heat butter and add the remaining whole spices, when browned, add
into the prepared gravy.
Transfer the koftas into a service bowl, cover with the gravy and serve
garnished with cashewnut, silver paper, coriander leaves and mint
leaves. Cook, in oven, for 10 min.
Accompaniment
Rice dishes, Indian breads.
This is ideal for dinner.
(ii) Cashew and Khoya Barfi (Plate 15.10)
Barfi
Cashew, chopped
Khoya
Sugar
Cashew cream
Cardamom powder
Garnish
Silver paper (edible)
Cashew nut whole
Almond whole
Pistachio whole
Vanilla essence
Sweet cashew cream
Saffron
Method
Cashew and khoya barfi is prepared as followed:
200g
150g
120g
30g
1I2tsp
12 no
50g
50g
30g
a few drops
100mI
a pinch
Wash and drain cashew. Mix with Khoya and Sugar.
220
. ~
Cashew Nut Recipes
Cook this mixture in a saucepan until it starts rolling into ball.
Remove from fire, add cardamom and cashew cream.
Divide into 12 even-sized balls.
Finely shred dry nuts.
Roll each ball on the dry nuts and shape into cylinders of 3/4" diameter
and 2" long pieces.
Finally roll over silver paper and serve with flavoured sweet cashew
cream, garnished with saffron.
E. ITALIAN DISH
Toasted Bread with Cashew and Crab Filling (Plate 15.11)
Ingredknts
Bread slice
12no
Unsalted butter
50g
Filling
Crab meat, boiled
350g
Green olive, pickled
30g
Onion, chopped
50g
Garlic, crushed
2 flakes
Olive oil
30ml
Tabasco sauce
15ml
Salt
5g
Black pepper powder
3g
Parsley, chopped
20g
Lime juice
20ml
Cashew cream
50ml
Tomato ketchup
50ml
Method
It is prepared as follows:
Cut the bread slices into oblong shape and toast them and apply butter.
221
Mix together all the other ingredients except tomato ketchup.
Divide the filling into 12 even porotions and spread on the toast.
Serve decorated with mixed vegetable salad, potato gaufrettes and
tomato ketchup.
Pieces of tomato and cashew bits can be put on the top as garnish.
Accompaniment
Fancy sweet breads, orange juice.
F. JAPANESE DISH
(i) Rice Flour Cake with Egg and Cashewnut (Plate 15.12)
Cake
Rice flour 200g
Water 200ml
Salt 4g
Butter
109
Egg filling
Egg 8no
Cashew, split/whole 100g
Cashew cream 50g
Spring onion, chopped 100g
Salt 3g
White pepper 3g
Vinegar 10ml
Vegetable oil 50m!
Soya sauce 10ml
Leek/celery/carrot 8 no
Tomato sauce 100ml
Method
Rice flour cake with egg and cashewnut is prepared as follows:
222
.--.
Cashew Nut Recipes
Boil water, salt and butter together.
Add sieved flour and cook for 1 min until done.
Divide into 8 to 16 even-sized balls.
Flatten into thin round sheets of 6" dia and cook on a griddle until both
sides are done. Keep aside in a closed container.
Beat together eggs, cashew cream, onion, salt, pepper, soya sauce and
vinegar.
Heat oil in a wok, saute/glaze the vegetables and remove.
Saute cashewnut in the same oil until light brown. Immediately add
the egg mixture and stir well, until the egg is coagulated.
Remove and serve with rice bread, tomato sauce, glazed vegetables etc.
(ii) Cashew and Cocoa Layered Cake (Plate 15.13)
Cashew cream
200g
Flour
100g
Coconut milk, thick
200ml
Cream
200ml
Egg
4 no
Vanilla essence
1 ml
Sugar
150g
Butter melted
150g
Cocoa powder
20g
Mango sauce
200ml
Cashew nut whole
30g
Method
Cashew and cocoa layered cake is prepared as follows:
Beat together whole egg, sugar, cashew cream and cream.
Add flour and beat to a smooth mixture, then add butter.
Divide the mixture into two. Add cocoa powder with one portion and
mix well. Add vanilla essence with the second one.
Prepare a greased rectangle tin of2" height and 1 litre capacity. Place
butter paper at the bottom.
223
Pour white coloured mixture in the mould to 1 cm height and steam.
for 5 min.
Pour the chocolate mixture over this to 1 cm height and steam for 5
min Repeat the process until the entire mixture is over.
Cool and refrigerate for 4 h.
Unmould and slice into fancy shape and serve with mango sauce.
G. MIDDLE EAST DISH
(i) Tabouli (Plate 15.14)
Wheat broken
Cashew, split
Lime
Olive oil
Garlic
Parsley/coriander leaves chopped
Sugar
Lettuce leaves
Salt
Tomato
Method
Wash and soak wheat and cashew separately.
200g
lOOg
2no
30m!
5 flakes
50g
1 tsp
50g
5g
lOOg
Crush together garlic, salt, olive oil and sugar and stir well to develop
aroma.
Drain wheat and cashew and combine with the above mixture.
Add parsley leaves and mix.
Serve garnished with lemon wedge, tomato and lettuce leaves.
Accompaniment
Khuboos and saffron milk.
224
Cashew Nut Recipes
(ii) Lamb Machbous (Plate 15.15)
Lamb pieces
1000g
Rice
Saffron
500g
Lime, quarters-seedless
19
3 no.
Cinnamon
2g
Cloves
Cardamom
19
2g
Tomato, chopped
500g
Tomato puree
250ml
Onion browned
50g
Salt
l5g
Clarified butter
50ml
Mint leaves
l5g
Coriander"leaves
109
Turmeric powder
2g
Raisins
50g
Capsicum
100g
Green chilli, slit
15g
Cashew nut whole
lOOg
Egg, half-boiled
1 no
4no
Method
It is perpared as follows:
Boil meat with lime, cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, chopped tomato,
half of salt, green chilli and turmeric powder until done.
Wash and drain rice.
Add saffron, tomato puree, onion, half of mint leaves, cashewnut, rice
and remaining salt to the meat and cook on medium flame covered
with a lid for 20 min.
Before serving, mix with clarified butter and coriander leaves.
Serve garnished with quarter of egg, fresh mint, slices of capsicum,
tomato and silver foil.
225
-- ---"c.:.;-\3
Accompaniment
Onion raita
(iii) Semolina Cake (Plate 15.16)
Semolina
Butter
Fresh cream
Sugar powder
Cashew finely chopped
Cardamom powdered
Cashew, whole
Method
200g
100g
200ml
100g
100g
1/2 tsp
30 g
4 no
Boil semolina until it turns light brown, remove and cool.
Add butter, cream, sugar, chopped cashewnuts, powdered cardamom
and mix well (dropping consistency).
Pour in a greased baking tray to 1/1 height.
Decorate the top with whole cashewnut and bake at 180C for 15-20 min.
When the surface turns light brown, remove from the oven and cool.
Cut into pieces and decorate on a plate.
Serve with sweet cashew cream. The cake can be topped with
shredded cashew nut and edible silver foil.
H. RUSSIAN DISH
Cashew Cake (Plate 15.17)
Dry yeast
Milk
Sugar
Salt
226
5g
100 rnl
20g
2g
Egg
Flour
Butter
Raisins
Cashew nut chopped
Cashewnut powder
Garam masala powder
Vanilla essence
Sweet cashew cream
Brandy syrup
Fruit juice
Cashew Nut Recipes
1 no
100g
30g
20g
50g
20g
1I4tsp
5 drops
200g
120ml
150ml
Glazed cherry
Method
(mint and brandy flavoUl'ed)
4no
Preparetion of cashew cake is as follows:
Dissolve yeast in warm milk.
Add together sugar, salt, egg, melted butter and flour into the milk
and prove for 40 min.
Whisk again and add the cashew powder, raisins and cashewnut.
Pour in small greased cake moulds to halflevel and allow to prove for
20 min.
Bake at 190C for about 10 min, remove and cool.
Soak this in fruit juice and refrigerate.
Decorate with whipped cream and cherry while serving.
Accompaniment
Brandy syrup and cashew cream sauce.
I. SPANISH DISH
Cashew and Custard Tart (Plate 15.18)
Milk
Lemon rind
227
200ml
1 tsp
Cinnamon stick
Cream cheese
Cashew bits
Egg
Castor sugar
Biscuit crumbs
Nutmeg, grated
Pre-baked tart, medium size
Method
1 no
lOOg
l50g
2no
100g
50g
a pinch
4 no
Place the milk, lemon rind and cinnamon in a pan and bring to boil.
Remove from fire.
Beat the cheese until smooth, sieve it before hand if necessary.
Powder cashew bits and beat in sugar, then gradually beat in the eggs.
Discard the lemon rind and cinnamon, then mix the milk, powdered
cashew nut, nutmeg and biscuit crumbs into the cheese.
Pour the mixture into 4 blind baked tarts and bake in a pre-heated
oven at lBOC for about 20 min until set. Serve garnished with cashew
shreds and glazed cherry.
This can be taken as a dessert.
J. THAIDISH
Coconut Pudding (Plate 15.19)
Tender coconut pulp
Coconut water
Fresh gelatin
Rose essence
Sugar
Cashew cream
Garnish
Almond, shredded
Cashew roasted
Brandy syrup
228
200 g (large segments)
100ml
109
a few drops
BOg
100mi
20g
30g
100mI
Cashew Nut Recipes
Method
Soak gelatin in coconut water and dissolve in a double boiler.
Powder the sugar and mix with cashew cream, coconut pulp, rose es
sence and dissolved gelatin and cool.
Pour the brandy syrup in glass bowls, then pour coconut mixture in it
and refrigerate to set.
Serve garnished with shredded almonds and roasted cashew nut.
Accompaniment
Fresh fruits like mango, jack fruit and grapes.
229
References
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Abdul Salam, M. 1997a. High density planting in cashew- principles and practices. The
Cashew 11(4): 12-13.
Abdul Salam, M. 1998. Cashew a crop plough and a savior of degraded environments.
Cashew Bull. 36(12): 3-5.
Abdul Salam, M. 1998a. Processing characteristics and production potential of cashew
CAnacardium occidentale L.) varieties. The Cashew 12(1): 27-37.
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Abdul Salam, M. 1999a. Cashew varieties suitable for high density planting. Cashew Bull.
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Abdul Salam, M. 2000. Performance of cashew CAnacardium occidentale L.). Cashew
genotypes under Kerala condition. J. Plantation Crops 28(3): 185-190.
Abdul Salam, M. and Bhaskara Rao, E.V.V. 2001. Cashew-Varietal Wealth of India,
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016,pp.84.
Abdul Salam, M. 2002. Apple yield potential of cashew varieties (unpublished).
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Cochin-682 016.
Abdul Salam, M. and Kamalam, N.V. 1993. Molecular absorption of urea by cashew
CAnacardium occidentale L.). J. Plantation Crops 21(2): 107-109.
Abdul Salam, M. and Mohanakumaran, N. 1995. High-yielding varieties of cashew.
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Abdul Salam, M. Pushpalatha, P.B., Suma, A. and Abraham, C. T. 1993. Efficacy of chemical
weed control in cashew plantations. J. Plantation Crops 21 (1): 54-56.
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Abraham, C.T. and Abraham, M. 1999a. Control of Mikania micrantha in pineapple garden.
Proceedings of the 11th Kerala Science Congress, Kasaragod, India, pp. 296-297.
Abraham, M. and Abraham, C.T. 1999b. Control of Mikania micrantha with herbicide.
Proceedings of the 11th Kerala Science Congress, Kasaragod, India, pp. 268-270.
Adams, B.R. 1975. Container production of cashew seedlings root stocks -seed germination
in beds as an alternative to direct sowing. Acta Horticulturae (Netherlands) 49: 99-107.
AICRP, 1983.Annual Report, 1982-83. All India Co-ordinated Spices and Cashew Improve-
ment Project, CPCRI, Kasaragod, India.
AICRPC 1989. National Research Centre for Cashew, Puttur, ~ r n a t a k a India
(mimeographed) pp. 88.
Angaiall, K. 1995. 'Evaluation ofneem tIiterpenes as ovipositional and feeding deterrents
to the tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis antonii Sign. on cashew'. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis,
Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala, India.
References
Annapoorna Rai, K and Nagaraja, K V. 1988. Cashew Bull. 25(1 & 2): 8-11.
Ascenso: J. C. 1986. The Standard Encyclopedia of Horticulture Vol. I. (17'h edition), Mac
Millan, New York, pp. 1200.
Augustin, A. Utilization of cashew apple. In: Souvenir of World Cashew Congress _
2001, IndIa, The Cashew Export Promotion Council ofIndia, Cochin, pp. 57.
Augustin, A. and Unnithan, V.KG. 1982. An attempt on maturity of cashew apple. Indian
Cashew J. 14(4): 9-11.
Bakthavatsalam, N., Sundararaju, D. and Brat, P.S. 1993. The Cashew 7(3): 12-13.
Balasubramanian, P.P. 2001. Indian cashew production scenario. Cashew the Millell1lill1l1
Nut - World Cashew Congress, 2001, The Cashew Export Promotion Cowlcil of
India, Cochin, India, pp. 43-45.
Bhaskara Rao, E.V.V. 1996. Emerging trends in cashew improvement. In: Crop Productiv-
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Appendix 1
Cashew nut- World cashew area, production and productivity, 1961-2003
Year Area harvested Production Productivity
(ha) (t) (kglha)
1961 5.17 2.88 557
1962 5.37 3.06 584
1963 5.56 3.21 588
1964 5.71 3.36 619
1965 5.84 3.46 611
1966 6.07 3.65 602
1967 6.27 3.78 591
1968 6.70 4.04 596
1969 7.05 4.18 572
1970 7.49 4.43 599
1971
8.09 4.79 600
1972
8.65 5.13 595
1973 9.08
5.41 608
1974
9.49
5.68 589
1975
9.80
5.78 556
1976
9.71
5.68 575
1977
9.57
5.60 598
1978
9.12
5.33 610
1979
8.80
5.07 548
1980
8.59
4.88 513
1981
8.79
4.85
501
1982
9.11
4.79 476
1983
9.48
4.76
481
1984
9.91
4.85
480
1985
10.11
5.07
572
1986
10.24
5.32
587
1987
10.36
5.57
567
1988
10.56
5.99
626
1989
10.76
6.46
648
1990
12.20
6.78
425
1991
13.93
7.37
475
1992
15.70
7.81
425
1993
17.72
8.33
450
Table (Contd.)
238
Appendix
Table (Contd.)
Year Area harvested
Production
Productivity
(ha)
(t)
(kg/ha)
1994 19.75
8.95
487
1995 20.90
9.74
491
1996 21.75
10.55
561
1997 23.47
11.55
472
1998
25.23
12.14
416
1999
27.24
13.48
544
2000 29.08 15.06
596
2001 30.76 16.25
599
2002 32.08 18.03 639
2003 33.05 20.41 701
2004 33.80 22.64 801
2005 34.81 24.88 816
2006 36.18 27.50 832
2007 36.84 29.42 835
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
239
Appendix 2
Area production and productivity of Cashew(2007)-country-wise
Country Area Production Productivity
Harvested (ha) (tones) (kg/ha)
Angola 2,800 1,100
393
Belize 1,000 1,540 1,540
Benin 191,000 41,500
217
Brazil 720,391 176,384
245
Burkina Faso 9,100 3,600
396
China 2,500 1,000
400
Cote d'Ivoire 195,000 130,000
667
Dominican Repu. 5,900 1,025
174
El Salvador 3,700 2,700
730
Ghana 62,000 17,000
274
Guinea 1,250
900 720
Guinea-Bissau 212,000 81,000
382
Honduras
1,300 1,900
1,462
India
854,000
620,000
726
Indonesia
620,000
146,000
235
Kenya
2,000
10,000
5,000
Madagascar 16,000
6,500
406
Malaysia
7,000
13,000
1,857
Mexico
1,350
3,170
2,348
Mozambique
50,000
58,000
1,160
Nigeria
330,000
660,000
2,000
Peru
350
2,350
6,714
Philippines
28,000
118,000
4,214
Senegal
16,200
5,000
309
Sri Lanka
21,890
7,050
322
Tanzania, United
Republicof
90,000
92,000
1,022
Thailand
24,000
24,000
1,000
Togo
310
310
1,000
Viet Nam
348,000*
961,000*
2,761*
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
*The data is questioned by many.
240
--. --
-="-'-1
Appendix
Appendix 3
Cashew area, production and productivity in India -1961-2007
Year Area Production Yield
Harvested (aa) Oakh tonnes)
(kg/ha)
1961 2.00 0.85 425
1962 2.00 0.87 440
1963 2.05 0.88 428
1964 2.08 0.90 442
1965
2.12
0.92 435
1966 2.20 0.96 430
1967 2.30 1.01 459
1968 2.38 1.06 461
1969 2.49 1.11 453
1970 2.59 1.16 439
1971 2.71 1.21 420
1972 2.85 1.24 406
1973 3.00 1.26 395
1974 3.17 1.29 3.86
1975 3.33 1.33 399
1976 3.47 1.40 431
1977 3.58 1.47 432
1978 3.70 1.54 428
1979 3.83 1.61 409
1980 4.01 1.68 403
1981 4.19 1.73 399
1982 4.40 1.80 407
1983
4.61 1.87 409
1984 4.77 1.95 420
1985 4.90 2.03 434
1986 5.01 2.13 452
1987 5.09 2.23 470
1988 5.16 2.35 493
1989 5.22 2.47 518
1990 5.26 2.60 538
1991 5.28 2.72 554
1992 5.31 2.84 572
1993 5.37 3.02 625
1994 5.44 3.17 619
Table (Contd.)
241
Table (Contd.)
Year Area Production Yield
Harvested (ha) (lakh tonnes) (kg/ha)
1995 5.53 3.24 557
1996 5.74 3,49
658
1997 5.99 3.74 653
1998 6.22 3.76 533
1999 6.50 3.98 652
2000 6.72 4.38 758
2001 6.85 4.44 643
2002 7.03 4.52 627
2003 7.22 4.80 649
2004 7.37 4.95 686
2005 7.64 5.00 663
2006 7.91 5.24 685
2007 8.12 5.54 726
Source: Directorate of Cashew and Cocoa Development, Cochin, India, 2008.
242
n.p P"'llUJ.llo. '*
Area (A), Production (P) and Average productivity (APY) of cashew in IndiaState wise
200304 200405 200506 200607 200708
State 'A P APY A P APY A P APY A P APY A P APY
Kerala 101 95 890 102 64 900 80 67 900 80 72 900 84 78 900
Karnataka 94 46 500 95 43 680 100 45 700 102 52 700 103 56 710
Goa 55 32 690 55 26 660 55 27 690 55 29 690 55 31 700
Maharashtra 148 120 1100 160 174 1200 160 183 1300 164 197 1500 167 210 1500
Tamil Nadu 95 51 600 105 53 610 121 56 640 123 60 670 123 65 700
Andhra Pradesh 136 95 750 150 88 840 170 92 880 171 99 890 171 107 900
Orissa 124 71 850 126 74 810 120 78 860 125 84 860 131 90 860

West Bengal 9 9 760 9 8 800 10 10 950 10 10 1000 10 10 1000
'ti
"'"
Gujarat
""
to:) 4 4 900 4 4 900 4 4 1000

North-east States 14 10 640 15 11 700 15 12 750
j:j'
Others 18 16 790 18 14 800 3 1 400 5 2 500 5 2 500
Total 780 535 800 820 544 810 837 573 815 854 620 820 868 665 860
Appendix 5
Pricing (Rs/kg) trend of Raw Cashew nut in different states
Year Kerala Karnataka
Andhra Tamil Goa
Pradesh Nadu
1990 12.3
14.5
13.0 13.2 16.8
1991 14.5 19.8
17.5 21.3 23.0
1992 22.0 25.4
20.8 23.5 29.1
1993 20.6 19.5 19.5 19.6 24.1
1994 20.5 21.5
23.2 22.8 29.5
1995 25.0 26.0 25.5 27.5 32.3
1996 29.0 29.0 29.0 29.0 30.2
1997 26.4 22.5 30.0 24.0 33.1
1998 30.6 25.0 30.0 24.0 33.1
1999 42.3 N.A 33.8 N.A 47.0
2000 42.0 47.0 34.5 36.2 46.5
2001 26.8 29.9 28.3 29.6 33.5
2002 25.0 28.0 27.8 29.1 34.1
2003 29.8 31.5 28.0 35.0 35.5
2004 28.5 30.0 28.8 35.6 35.1
2005 37.9 35.2 38.1 47.8 45.2
2006 28.4 28.7 31.7 37.2 37.6
2007 27.1 30.5 29.4 36.3 37.7
2008 34.0 33.0 30.0 36.5 47.2
Source: Directorate ofOashew and Cocoa Development, Oochin, India, 2008.
244
Appendix
Appendix 6
Cashew Processing Units in India-2005-06
States Processing Capacity Processing Utilization
Units (Nos.) (OOOMT)
Indigenous huport Total
Kerala 432 700 67 320 387
Karnataka 266 65 45 20 65
Goa 45 21 21 21
Maharashtra* 2200 20 20 20
Tamil Nadu 417 565 294 225 519
Andhra Pradesh 175 95 92 92
Orissa 60 11 11 11
West Bengal 30 8 8 8
Chhattisgarh 3
NE States 22 15 15 15
Total 3650* 1500 573 565 1138
*Includes 1850 small-scale cottage industry
Source: Directorate of Cashew and Cocoa development, Cochin, India, 2008.
245
Annexure 7
Import of raw cashews to India
Year Quantity (tonnes) Value - Rs.lakhs
1990-1991 82,639 13,400
1991-1992 106,080 26,668
1992-1993 134,985 37,633
1993-1994 191,322 48,270
1994-1995 228,109 69,094
1995-1996 222,819 76,008
1996-1997 192,285 64,060
1997-1998 224,968 74,400
1998-1999 181,009 68,024
1999-2000 200,584 95,352
2000-2001 249,318 96,080
2001-2002 356,566 96,001
2002-2003 400,659 123,657
2003-2004 452,898 140,093
2004-2005 578,884 218,324
2005-2006 565,400 216,295
2006-2007 592,604 181,162
2007-2008 605,970 174,680
246
Appendix
Annexure 8
Export of cashew kernels from India
Year Quantity-tonnes
Value Rs.lakhs
1990-1991 49,874
44,224
1991-1992 47,738
66,909
1992-1993 53,436
74,549
1993-1994 69,884
104,602
1994-1995 77,000
124,602
1995-1996 70,334 124,050
1996-1997 68,663 128,550
1997-1998 76,593 139,610
1998-1999 75,026 160,990
1999-2000 92,461 245,145
2000-2001 89,155 204,975
2001-2002 97,550 177,680
2002-2003 104,137 193,302
2003-2004 100,828 180,442
2004-2005 126,667 270,924
2005-2006 114,143 251,486
2006-2007 118,540 245,515
2007-2008 114,340 228,890
247
Annexure 9
Export of cashew nut shell liquid from India
Year Quantity-tonnes Value Rs.lakhs
1990-1991 5,658 556
1991-1992 4,542 402
1992-1993 4,258 381
1993-1994 3,625 290
1994-1995 3,807 244
1995-1996 760 145
1996-1997 1,735 277
1997-1998 4,446 717
1998-1999 1,572 326
1999-2000 764 184
2000-2001 2,246 3,894
2001-2002 1,814 419
2002-2003 7,215 925
2003-2004 6,926 703
2004-2005 7,474 791
2005-2006 6,405 709
2006-2007 5,589 920
2007-2008 7,813 1,197
248

Appendi.:t
Appendix 10
SOURCES OF PROCESSING EQUIPMENTS
APNl\A Industries, M-2, Thiru-Vi-Ka Industrial Estate, Guindy, Madras-
600 032, India Ph. No. 91-044-2340963,91-044-2340630, Fax -91-044-2331107.
Abhay Engineers, Kamath's Industrial Estate, Hoige Bazar, Mangalore
575 001, Karnataka, India. Ph. No. (91-824)423745, Fax: (91-824)410121,
E-mail: abhayengg@hotmail.com.
Gala EquipIXlents Ltd. A-59, Road No. 10, Wagle Industrial Estate,
Thane - 400 604, India, Ph. No. 022 - 5800252, 5821232, 5820746, Fax:
022-5820771,
E-mail: kgala@Vsnl.com.
SKB Systems, 99 & 100 VCV Layout, R.S.Puram East, Coimbatore -
641002, India, Ph. No. 0422-550010, Fax: 0422-542425.
Pennwalt India Ltd. (Oltremare), D-221. M.I.D.C., T.T.C., Thane,
Belapur Road, Navi, Mumbai, India - 400 706, Ph. No. 022-7632503,
7632519/20, Fax: 022-7632560,
E-mail: pennwalt@bom3.vsnl.net.in.
Or,
0 ltreIXlare SPA - Via Piemonte 5 - 40069 Zola Predosa (BO) - Italy, Ph.
No. +39 - 051- 6188811, Fax: +39-051- 6188888, 6188899,
E-mail: olcashew@tin.it.
Hitkari Industries Ltd. lI13-B, Jangpura-A, New Delhi -110 014, India,
Ph. No. 311085,4318876,4313691, Fax: 4318875,
E-mail: hitkari.delhi@sm1.sprintrpg.ems.vsnl.net.in.
Sevana Electrical Appliances Pvt. Ltd., Xl106, PB. No.2, Kizhambalam
- 683562, Kerala, India, Ph. No. 0484-680780 to 784.
Wenders Food Pvt. Ltd., Post BOx: 75, Opp. Collectors Bungalow,
Beach Road, Kollam - 691 001, Kerala, India, Ph. No: 91-474-760943,
741562, Fax: 91-474-742792,746129,
E-mail: trpillai@Wenders.comormail@Wenders.com.
WadpackLtd., 89, Industrial Suburbs, Yeshwanthpur, Bangalore - 560
022, Ph: 91- 080-3376895,3376929, Fax: 91-080-3371485,
E-mail:
Huhtamaki Sales Agents, Siddhartha Das Guptha, Sudarsan Building,
First Floor, Beach, Kollam- 691 006, Ph: 0474-742745, Fax: 0474-742685.
Thangam Industires, 112/5 Madurai Road, Virudhunagar- 626 001,
South India, Ph: 91- 4562 - 44835, 46135, Fax: 43705,
E-mail: containers@satyam.net.in.
Thangam Metal Cans, 27&28, Thiruvotriyur High Road, New
Washermenpet, Chennai - 600 081, Ph: 5952015, Fax: 044-5964231.
249
Appendix!!
Institutions Connected with Development of Cashew in India
Export Development
The Cashew Export Promotion Council of India, P.B. No. 1709, Chitto or
Road, Emakulam South, Cochin - 682016, Ph: 0484-361459, Fax: 0484-370973,
Telex: 0885-6677 CEPCIN.
Production Development
Directorate ofCashewnut Development, KERA BHA VAN, S.R.V. High School
Road, Ernakulam South, Cochin- 682 016, Ph: 0484-373239, 351751, Fax:
0484-373239.
Research
Research - under ICAR
National Research Centre for Cashew (Headquarters for AICRP on Cashew),
Puttur 574202, Dakshin Kanada, Karnataka, Ph: 08251-21530, 20902, Fax:
08251-21530.
Other Research Centers - under State Agriculture Universities
1. Cashew Research Station (Acharya N G RangaAgricultural University),
Bapatla - 522 101, Andhra Pradesh.
2. Cashew Research Station Department of Horticulture, (Orissa
University of Agriculture and Technology), Bhubaneswar - 751 003,
Orissa.
3. Agriculture Research Station (University of Agricultural Sciences),
Chintamani - 563 125, Kolar District, Karnataka.
4. Regional Research Station (Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya),
Jhargram Farm, Sevayatan (P.O), Pin - 721514, Midnapore District,
West Bengal.
5. Cashew Research Station (Kerala University),
Madakkathara - 680 651, Thrissur, Kerala.
6. Cashew Research Station (Kerala Agricultural University), Pilicode -
671 353, Kerala.
7. Regional Fruit Research Station (Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth), Vengurla
- 416516, Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra
8. Regional Research Station (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University),
Vridhachalam - 606 001, Tamil N adu.
250
Appendix
9. Zonal Agricultural Research Station, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwa
Vidyalaya, J agdalpur - 494 005, Kumharawand, Bastar District, Madhya
Pradesh.
Cashew nut and Apple Processing
Central Food Technological Research Institute, Cheluvemba Mansion,
Mysore - 570 013, Ph: 0821 - 22304, Fax: 0821-521713.
Cashew Nut Shell Liquid
Regional Research Laboratory, Industrial Estate, Pappanamcode, Trivandrum
- 695 019, Ph: 0471-490674,490811,490224, Fax: 0471-490186,491712.
Packaging
Indian Institute of Packaging, E-2, MIDC Area, P.B.No. 9432, Andheri East,
Bombay - 400 093, Ph: 022-8324670, Fax: 022-8375302.
251
NOTES
A
A versatile health food 196
Mrica 151
Mter care 106
Air peeling machine 165
Akshaya (H-7-6) 33
Amrutha (H-1597) 32
Anagha (H-8-1) 33
Anakkayam-1 29
Andhra Pradesh 105
Anthesis of flowers 3
Anthracnose 95, 102
Apple and nut borer 93
Apple colour 21
Apple size 21
Apple to nut ratio 205
Apple weight 204
Apple yield 201
Applications of CNSL 198
B
Bark eating caterpillars 93
Best season for grafting 60
Bhubaneswar-145
BPP-137
BPP-237
BPP-338
BPP-438
BPP-538
BPP-639
BPP-8 (H2/16) 39
Brazil 152
Canopy size 15
c
Care in the nursery 60
Care of young plantation 103
Cashew apple 17
Subject Index
Cashew apple utilization 200
Cashew growing countries 4
Cashew in India 7
Cashew in research India 10
Cashew kernel oil 199
Cashew liquor 208
Cashew nut processing 144
Cashew nut production-organic way
113
Cashew nut recipes 210
Cashew nut shell cake 199
Cashew nut shell liquid 197
Cashew testa 199
Chemical 92
Chemical composition 194
Chemical weed control 73
Chintamani-1 43
Climate 52
CNSL free variety 46
CNSL storing drums 177
Coating machine 176
Collection of scions 59
Colour sorting machine 166
Composting 119
Constraints in processing 148
Cooling 155, 156, 157
Cost of processing 174
Count 168
Count test 147
Cowpea 75
Crop plough 24
Crop protection 87, 116
Cutting 157
Cutting machine 175
Cutting test 146
D
Damping off 94
Desirable characters of good nut 145
Cashew a Monograph
Development of cashew nut 19
Dhana (H-1608) 31
Dharasree CH3-17) 32
Die-back 111
Diseases 111
Diseases in plantation 95
Diseases in the nursery 94
Distribution 1, 4
Drought tolerant varieties 49
Drying raw nuts 148
Dwarf cashew 49
E
Electronic grading system 166
Environmental ratings for cashew 54
Export specifications 181
F
Fertilizer dose 109
Filling machine 176
First year 107
Floating test 147
Floral biology 2
Flowers 2
Flushing 16
Foliar nutrition of 81
Foliar nutrition of nitrogen 80
French dish 213
Fully automatic method of processing

G

lSI

G. ...

Growth and development 13
Growth habits of trees 17
Gummosis 96
H
Harvesting 77,102,104,107,112
Harvesting raw cashew nuts 120
Height 14
Helopeltisantonii 87
High density planting 68, 98, 103, 106,
114
High-yielding cashew varieties 28
Home scale processing 167
Hot chamber treatment 155
Humidifiers 176
Hybridization 27
I
Indian dish 218
Inflorescence 2
Insect pests 87, 111
Intercropping 74, 102, 105, 116,
International clearance 180
Irrigation 72, 99, 113, 115
Italian dish 221
Japanese dish 222
Jhargram-145
Juice content 203
JUloo yield 204
J
K

Kaililka (H-l5...qs) 3{}
In-I
Keruia98
R"onam 149
L
*-ebDer 111
97
H'
16

Index
LeafN 79
LeafN content 78
Leaf nutrient status 79
LeafP content 80
Leaf shape 17
Leakage testing machine 176
Life-cycle of tea mosquito bug 88
M
Madakkathara-130
Madakkathara-230
Maharashtra 102
Management of tea mosquito bug 89
Management practices to check stem
borer 117
Manual methods of processing 153
Manure application 118
Manuring 100, 103,105,107,109,110,
113
Mechanical control 92
Method of application 100
Method of fertilizer application 86
Method of planting 99, 115
Methods of cashew nut processing 148
Methods of processing 152
Methods to judge the quality of raw
nuts 146
Methods to maintain quality standards
189
Microbial contamination 191
Middle east dish 224
Moisture content 147
Moisture meter 176
Mulching 106
N
Needles for kernel extraction 175
Neem-oil swabbing 92
Nitrogen nutrition 78
NRCC-144
NRCC-244
Nut characters 144
Nut quality 144
Nutrient interaction 82
Nutrient management 82
Nutrient recommendations 84
Nutrient recycling 85
Nutrient removal 83
Nutrition 78, 117
Nutrition in relation to age 85
Nutritional aspects of cashew kernels
194
o
Oil bath roasting 154, 175
OLTREMARE 158, 166
Open pan roasting 153
Organic manuring 84
p
Packaging 177, 179
Packing kernels 178
Panicle development 17
Parts of the cashew apple 18
Peeling 156
Peeling c h i n ~ 165
Performance of cashew varieties 51
Pest problem 190
Pest surveillance 92, 117
Pesticide residues 191
Phenological phases 18
Phosphorus nutrition 80
Phytosanitation 92
Pink disease 96
Pit size 103, 104, 106, 110, 112
Plant protection 103
Plantation hygiene 117
Planting 108, 114
Planting density 67
Planting material 66, 102, 104, 106,
108, 110, 112, 114
Planting time 110
Plant-protection 100, 105, 109, 113
Plocoederus ferrugineus 91
Pollination support 120
Post planting care 99
Post-planting care 115
Potassium nutrition 81
255
Cashew a Monograph
Precuring 59
Preparation of cashew apple juice 208
Preparation of cashew apple squash
207
Preparation of cashew apple syrup 207
Preparation of rootstock 59
Preparation of scion 59
Priyanka (H-1591) 31
Problems related to quality 190
Processing equipment 175
Processing factory-a model 170
Processing systems in India 149
Production of softwood grafts 57
Products from cashew apple 206
Propagation 57
Purple cashew 49
R
Raising rootstocks 58
Red rust 97
Re-humidification of kernels 177.
Relative requirement of nutrients 83
Resistant varieties 91, 116
Response of cashew to applied nitrogen
79
Roasting 153
Root and stem borer 91
Root distribution pattern 22
Root rot 95
Root system 21
Russian dish 226
s
Season of Planting 114
Season/time of planting 99
Seedling blight 95
Selection of rootstock 59
Selection of scions 59
Selection of seed nuts 57
Semi mechanical method of processing
156
Shelling 155
Shelling out turn 167
Shelling percentage 167

_1'-- -',
256
Shipping specifications 180
Shoot tip caterpillar 111
Small industrial boiler 175
Soil 55, 102, 104, 106
Soil and water conservation 76, 99, 115
Sooty mold 96
Spacing 98, 102, 104, 106, 108, 110,
112, 114
Spanish dish 227
Special type of cashew 46
Species of Anacardium 1
Specification of CNSL 198
Spray schedule against tea mosquito
90
Staking 106
Standard weight 179
Steam roasting 157
Stem and root borer 111
Stem borer 101, 105
Stem borer management 116
Steps in top working 61
Storage of raw nuts 148
Sulabha (K-10-2) 32
Sun roasting 154
Systems of planting 67, 114
T
Tamil Nadu 104
Tea mosquito bug 87,101,105,107,
111
Tea mosquito management 116
Technology for flower induction 77
Thai dish 228
Time of application 109
Time of fertilizer application 85
Tin packing 178
Tissue culture techniques 64
Tolerance for defects 185
Top working 61
Training and pruning 73, 115
mlal-141
mlal-242
u
\
\
m
m
ill
ill
Ut
Va
Va
Va
Va
Ve
Ve
Ve
Ve
Ve
Ve
illlal-3 42
illlal-442
UNIECE specifications 185
UN-50 43
Utilization of cashew apple 206
v
Vacuum packing machine 167
Variation in flowering time 49
Varieties 98, 102, 104, 105, 107, 109,
112,114
Varieties suitable for high density
planting 72
Vegetative propagation 57
Vengurla-134
Vengurla-234
Vengurla-3 35
Vengurla-435
Vengurla-535
Index
Vengurla-636
Vengurla-736
Vermi-composting 119
Vertical mulching 117, 118
Vita packing machine 177
Vitamins and minerals 205
Vridhachalam-1 40
Vridhachalam-2 40
Vridhachalam-3 (M 26/2) 41
W
Weed control 72, 100, 106, 108
Weeding 113
Whole cashew kernel 166
World cashew area 5
z
Zinc nutrition 83
257

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