When The Chinese Met Jesus

Missiology & Christology
St Alphonsus Theological and Mission Institute
Terence Wee C.Ss.R
When the Chinese Met Jesus

Missiology & Christology TERENCE WEE
Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
Historical and Social Situation ................................................................................................... 2
Philosophical Background .......................................................................................................... 5
The Christian Offer ..................................................................................................................... 9
“The First Date”........................................................................................................................ 11
The Chinese Christology........................................................................................................... 17
The History of Encounter ......................................................................................................... 22
Learnings .................................................................................................................................. 25
China Today.............................................................................................................................. 29
The Second Encounter ............................................................................................................. 35
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 41
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Figures
Figure 1. Dynasties of China....................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2. Jesus as the Western Teacher................................................................................... 17
Figure 3. Jesus as the Moral Teacher (Among others such as Confucius, Lao Tze) ................. 18
Figure 4. Jesus as the Deity (among others such as Goddess of Mercy and Buddha) ............ 19
Figure 5. Jesus as the Sovereign God ....................................................................................... 20
Figure 6. Jesus as the Liang-You .............................................................................................. 21
Tables
Table 1. Summary of Important Schools During the "Spring and Autumn" Period .................. 7
Table 2. Mission Style and Mission Constants during the 16th Century in Asia ..................... 11
Table 3. The Chinese Situation and the Christian Offer........................................................... 12
Table 4. Samples of Similar Teachings between Analects and the Bible ................................. 13
Table 5. China Population and Projections (millions) .............................................................. 32
Appendixes
Appendix A. Summary of Major Philosophical Schools during the “Spring and Autumn”
Period………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 42
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When the Chinese Met Jesus

Dear Jesus, you are a Jew, I am a Chinese, what on earth do we both really
have in common???
Oh yes, I know!---- We both love money!
Fr. Bernard Teo, C.Ss.R
Introduction
China is a land filled with exoticism and mystery. It has a history that spans more that
5000 years and has gone through many pivotal moments in time which have changed its
presence in shape and form. Its population of more than 1.3 billion people (up to 20% of the
world’s total population) was a culmination of evolution and revolution spanning more than 14
dynasties, a multitude of philosophical teachings, a wide array of political structures and also
anthropological, economical, social and cultural growth. What makes it stands out from other
ancient civilizations is that it was able to flourish up to the present time while most other great
ancient cultures and traditions perished into the face of history.1
Taking a closer look at the history of this magnificent country which spreads across and
land mass of 9.6 million square kilometres, one fascinating fact emerges. For a long period of
time, the historical drama of China has been, for a lack of a better word, rather ‘Ethnocentric”.
With its vast spread in geographical reach and the quest for elevation in living conditions, it did
come into contact with many foreign cultures and traditions through the necessity of trade.2
The Tang dynasty (618CE ~ 907CE) was marked as a dynasty open to foreign influences, in
particular, through the assimilation of various religious and cultural norms of the neighbouring
countries such as India, Persia, Central Asia and Middle Eastern countries through the silk road.3
However, these foreign influences were not able to drastically change the anthropological core
of the Chinese in their strong self-identification. The country never had much interest in
1
See Dr Bear, “从封闭政策的悲剧，谈中国文化的基因 [Studying the effects on China's Culture through the
Tragedy of its ‘Close-door’ Policy +,” Pheonix Report. (June, 2009), http://blog.ifeng.com/article/2809948.html
2
Ibid.
3
___. “Tang Dynasty.” Wikipedia. (2008) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Dynasty#Trade_and_ spread _
of_culture
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occupying foreign land, rather, the constant changes of dynasties and rulers had always been
centered on the dream of unifying the country and people as one through political power and
social system, exemplified in its ‘Fengjian 封建’(feudalism) system. This distinction was greater
amplified during the height of the capitalism development in the world scene, when China, in
the Ming and Qing dynasty (around 16th to 17th century), decided to close its door to practically
all foreign trade (particularly due to religious reasons).
This mentality has manifested in a general outlook of the split between China and the
world. The people lived within a comfort zone of culture, education, social etiquette with deep
roots, and are generally oblivious to anything foreign or look to them with a natural awe or
weariness.
With this background in mind, it is interesting to study in significant details the

encounter between the Chinese and Christianity. How did the Chinese, with their cultural,
anthropological, social and philosophical background, come to welcome this religion? How did
the encounter come about? What was the outcome? These are some of the aspects which I
would like to investigate, and hopefully, through better understanding, discover the
Christologies of the Chinese people and the appropriate missionary approaches.
Historical and Social Situation
In order to understand the minds and hearts of the Chinese, it is important to have a
basic grasp of the historical development of the nation. As been mentioned before, China has
gone through 14 major dynasty changes (with further significant changes and developments
within each dynasty). Each dynasty had its own unique social and political structure, and to a
certain extent, culture.
For the purpose of this paper, the historical and social development will be discussed in
order to shed light on the situation at the time of contact with Christianity. It is not a simplistic
matter to pinpoint an exact time of contact as there were many separate attempts in mission to
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bring Christianity into China. Thus to have clarity on the discussion, we will specify the term
“point of contact” as the time of encounter with Christianity, in particular Catholicism, through
the Jesuits’ effort, in the person of Matteo Ricci during the 16th century. 4
Figure 1 shows the dynasty changes of China dating back to the beginning of its
civilization.
Figure 1. Dynasties of China
Similar to all civilization, China began with the primitive society (原始社会) during the
Stone Age period. By the beginning of the first known dynasty (Xia dynasty, ~2000BCE-
1700BCE) the societal system had evolved into feudalism (封建社会), which lasted in various
forms up till the end of Zhou dynasty (~200BCE)5. The feudal system was further divided into
4 rd
Various sources documented missionary efforts in China as early as the 3 century. However, most of these
efforts were seen to be sporadic and bored localized and limited results. See ___. “Christianity in China.”
Wikipedia. (2009). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_China and Jeroom Heyndrickx. “The Fifth
Encounter between Christianity and China.” US Catholic China Bureau Website. (2009)
http://www.usccb.net/resources/2009/The%20Fifth%20Encounter%20between%20Christianity%20and%20China.
pdf
5
China’s feudal system is very different from that of Europe. The system operates through the Emperor delegating
power and land to his relatives, which in turn delegates further down to their subordinate. Such system allows a
pyramidal form of control which ultimately allows the Emperor great influence and rule. See Zhang XF. “ 中国历史社
会阶段划分概论 *Overview of Chinese Historical Societal Development+,” Sina Blog, (2009),
http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4a8cc4a20100e5jj.html
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Clan feudal society (Xia and Shang, ~2000BCE to 1027BCE), Clanlaw feudal society (Western
Zhou, ~1027BCE – 771BCE) and Landlord feudal society (Eastern Zhou, ~770BCE -221BCE).
During these times, the people were very much “within control”. Most ordinary citizens were
given plots of land to labour, and survival was guaranteed with willingness to work.
With the collapse of the Zhou dynasty and the dawn of the Qin dynasty (~221BCE),
China was unified through Qin Shi Huang, and the Absolute Monarchical society (君主专制社会)
was adopted. This societal system lasted for more than 2000 years and became the principle
system which affected the social and psychological development of the Chinese. The system
managed to weather through a plethora of opposing forces due to the solid and firm
foundation of the core values of the system. As Zhang XF puts it:
“The Chinese Absolute Monarchy societal system managed to last for such a
long period of time and withstood a multitude of opposing forces mainly due to
the executive style of the system. The system employed morality above the law,
taking the essence of the four books (Da Xue, Meng Zhi, Zhong Yong and
Analects) as the guiding moral principles. Such moral principles managed to
bore deep into the minds and hearts of all, from the ordinary citizens up to the
emperor of the various dynasties. Under the rule of Absolute Monarchy, the
Emperor is the father, and traditional morality disallowed any disrespect or
doubt against the absolute power of the Emperor. In addition to that, emphasis
in agriculture and economical control forced the Chinese citizens to focus their
minds and efforts to their daily labour. It tied the people down strongly to their
land, and thus ensuring a strong control, but at the same time presented a
hindrance to free societal and economical growth.”6
With this system, the people were very much within the control of the state and the
empire, and proper execution of the system ensured stability in theory. People were given
material satisfaction through the distribution of agricultural land. Mentally, they were unified
through the spirit and values drawn from the four great books. However, as much as the
system seemed feasible, on the ground level, many mishaps could and had occurred.
As the livelihoods of the people were very much tied to their land, survival was naturally
linked to nature. From history we see that due to the vast and varied geographical topology of
6
Ibid.
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China, the country was prone to periodical natural calamities (Eg. drought and floods). This,
compounded with the unavoidable corruption and oppression through the chain of political
ranks which stripped the people much more of what they were supposed to, naturally brought
economical anxieties and hardships to many. There were also many true occurrences of
tyrannical emperors who, for their selfish personal gain, stripped the people of their deserving
wealth.
Under such circumstances, what was in the minds of the ordinary people? What were
they searching for?
Survival and livelihood would probably be the most important thoughts that occupied
the ordinary of the time. The people would want the family to be well sustained in basic
necessities (food, clothing, house), and probably stability in livelihood. Redemption to them
would be liberation from unjust treatment, from possible oppression, and an elevation of life
conditions and social standing. Fairness would be the call of the people, justice and honour
would be their aim.
Thus far, the redemption is seen from the material point of view. However, what would
the people require in terms of liberation in mind and soul? To understand that, we would need
to study the philosophies that had strongly influenced the thinking and manner of the people.
This would be dealt next.
Philosophical Background
By the 16th century, the philosophical and moral system would have been very much
grounded. The ‘values’ of the Chinese would have already been bore into the ‘collective
consciousness’ of the people and became a way of life. However, how was these values
developed and came to be?
The philosophical epitome of China was no doubt born during the time of “Spring and
Autumn”(770BCE-476BCE), also known as the ‘golden age’:
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“The period, though marked by disunity and civil strife, witnessed an

unprecedented era of cultural prosperity. The atmosphere of reform and new
ideas was attributed to the struggle for survival among warring regional lords
who competed in building strong and loyal armies and in increasing economic
production to ensure a broader base for tax collection. To effect these
economic, military, and cultural developments, the regional lords needed ever-
increasing numbers of skilled, literate officials and teachers, the recruitment of
whom was based on merit. Also during this time, commerce was stimulated
through the introduction of coinage and technological improvements. Public
works on a grand scale--such as flood control, irrigation projects, and canal
digging--were executed. Enormous walls were built around cities and along the
broad stretches of the northern frontier.”7
Besides the political stimulation, the rise of the “Spring and Autumn” were also caused
by new social situations. There were great social changes at the time, with new systems
replacing old and obsolete traditions, spurring thinkers to explore questions of life and
meaning.
So many different philosophies developed during the late Spring and Autumn and early
Warring States periods that the era is often known as that of the Hundred Schools of Thought.
From the Hundred Schools of Thought came many of the great classical writings on which
Chinese practices were to be based for the next two and one-half millennia.8
In actual fact, philosophers were only part of the “hundred schools” that emerged
during this great period, there were many thinkers during this time that specialized in other
fields, such as politics, agriculture and literature. Table 1 shows a simplistic summary of the
important thinkers and works of this time. The blossoming of these thinkers indicated that
people were already looking into various aspects of life and starting to “think” and search for
meaning and elevation of life situations within the various aspects.
7
Library of Congress Study, “China: Hundred Schools of Thought,” About.com: Ancient/Classical History. (1987),
http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_chinathehundredschoolsofthought.htm
8
Ibid.
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Schools Thinkers Works

School of Ru [儒家] Confucious, Meng Zhi, Xun Zhi “Analects”, “Meng Zhi”, “Xun Zhi”
School of Tao [道家] Lao Zhi, Zhuang Zhi “Dao De Jing”, “Zhuang Zhi”
School of Mo [墨家] Mo Zhi “Mo Zhi”
School of Law [法家] Han Fei “Han Fei Zhi”
School of Politics [兵家] Sun Zhi “Art of War”
School of Agriculture [农家] Xu Xin -
Table 1. Summary of Important Schools During the "Spring and Autumn" Period
Undeniably, it was the philosophical thinkers (eg: school of Ru, Tao, Mo) that affected
and changed the way the people look at life and relationship the most. Appendix A shows the
summary of major characters and thoughts of these philosophical schools.
The body of thought that had most enduring effect on subsequent Chinese life was that
of the school of Ru, or better known as Confucianism. Its main thought is the way of conducting
oneself in relation to society and country. It calls for people to know their place in all
situations, to cultivate themselves, and to grow in personal morality, leading to balanced
integration with politics and religion. It teaches that everything has its place in society, and thus
when society comes to order, it will naturally grow stronger. In also teaches the notion of
harmony between Heaven and Man, denoting a deep sense of the holistic relationship between
humankind and a transcendent principle.
The person who perfects all the teachings is known to be a Sage (君子/圣人), and this is a
stage in which all should strive to achieve. The 5 main principles leading to such attainment are
translated as i) love (仁), ii) righteousness (义), iii) proper conduct (礼), iv) wisdom (智) and v)
courage (勇).
Confucianism outshone most other philosophical thinking as time went by and later
became known almost synonymously as the thought of the Chinese. By the subsequent
dynasties, it had engraved its mark deeply into the social and cultural setting of the people. We
can safely say that this thinking penetrated all level of culture, namely the industrial technical,
domestic technical, symbolic culture, and most importantly, the world view of the Chinese.
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These teachings became the moral and guiding principles in which the people naturally lived by.
They saw that they had a unique role in their family, community, society and country.
Relationships were guided trough the principles (father vs son, ruler vs subjects). Everything
had its proper place.
As mentioned, Confucianism made its way into the world view of the people, and
therefore it naturally affected even the religious perspective of the people. In their major
religions of the people, such as Taoism and Buddhism, we do see traces of Confucian elements
within it. Fusing with these thinkings were also aspects of spiritual depth and contemplation
which were the advocacy of Taoist teachings. The era probably played a role in the highly
reflective and contemplative atmosphere of the religions, allowing the people to be strongly
rooted in personal centering and self-calm in order to achieve enlightenment.
Looking at both the social and religious perspective, we can say that Confucianism
shaped the social involvement of the people while Taoism mainly shaped the religious aspect,
emphasizing inner freedom achieved by solitude. It is often said that for an individual, the social
ideal is Confucianism and the personal ideal is Taoism.9
So with this philosophical mindset, what were the people looking for? And what was
their aim in life?
A simple answer to that would be the attainment of sage-hood. For when one becomes
a sage, it is parallel to achieving enlightenment. Thus, it was in the mind of the people to go
beyond, to be better, and ultimately, to be perfect.
With this understanding, we could now look into Christianity and ask, is there anything
that Christianity can offer?
9
See Rong Lina, “The Role of the Bible in Forming People of Authentic Faith in China”, National Catholic China
Conference (2008).
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The Christian Offer
If we try to gather materials written to answer the question “What does Christianity
offer?” or “What do Christians believe?” we could probably fill up libraries with all that we
gather. Therefore, to sum up the so called “Christian offer” in a short paragraph is a rather big
challenge or an attempt for an extremely great simplification of a rich mystery. However, we
will focus here on the message from an evangelizing front, and try to establish the most simple
and straight forward answers to be presented to someone who is totally ignorant to the faith.
The scope of Christianity covers a wide spectrum, ranging from dogmas, theologies,
practical life teachings, relationships, liturgies, etc. But within this abundance of understanding,
what stands out as the core message to be firstly introduced to a person new to the faith?
In the center of all the message and teachings, the summit of all is no doubt the person
of Jesus and the His message of the Good News: the Reign of God! Drawing from mission
documents, we see that the emphasis of this ‘Christian offer’ has been consistent and has been
repeatedly emphasize in different forms.
Ad Gentes, the document of the Second Vatican Council sparked off the call for Christian
mission, and in the core of it, it called for the proclamation of Jesus and His message:
“*AG4+ God… sending His Son, clothed in our flesh, in order that through Him He
might snatch men from the power of darkness and Satan. … For Jesus Christ was
sent into the world as a real mediator between God and men. … For Christ said
concerning Himself, He whom the Father sanctified and sent into the world: “
The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because He anointed me; to bring good news
to the poor He sent me, to heal the broken-hearted, to proclaim to the captives
release, and sight to the blind” ” 10
Evengelii Nuntiandi, the apostolic exhortation of Pope Paul VI focusing on the aspect of
evangelization on the Kingdom of God, as proclaimed by Jesus Christ, also started the
document by stating the main message of our Christian evangelization:
10
Vatican II, Decree on the Mission Activity of the Church Ad Gentes (7 December 1965), no. 4.
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“*EN6+ The witness that the Lord gives of Himself and that Saint Luke gathered
together in his Gospel -- "I must proclaim the Good News of the kingdom of
God"-- without doubt has enormous consequences, for it sums up the whole
mission of Jesus: "That is what I was sent to do." These words take on their full
significance if one links them with the previous verses, in which Christ has just
applied to Himself the words of the prophet Isaiah: "The Spirit of the Lord has
been given to me, for he has anointed me. He has sent me to bring the good
news to the poor." ”11
Following that, in Redemptorist Missio, the document by Pope John Paul II on the
centrality of Christ in our mission message, states that:
“[RM4] The Church's universal mission is born of faith in Jesus Christ, as is stated
in our Trinitarian profession of faith: "I believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only
Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father.... For us men and for our salvation
he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy spirit he became
incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man." The redemption event
brings salvation to all, "for each one is included in the mystery of the
redemption and with each one Christ has united himself forever through this
mystery." ”12
In recent discussions it was brought to light that, while introducing the person of Christ
Jesus and his message, one cannot only teach the knowledge about Jesus, but need to offer the
invitation for the listener to enter into a personal encounter with Jesus. Only in and through
knowing and experiencing Jesus (Jesulogy), can one come to appreciate the real identity of
Jesus and his message (Christology).13
And finally, we should be aware that although the message of Jesus and His Good News
remain universal through time, the bearers of the message present it differently due to
different situations and context. It is therefore beneficial for us to understand the context and
how the message was delivered during the time of interest (16th century).
11
Paul VI, Apostolic Exhortation on Evangelization in the Modern World Evangelii Nuntiandi (8 December 1975),
no. 10.
12
John Paul II, On the Permanent Validity of the Church Missionary Mandate Redemptoris Missio (7 december
1990), no. 4.
13
See Jacque Dupuis, “Jesus with an Asian Face,” SEDOS (August-September, 1999),
http://www.sedos.org/english/dupuis_1.htm
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Taking Matteo Ricci as the point of contact between Catholicism and the Chinese, we list
down the style of delivery of the central Christian message and how the various missiological
constants were perceived at that time14. This is shown in Table 2.
Mission Style
Stream of Christianity Roman Catholic Accommodational
Primary model Accommodational
Theological Typology B (emphasis on truth)
Mission Constants
Christology High
Ecclesiology Mystical communion (sacrament)
Eschatology Realized - Individual
Salvation Spiritual
Anthropology Positive
Culture Positive (Translation model)
Table 2. Mission Style and Mission Constants during the 16th Century in Asia
Upon understanding both from the perspective of the Chinese and Christianity, we are
now ready to analyze the “contact” and see what the points of convergence are, or where they
both can meet eye to eye.
“The First Date”
We have established a basic understanding of the mindset of the Chinese, both in terms
of their sociological standings, and the psychological world view. We have also look into the
message and context of the Christian faith during the point of contact. It is now time to list
these down side by side and see what the commonalities are.
14
It is presumed that the readers have a basic understanding of the missiological constants. For more information,
see Stephens Bevans and Roger Schoeder, Constants in Context: A Theology of Mission for Today (Quezon
City:Claretian Publication, 2004).
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The analysis in this section will focus more on the theoretical comparison. That is to say,
we will see plainly from an objective point of view by comparing our understanding of the
situations. The reality of the contact will be discussed in later sections, for establishing the
‘ideal’ encounter would shed light on the real events, allowing us to draw learnings and
mistakes more clearly and impartially.
Table 3 is a simple summary of the situation of the Chinese and the Christian offer, as
discussed in previous sections. It is placed here side by side for an easier comparison and
analysis:
Chinese Jesus
Situation that requires attention: (Jesulogy):

- Economical hardship - The person of Jesus and the Humanity of Jesus.
-Oppresion/Injustice - Jesus' life story and his relationship with people.
General desires: teachings:

(Socially): - The way of life of a Christian.
- Well being for self and family - To exercise the reign of God on earth.
- Liberation from unjust treatment
- Elevation of life conditions and social standing (Christology):
- Fairness in life - The fullness of Jesus, divinity beyond humanity.
- Justice and Honour - The eschatological Kingdom of God
(Religiously/Psychologically): Teachings:
- The strive to achieve sage-hood - Redemption/salvation
- The seach for those who could guide one in achieving sage-hood - The ultimate union with God
Table 3. The Chinese Situation and the Christian Offer
So, referring to the table, where would the two first get acquainted? As mentioned
before, Chinese tend to look at anything foreign with awe or weariness. The first acquaintance
between the two could probably be done best through the message of Jesus that could be
easily identified as liberating ideologies for the Chinese within their social situations.
For the masses that experienced varied forms of hardship, oppression and injustice, the
normal tendency was to turn to teachings of great men or traditional wisdoms from the
philosophers for directions and comfort. The way of life of the Christians and the teachings for
one to exercise the reign of God on earth could be easily identified as inspirational life
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teachings. The Chinese would not have problem taking in these teachings as words of great
wisdom and regard Jesus as a wise teacher. In fact, there are substantial amount of the sayings
of Jesus and teachings in the Bible that could be similarly identified within the writings
Confucius, namely the Analects. Table 4 gives a simple comparison between the similar
teachings found in the Bible and the Analects.
Analects Bible
6:30 己欲立而立人，己欲达而达人 Mt 7:12 " In everything do to others as you would have
"Now the man of perfect virtue, wishing to be them do to you."
established himself, seeks also to establish others;
wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge
others."
12:2 己所不欲，勿施于人 Tb 4:15 "and what you hate, do not do to anyone."
"not to do to others as you would not wish done to
yourself."
12:11 君君、臣臣、父父、子子 Lk 20:25 "Give To Ceasar what belongs to Ceasar, and
"There is government, when the prince is prince, and God what belongs to God."
the minister is minister; when the father is father, and
the son is son."
7:30 仁远乎哉？我欲仁，斯仁至矣 Rm 8:5 "Those who live according to the flesh set their
"Is virtue a thing remote? I wish to be virtuous, and lo! minds on the things of the flesh, but those who live
virtue is at hand." according to the Spirit set their minds on the things of
the Spirit."
14:27 君子耻其言而过其行 Mt 7:24 - "Everyone then who hears these words of
"The superior man is modest in his speech, but exceeds mine and acts on them will be like a wise man who built
in his actions." his house on rock. … and everyone who hears these
words of mine and does not act on them will be like a
foolish man who built his house on sand."
Table 4. Samples of Similar Teachings between Analects and the Bible
Introducing the teachings of Jesus through association with something that is familiar
within the Chinese sphere would ease peoples’ understanding with this foreign person of Jesus.
The accommodational mission model of the time would have suited this task. Missionaries
would have tried to understand the thinking of the Chinese and gently introduce the teachings
of Jesus to the people through their paradigm. Being people who were open to wise
philosophers and those who teaches ways to attain sage-hood, Chinese would have been easy
in accepting Jesus as a great teacher and a sage.
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The deepening of understanding Jesus beyond a wise teacher would prove a much
greater challenge. The Establishment of an understanding and ultimately a relationship with the
person of Jesus, or what we now term as Jesulogy, would be something rather unique within
the culture of the Chinese.
Through the mentality of Confucianism, Chinese were very aware of their right place
within the society. In the Analects one important statement on ‘proper place’ goes by “There is
government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister, when the father is father,
and the son is son.”15 Within this we see that they were very aware of their place and distance.
A traditional Chinese would have had a very respectful relationship with his father, or with his
teacher. A real physical distance would have been maintained between the two. Therefore, the
idea of Jesus establishing a personal relationship beyond that of a teacher and a student would
be a rather new experience. This phenomenon is actually observable within a majority of
traditional Chinese Catholics who are more comfortable with doctrines and teachings, rather
than establishing a personal encounter.
Looking from this perspective, we would realize that even when the Chinese were able
to accept Jesus as a God, they would need much more adaptation to accept that Jesus is a God
who wants to establish a close personal relationship with them.
We would now firstly analyze the idea of Chinese accepting Jesus as a God. Within the
Chinese context, determining the boundaries of religious affiliation is a rather risky or
meaningless one. The concept of “diffused religions” is widely used when observers seek to
define the unique intertwining of social and religious rites, as well as the intermingling between
different religious traditions and practices that has taken place throughout Chinese history.16
Taking Folk-Taoism as an example, it is a religion that many Chinese affiliate themselves to, but
the religion do not emphasize on the philosophical teaching of Taoism, rather, they pray to a
multitude of Gods which they believe oversees different aspects of life. Under such mindset, it
would not be a difficult task to introduce Jesus as divine. However, the challenge would be to
15
Analects, no 12:11.
16
See Benoit Vermander, “Jesus-Christ and the Chinese Religious World”, eRENLAIMAGAZINE (February 2007).
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distinguish Jesus as the God of gods, who is unique within salvation history and is here to bring
the good news of the Kingdom of God. In order to achieve this, it would probably be wise to
appeal to their intellectual quest. The type B theological typology of the time, which
emphasizes on the truth, would probably serve as a good way in establishing the understanding
of Jesus as a unique God who brings redemption, salvation and the reign of God.
We would now then move on to analyze the introduction of the humanity of Jesus, the
Jesulogy, or the establishment of the personal and communal relationship with God which is
the deepest most core of the Christian faith.
As mentioned above, introducing a God who invites everyone to establish a very close
and personal relationship is a very foreign concept to the Chinese. However, the process is still
achievable. One of the ‘qualities’ within the Chinese culture is that, though they are weary of
anything foreign, they are also at the same time reflective. The philosophical upbringing would
allow the people to reflect on situations and adapt. Therefore the introduction of this personal
teacher, friend and God is new, but not impossible. The message of Jesus is firstly introduced
and made comfortable to them, allowing them to seek solace in the teachings of Jesus to deal
with their problems and desires. The teachings of Jesus is relevant to a Chinese seeking to make
sense of oppression and unjust treatment, Jesus teaches one to have the right attitude dealing
with one’s situation and provide the directions for a life of moral uprightness that leads to
personal enlightenment. Beyond the teachings, the divinity of Jesus is then introduced. Using
history and dogmatic teachings through means similar to philosophical ideas of the Chinese,
Jesus can be shown to be the one true God who was sent to bring salvation and the kingdom of
God to us. Following this, the critical question to pose would be, “Jesus, the divine God, came
down to earth in order to establish a relationship, to invite us to table fellowship, to know us as
friends and not slaves, thus, will you (the Chinese) be open to accept this invitation?”
To ease the Chinese to the close relationship with Jesus would require the breaking
down of the boundaries. That is, there is a need to break down the image of a wise, stern and
upright teacher. Jesus needs to be introduced as a friend and a brother and a wise-person. He is
15 | P a g e
a mighty God, no doubt, but also, a man who can interact and relate to everyone just like you
and me.
A good means to achieve the introduction of the human Jesus would be to tap on the
strong sense of fraternal friendship within the Chinese that is embalmed within Confucian
teachings. Chinese has a very strong sense of loyalty and honour towards “fine” friends who are
termed as “Liang-You” (良友). Liang-You are seen as friends who could provide mutual aid in
achieving sagehood; they are the perfect company in life which helps one to tend towards good
and provide support and guidance. Some of the teachings of Liang-You in the Analects are
shown below:
1:4 : "I daily examine myself on three points: whether, in transacting business
for others, I may have been not faithful; whether, in intercourse with friends, I may
have been not sincere; whether I may have not mastered and practiced the
instructions of my teacher."
1:6: "A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his
elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all, and
cultivate the friendship of the good. "
1:7: "if, in his intercourse with his friends, his words are sincere - although
men say that he has not learned, I will certainly say that he has."
12:24: "The superior man on grounds of culture meets with his friends, and
by friendship helps his virtue."
To introduce and relate Jesus to the Chinese, it is no doubt important to present him as
a teacher and God, but most importantly, beyond that, a good idea to show that he is a Liang-
You who wishes to establish a personal relationship, so that through the relationship with Him,
one could also relate to the triune God. The stories of Jesus are essential here in presenting the
way he relates in his earthly life. The cultural translation model would fit here in showing this
aspect of Jesus. Although relating to a God in such intimate manner might be new to the
Chinese, such presentation would probably enable them to reflect and subsequently lower their
guard and accept the God who came down to be one of us.
As seen from the above analysis, there are no doubt a lot of challenges in introducing
Jesus to the Chinese, but with the proper manner and approach, Jesus could be presented as
16 | P a g e
someone the Chinese would find comfortable in relating with. They will be able to see him as
God who teaches ways to live the current life, and one who would lead them to an
eschatological salvation.
Therefore, what then are the images of Jesus for the Chinese who had been introduced
to Him?
The Chinese Christology
We have thus far studied the possible scenarios when the Chinese meet with
Christianity. There are many social and cultural barriers to overcome while introducing the
person of Jesus, but with the proper approach, the barriers could be broken down.
When the Chinese finally come to accept Jesus, what would the image of Jesus be in
their minds? How would an ordinary Chinese answer to the question “Who do you say I am?”
The answer to this can be manifold, but based on what had been discussed, the following
possible images of Christ are presented.
Jesus the Western Teacher
Figure 2. Jesus as the Western Teacher
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The very first and primitive understanding of Jesus for the Chinese would be to look at
him through a foreign eye (Figure 2). Jesus is a moral teacher coming from a different culture
and background, yet, he has something to offer in his teachings. Such imperfect and non-
inculturated view of Jesus is definitely a bad place to end, but it is not a bad place to begin.
Jesus the Moral Teacher
Figure 3. Jesus as the Moral Teacher (Among others such as Confucius, Lao Tze)
As the Chinese got a better understanding of the teachings of Jesus, this Christological
view of Jesus as a moral teacher would probably be adopted (Figure 3). He would be seen as
someone as great as Buddha, Confucius, and Lao Tze. Reflecting on this Christology, Tan KS
stated:
“Traditionally this has been bad news for Chirstian who impatiently pointed out
that Jesus is Lord and God of the universe, but it is not a bad place to start! The
moral teachings of Jesus in Bible can be studied and discussed with Buddhist,
just as Christians need to study the moral teachings of Buddha and Confucius.
The Sermons on the Mount, Parables and teachings of Jesus in the gospels,
stories of Jesus’ interaction with the poor and marginalized are powerful stories
for presenting Jesus as a moral teacher. … The parable of the Lost Son
presented in this story-worldviews form functions potentially at a deeper level
18 | P a g e
of transformation for the worldviews of Chinese Buddhist rather than presented

typically as an evangelistic call for conversion.”17
Under such Christology, the full appreciation of the person of Jesus is still lacking. Jesus
is accepted as one of the many moral teachers, but His divinity is very much downplayed.
Jesus the Deity
Figure 4. Jesus as the Deity (among others such as Goddess of Mercy and Buddha)
Another common portrait inherent in many Chinese (an improvement beyond Jesus the
moral teacher) is the perception that Jesus is a deity similar to other well known deities such as
Goddess of Mercy, Bodhisattvas or “Tua Pek Kong” (the great Ancestor).18 This understanding
falls in line with the “diffuse religion” understanding where there are many gods in charge of
different disciplines. Viewed as a deity, Jesus would be seen as a variation in the many ways to
achieve enlightenment. He has the capability to protect sentient beings from harm, He is the
one we should turn to if we are sick, or need protection from the evil spirits.
17
Tan Kang San, “The Problem of an Alien Jesus for Asian Christianity”, Encounters Mission Ezine (Issue 16, 2007):2.
18
Ibid., 3.
19 | P a g e
Although this Christology falls short of a full understanding of Christ, it does have its
usefulness. Cosmic Deity is a powerful image for the Chinese which foreign Christian might fail
to recognize or appreciate. Rationalist rejections of the supernatural and the playing down of
Jesus’ role as a healer and controller of nature would be a classic case of the blurring of biblical
Christ to suit Western enlightenment thinking.19
Jesus the Sovereign God
Figure 5. Jesus as the Sovereign God
As the divinity of Christ is further introduced and explained to the Chinese, the new
image that could surface would be Jesus as the Sovereign God. Inculcated in traditional
Confucian tradition, the Chinese who accepted Jesus as the sole God would revere Him as a
high and mighty God. The doctrines and teachings of almighty God who came down to us to
save us from our sins would be well leant and followed. A respectful distance would be kept, as
within such mind frame, God is to be worshipped and adored. Any attempt to cross the
boundaries beyond the Sovereign God-Human relationship would be seen as disrespectful.
Such relationship, though still short of the personal touch, produced believers who were
faithful and staunch. The Christology would best serve those seeking a top down guide to way
19
Ibid., 3.
20 | P a g e
out of the social struggle. The sovereign God is the one who is here to bring liberation to all and
teaches the means and ways to break out of the current bleak situation.
Jesus the Liang-You (良友)
Figure 6. Jesus as the Liang-You
Probably one of the most integrated Christology of the Chinese would be to see Jesus as
a Liang-You, the wise, good and fraternal friend who accompanies us in our life journey and
helps us to walk the road towards sage-hood, or enlightenment. Such Christological view would
have already taken into account the divinity of Jesus, but at the same, the strict top-down
relationship between master and a follower is broken down, and a personal encounter and
relationship is established.
By looking at Jesus in this light, the Chinese will be comfortable to come to Him with
their sorrows and their pains, with their joys and their celebrations. They would turn to Him as
a personal friend who aids and guides, and the same time, see him as a divine God whose
teachings and doctrines were means to achieve the salvation and redemption which were
freely offered to everyone. He is a model of harmonious and fully developed relationships with
fellow humans, the cosmos and the Source of life.20
20
Vermander, Jesus-Christ and the Chinese Religious World, 7.
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The History of Encounter
We now take a look into the real history of missions in China. This would allow us to
compare the reality with the theoretical scenarios stipulated. By doing so, we could have a
more objective view and extract good pointers and important learning from our successes and
also our failures.
The most prominent person in the history of Catholic mission to China is no doubt the
Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci, known as the ‘father’ of the China mission, who spearheaded
evangelization effort during the 16th Century. However, prior to that, there were already many
individual efforts to bring Christianity into the country, dating as early as the 6th Century.
Some of the more prominent efforts included that headed by the Nestorians during the
7th century, who strove to be guided by adaptation to Chinese culture and extant religious
customs, and that initiated by the Franciscans in the 13 th century, who strove to adapt the
church to the culture of the Mongolians who ruled the country at that time.21 However, both
these and other smaller efforts were crushed by political turmoil, leaving rather insignificant
pockets of Christian descendents.
Matteo Ricci arrived in China in 1582, with the mandate to evangelize the Chinese.
Instead of plunging right in and proclaiming the Gospel, Ricci started off by painstakingly trying
to understand the context of the people. He endeavoured to introduce Christianity to China
delicately, choosing to graft the faith more organically onto China’s existing culture rather than
Christianizing it by first westernizing the Middle Kingdom’s ancient traditions.22 He even went as
far as dressing as a Buddhist monk going into the country, but soon dressed as a Mandarin
instead when he realized that Confucians rather than the Buddhist were the literati. 23 He also
saw that China’s history and culture stood as a monument to the truth of One God, that the
21
See Heyndrickx. The Fifth Encounter between Christianity and China.
22
Anthony E Clark. “Weaving a Profound Dialogue between West and East:On Matteo Ricci, S.J.” Ignatius Insight.
(27 May, 2009), http://www.ignatiusinsight.com/features2009/print2009/aclark_mricci_may09.html
23
See James Duncan. “The Chinese Rites Controversy: A Clash of Culture.” Centro Pro Unione (2009).
22 | P a g e
minds reflects the perfect creation, and thus must lead through reason to the concept of the
Creator.24
In the effort to understand the people and to dialogue with them through reason and
intellect, Ricci started off by mastering the native language, and continued to take on the
complex task of mastering the Confucian classics. He quickly determined that Confucianism was
not a religion, but rather a philosophical school of thought which existed for the good of the
society.
Through the understanding of the people and their thoughts, he devised a steady and
systematic way to bring the message of God to the Chinese. He would firstly connect with the
intellectuals, enticing them with his knowledge, and through the intellectual exchange, arouse
in them the interest in God and Catholicism. He felt that in order to convert all of China he must
firstly convince the educated elite of the truth taught by Christianity.
He began his systematic evangelization by intriguing the Chinese with Western

materials, charming them with western maps, inventions such as clocks, and musical
instruments such as clavichords. Amidst such efforts, he managed to introduce his own religion
to them and started to draw converts to Catholicism.
One important approach of Ricci’s introduction of Catholicism has been the explanation
of the fact that Christianity was already latent in Chinese culture. A great example of this was
his introduction of the word ‘God’ (天主), which literally translates to “heaven- Lord”. Drawing
from the Chinese’ believe that “There is a divine 3 feet above the head, and there is a divine
(lord) 3 feet below the ground” (举头三尺有神灵, 地下三尺有主行). Thus, by merely introducing
the term ‘God’ in Chinese he managed to convince the people that the God of Catholicism is the
same God known to the Chinese.
24
Michael Billington. “Matteo Ricci, the Grand Design, and the Disaster of the 'Rites Controversy'.” Executive
Intelligence Review (9 November, 2001): 2.
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Three important Chinese converts (namely Paul Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Tingyun)
who were statesmen in constant contact with the emperor’s Court, were later know as “the
three great pillars of Chinese Catholicism”, as they played the paramount role of introducing
the religion into the locality of Imperial Court. Although Ricci himself died without meeting the
emperor, his successors managed to establish themselves as official court astronomers and
headed the government engineering bureaus. These positions were critical as the fist Emperor
of the Qing dynasty (Kang Xi) was placed under one of these Jesuit fathers for tutelage in
science.
Emperor Kang Xi generally had a favourable relationship with the Catholics scholars, and
in 1692, he issued an edict granting all Christians the right to teach, preach, and convert
throughout the empire.25 This was the golden period of Catholicism in China as it opened up the
extraordinary potential to Ricci’s goal of “universal conversion of the whole kingdom”.
Unfortunately, this was also nearing the dawn of a long and ugly battle known as the “Rites
Controversy” which totally destroyed this beautiful dream.
The controversy started when missionary from the Dominicans, Franciscans and
Augustinians order came over to China around the 17 th century, often from the Spanish colony
of the Philippines. They were horrified by the Jesuits practices in accommodating various
Chinese customs and rituals. They ignited a heated controversy to Rome, and raised three main
points:
 The usage of various terms for God: for example “天 Tian” (Heaven) or “上帝 Shangdi”
(Lord of Above / Supreme Emperor)
 Prohibition for Christians to participate in the season rites for Confucius.
 Prohibition for Christians of the use of tablets with the forbidden inscription "site of the
soul", and to follow the Chinese rites for the ancestor worship.
Following that, a long theological battle prevailed between the different orders existing
in China, and it later roped in more prominent characters including the then Pope Clement XI
and the Chinese Emperor Kang Xi into the conflict. To put the long story short, Pope Clement XI
25
Ibid.
24 | P a g e
declared most of the Chinese rites to be ‘non-Christian’, which enraged the Emperor greatly,
and he soon overturned his preferential treatment to Catholicism and announced a decree in
1721 to totally ban western missionaries and preaching in China:
“Reading this proclamation, I have concluded that the Westerners are

petty indeed. It is impossible to reason with them because they do not
understand larger issues as we understand them in China. There is not a single
Westerner versed in Chinese works, and their remarks are often incredible and
ridiculous. To judge from this proclamation, their religion is no different from
other small, bigoted sects of Buddhism or Taoism. I have never seen a
document which contains so much nonsense. From now on, Westerners should
not be allowed to preach in China, to avoid further trouble.”26
This decree lasted up till the 20th Century, forbidding a long period of Christian
evangelization, and crushing all hopes in large scale Christianization of the Chinese.
Learnings
A great deal of missiological learnings can be derived from the mission history in China.
Matteo Ricci had been a visionary in his missiological approach. In his efforts in the 16th
century, he was already adopting some of the main missiological thrust promulgated by Vatican
Council II and future church mission documents. Unfortunately, the unfolding of events did not
turn out as favourable as it could have been. Some of the learnings from this ‘history lesson’ are
listed and discussed below:
1. Slow and Steady

Evangelization and mission work is no longer a territorial conquering or forced
conversion. The whole idea of sharing and introducing the message of God with those who
have not heard it has to be done with respect and care. James Duncan, SJ, in analyzing the Rites
Controversy, stated that there is a necessity of proceeding mission slowly and prudently. We
cannot welcome and take on board everything, or can everything that is acceptable be
26
Dan J. Li, China in Transition, 1517--1911, trans. (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1969), 22.
25 | P a g e
integrated and implemented at once. Change, particularly in respect to rituals, ceremonies,

customs and convictions, needs to be gradual.27
Great caution also needs to be taken in the accommodation of the Gospel to local
tradition and in the evaluation of the acceptability of local customs and usages. The
‘incarnation’ of the faith into a new tradition and culture takes time, but it is a necessary and
crucial step. The result speaks for itself, as Matteo Ricci started introducing Catholicism to the
Chinese elites, the faith was well accepted and Catholicism grew steadily. If not for the later
controversy and political turmoil, this place of initial mission would have been the seed bed of
Catholicism in China. The evidence of the success of such approach is still apparent though, as
there remain a strong , faithful, and growing Catholic community in Hebei province (a direct
result of the initial missionary efforts of Ricci), even until now, amidst all historical
adversaries.28
2. Don’t Force it Down People’s Throat

It was truly a sad historical event seeing the welcoming atmosphere of China towards
Catholicism turn into a sour scene of rejection and contempt. To look bluntly into the cause,
one can summarize it as the Church turning back to the road of confrontation.29 The new
missionaries opposing to the ‘Rites’ did not bother to spend even a little time understanding
the significance and meaning behind the rites. Rather, they were much more concerned in
properly transplanting the ‘western pot’, the ‘Traditional Western Theology’, into the hands of
these new ‘converts’.30 This whole act caused a spiral repercussion of resentment of the
Chinese towards Christianity in a whole, as they started to associate the religion with Western
aggression, and set up an invisible wall between them and the true essence of the Catholic
faith, preventing conversions or even simple encounter with the person of Jesus for many
generations to come.
27
Duncan. The Chinese Rites Controversy: A Clash of Culture, 24.
28
From Interview with Fr Zhang Shao Feng, Diocesan Priest in Hebei Province, China. (9 September, 2009).
29
See Heyndrickx. The Fifth Encounter between Christianity and China.
30
See Enoch Wan, “Christianity in the Eye of traditional Chinese.” Missiology.org. (July 1999).
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3. Dialogue, Dialogue, Dialogue

One cannot stress enough the importance of dialogue in the whole business of mission
and evangelization. We have already seen from the historical unfolding above that the lack of
dialogue had caused the disappearance of a whole era of possible Chinese conversion.
Dialogue entails the understanding of the context of the people, their life situation, their
beliefs, their history, their culture, their philosophy and their thinking. It calls for one to ‘take-
off’ their shoe and ‘put-on’ the shoe of the one they are trying to understand. Ricci in his best
effort did that through learning the local language and mastering their philosophical teachings.
Sadly his dialogical effort was later overthrown by missionaries more interested in control and
fast conversion. Many later studies on the “Rites Controversy” have stated that ‘dialogue’ was
the most crucial element revolving the issue.31 Vatican Council II has emphasized greatly on the
promotion of dialogue, and for more than 40 years the church and popes have been promoting
dialogue with China. Most studies have indicated that the only way to move forward for now is
to continue the promotion of dialogue, be it with the people, the existing church in China, or
with the political government.
4. Inculturation
The role of dialogue within a mission thrust is that, ultimately, the missionaries could
help to introduce the Christian faith to the people in a way that makes sense to them. The faith
must be immersed into the daily living, thinking and acting of the people. In other words, the
faith must be inculturated.
Once again, Ricci was exemplary in this aspect. It would be interesting to some to note
that as much as the concept of ‘Jesulogy’ (the emphasis of the encounter with the person of
Jesus) is highly emphasized in today’s missiology, Ricci did not approach his introduction
through the person of Jesus. This is not due to his difference in mission understanding or mere
ignorance in ‘Jesulogy’, but rather it was a conscious move due to his deep understanding of
the Chinese mind.
31
See Heyndrickx, The Fifth Encounter between Christianity and China. and Tan, The Problem of an Alien Jesus for
Asian Christianity.
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Ricci understood that the Chinese, through their deep roots in Confucianism, Taoism
and Buddhism had a very deep respect for heavenly gods, and their relationship with their gods
was very top-down. Therefore, he spoke to them on their level and firstly introduced “God” (天
主) to them, allowing them to get acquainted with the Catholic God which was shown to be the
same as the God they were familiar with. Through their gradual acceptance of the Catholic God,
he furthered their understanding of the faith with the introduction of Jesus and further
doctrines, constantly drawing links and similarities with Chinese customs and thinkings.
No doubt, a balance needs to be strike when inculturating the faith into a new tradition
and custom, what is good needs to be preserved and assimilated while what is bad needs to be
pointed out. On the other hand, the lack of the mindset of inculturation in a missionary effort is
deemed to draw failure or even possible tragedy.
5. Leave the Politics Outside the Door

If one were to peel into the layers of causes of the Rites Controversy, boring down into
the deep core, a touchy but clear fact would emerge: Church politics.
Placed within the time when colonization was still strong and ongoing, many
missionaries who were around then were still strongly imbued with the sense of forced
conversion. The ‘potted plant’ mentality was strong. The Greco-Roman and European teachings
and rites of Catholicism were seen to be above all other traditions and were to be absorbed
fully and wholly. Missionary success was gauged by expansion of territorial, the direct result of
church planting. With such mentality, it was not the main concern of missionaries to come
together to share and discuss on the growth and understanding of the local church, rather, it
was a fight of power and governance.
This controversy was also a direct result of a fight between two great missionary
powers. Thus, when a mistake of the other party was spotted, no dialogue or discussion was
needed, rather a power play was more important (through appeals to greater authority: i.e. the
pope and the emperor). Such hard headed approach, which invited not the least of dialogue
and understanding, resulted in a total lose-lose situation.
28 | P a g e
The succinct and clear message of this point is that missionaries have to be clear of their
‘mission’. If one were to work for the sole purpose of spreading the good news of God, then all
means have to be exhausted in achieving that goal. When other aspects (power and control)
blind the primary goal, devastating results might occur.
This analysis may seem to some rather one-sided or harsh, but another important point
to benefit such analysis is clearly to call a spade a spade. When a mistake is made, it will
probably be best if we bravely admit to our wrongdoings and learn from it. Our politics
destroyed a great part of our mission. We could continue to argue this point, or we could take it
as a strong reminder and move on with our mission being very conscious of it.
China Today
The China today is very different, if not a totally new place altogether as compared to
the 16th century. For the past 5 centuries, vast transformations had occurred within this
country, with changes in life and outlook in almost all aspects. We will now look into the various
aspects to study the evolution and change in order to understand the missionary implications.
1. Politics
Probably the most significant change in China would be the shift in political structure.
Founded as a party in 1921, the Chinese Communist Party took full control of the country’s
political power on 1 October 1949, and established the People Republic of China. It changed the
face of the country completely.
The ideology, which was initially based on Marxism-Leninism, soon evolved into a
unique strand of communism. It started with a rural focus based on China's social situations at
the time, but later with ideological clashes gone through a phase of Cultural Revolution (1966),
creating an ideology known better as “Maoism”. It later on morphed once again and developed
into Socialism with Chinese Characteristic under the leadership of Deng XiaoPing.
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During this period of time, the traditional values of the people were being strongly
challenged. The people were offered a form of secular religion,
“a religion that had supplanted the old imperial ideology founded on Confucian
civic morality and Buddhist-Taoist religious believe. The successive assault by
modern Western ideas and communist ideology erased the old imperial
ideology, and the collapse of the communist model left China with a spiritual
vacuum.”32
The new political arena of China has changed the face of the country dramatically. It
affected greatly the outlook, culture and traditions of the country. As Sisci puts it, the changed
created a spiritual vacuum within the country, and the government is starting to see the
importance of filling this vacuum with some form of religion, if not for the sole purpose of
retaining order and control.
Although open mission is still prohibited within China, in recent times, there seems to
be a friendlier reception of the government towards Christianity, for Christianity is seen as
inherently open to the modern world and a scientific outlook, and can be used as a modern and
beneficial means to unite the spiritual aspect of the people. The government also see
Christianity as a possible form of importation no different than socialist ideology two
generations earlier. In particular, Catholicism is said to be favoured above other protestant
counterparts as it is seen to be more institutionally organized and therefore can be better
controlled and utilized as a unifying force.33
Taking this situational analysis with a pinch of salt, we should nonetheless make full use
of the welcoming atmosphere of Catholicism. Regardless of what the reason behind the
welcome might be, we should tap on this opportunity and share the person of Jesus with
sincere hearts. This is an ever crucial time to introduce Jesus to the Chinese, not for them to be
controlled, but rather liberated.
32
Francesco Sisci, “China’s Catholic Moment”, Firstthings.com, (June/July 2009): 2.
33
Ibid.
30 | P a g e
2. Economy
After 30 years of reform and growing freedom, China is emerging fast from poverty and
backwardness. Its economy is developing in an almost unprecedented pace. Today, China is the
world’s third biggest economy (after US and Japan) and third largest exporter. The poverty rate
fell from 53% in 1981 to only 2.5% in 2005.
Social and economic indicators have improved since various recent reforms were
launched. However, along with its phenomenal growth, the country is also experiencing an
extremely skewed income inequality between the more highly developed coastal provinces and
the less developed, poorer inland regions. According to UN estimates in 2007, around 130
million people in China—mostly in rural areas of the lagging inland provinces—still lived in
poverty, on consumption of less than $1 a day, and About 35% of the Chinese population lives
under $2 a day. As in most big economies, 80% of the wealth is in the hands of 20% of its
polulation.
On the other hand, social and ethical problems are surfacing; new social rifts are
becoming more serious each day. Traditional values are being challenged and society is
experiencing a crisis of trust. Corruption has become a very serious issue. 34
Under such economical situation, missionaries have to understand the full scale and
context of the people they work with in order to fully cater the message of Christ to their
situations and needs.
3. Social Situation
The social situations of China have also changed dramatically over the past few decades,
and have impacted the whole dynamism of the country. For the past 50 years, the population
of China had more than doubled, reaching up to a staggering amount of 1.3 billion citizens. (see
Table 5).
34
See John Zhang, “Who is Christ and what is the Church for the Chinese People and Society?”, East Asian Pastoral
review, Vol 44. (2007).
31 | P a g e
1980 2000 2005 2020 2030

Total 998.9 1,273.9 1.315.8 1.423.9 1.446.5
0 - 34 705.3 761.9 716.4 654.8 591.9
35-69 266.3 459.8 536.6 670.2 704.3
> 70 27.3 52.2 62.7 98.9 150.3
Table 5. China Population and Projections (millions)
[from National Bureau of Statistics & Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]
With the population explosion, the government came up with a one child policy in 1979
for the purpose of ‘alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems in China’. Whether
the objective of this policy has been successful has yet to be studied, however, the direct
impact of the policy is already clearly seen.
The policy created a spike in a particular age group which is growing in age. At the
current time, this age group spike consists within the youthful generation between 0-34 years.
This, compounded with the extensive care and pampering given to the ‘single-child’ within the
family, which is the direct result of the policy, has generated a unique generation of Chinese
youth, sometimes aptly referred to as the ‘little emperors’ . These youths are the result of
“silver spoons”, who lived in a world of comfort and ease almost regardless of the economical
conditions of the family. They are seen as the hope of the family and have an almost distinct
culture and mannerism among them. As this generation of ‘little emperors’ starts to enter the
work force in recent years, the country is sensing a general attitude from them, some of the
characteristics include: 1) serious problems with authority figures 2) general disillusionment
with responsibility & reality 3) lack of passion/drive to stand out 4) problems with group
collaboration/communication 5) incapable of identifying fault/areas for improvement within
themselves. This might cause serious consequences to the society and country.
Besides that, the one child policy also generated other side effects such as gender-based
birthrate disparity, increase in abandoned or orphaned children, and infanticide, all serious
social issues to be dealt with.
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Apart from this, China has also morphed in terms of their “connectedness”. Although
media access is still highly controlled and regulated, China has become a country that is highly
wired. As of the present, although still small in percentage (25.3% of the total population),
China has an estimated 340 million internet users, the highest number of internet users within
a country, and constitute 20% of the total world internet users.
This strong pool of ‘cyber-generation’, a large part of it consisting of the ‘little emperors’
mentioned before, has generated a whole new culture. They socialize within cyberspace, and
obtained a great portion of their values and world view within this virtual realm.
These new social phenomena and trends are important aspects as new missionaries
make inroad into the country. They need to fully understand this new culture and work
comfortably within it. A difficult challenge no doubt, but a necessary one.
4. Philosophical Overview
With the new political systems and new social developments, the philosophical outlook
of the people as a whole has also altered. The traditional Confucian morals and values had
mostly dissolved, and a new and complex set of values are taking over.
The current Chinese are strongly influenced by the ‘Chinese-style Socialism’, putting
great emphasis on gains and benefits. Moral values are also starting to transform into a highly
relative one, strongly influenced by the cyber-culture, which eased the influence of foreign
values, especially that of the west.
In recent years, courtesy and politeness at home and abroad seem to have deteriorated. The
government has even described certain forms of ‘uncivilized behaviour’ as ‘the seven cardinal
sins and three vulgar habits of Chinese travellers’. The lack of courtesy and politeness has
damaged the image of China as an ancient civilized country.
Once again, this new philosophical development poses a serious missiological challenge,
but it is at the same time a crucial context to understand for fruitful mission.
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5. Catholic Situation
China today is no more ‘ignorant’ of Jesus. There exist a growing number of Christians
and Catholics even with the strong control of religion within the country. In a 2007 internal
survery conducted by China’s government, Chinese Christians amount to a substantial number
of 130 million, almost 10% of the total population.35 Putting figures aside, a rather saddening
trend is that Catholic growth has been rather stunted while protestant is growing steadily. From
1949 to the present, Catholics population is estimated to have increased by about 110% while
non-Catholic Christians increased by about 350%.36
Another crucial reality among Catholics in China is the split between the church that is
loyal and approved by the state ("Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association”) and the church that
remains loyal to the Holy See (also known as the “underground church”). The ‘underground
church’ is officially banned in the country, as the Chinese government demands that all Chinese
"Catholics" must be loyal to the State, however, it remains present through various methods
although it faces great persecution. It is estimated that there are 8 million Catholics following
the underground church still loyal to Rome and 5 million people following the Chinese Catholic
Patriotic Association.
In recent years, there have been various attempts of rapprochement between the
Vatican and the Chinese government. However, a major obstacle between the two sides has
been the Roman Catholic discipline that only the pope can appoint bishops of the Church. This
issue has proved a frequent aggravating factor in Sino-Vatican relations. That being said, even
though a full fledge unity is still far in sight, more efforts are now in placed to get the believers
from both sides to work together. This complexity of the current Catholic situation must be fully
understood and appreciated for a missionary to function well and cater to the people of faith in
China.
35
See Sisci, China’s Catholic Moment. There has been great debate as to the proper number of Christians in China,
and difference in opinion has set the number between a few million to 130 million. What is certain from this is that
the number is quite significant and growing.
36
See Zhang. Who is Christ and what is the Church for the Chinese People and Society?
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The Second Encounter
We have studied the minds of the Chinese, and have seen the historical unfolding of the
first encounter of the Chinese with Christianity. We tried to analyze all that had happened and
derive some learnings. We looked into the changing faces of China in this modern era.
Assuming we are to start a new initiative to proclaim Christ to the Chinese right now, how
should we go about doing it? What should the approach and manner be? What are the possible
methodologies?
Gathering all the previous learnings and experiences, some suggestions are listed below:
1. Don’t Plunge, Listen First

It cannot be overly emphasized that the first principle of any missionary endeavour is
DIALOGUE! Long gone is the time when we shaft the Catholic faith into the mouths of helpless
ones and ‘initiate’ them into a highly institutionalized Church, asking them to follow a whole
new set of culture and rules. Mission today entails a total understanding of the context of the
people we are dealing with, for the sole purpose of introducing Jesus and His good news in a
manner where it makes sense to them.
With the rapid change in a modern world, understanding the context of a locality is
becoming an ever growing challenge. One can hardly gain sufficient knowledge from books and
readings. Rather, only through personal experience can one be remotely close to begin to
understand the culture and tradition.
We have already seen that China has gone through a major face lift. What it is today is
almost alien from what it was. Yet, everything it is now is intimately connected to its past.
Therefore, a missionary have to be diligent in understanding the past and the present.
Knowledge of history is crucial, and the understanding of the people through various social
sciences and personal experience is just as vital. Such understanding would not take a day or
two. One needs to fully immerse in the place for months if not years, and be totally open to
35 | P a g e
people and cultural differences before the true nature of the culture and tradition can be
appreciated. When that is done, then the missionary is ready to dialogue.
2. 这是耶稣 This is Jesus, as you Chinese Would Know It

It is through one’s context that one can come to fully appreciate the person of Jesus,
and today’s Missionaries are challenged to do just that: to introduce Jesus in context.
To begin the introduction of the person of Jesus, it would probably be wise to firstly
educate the people to accept the good of their culture.37 This serves as the basic foundation of
dialogue, for the audiences have to firstly appreciate and recognize their own culture, before
they could accept Jesus that is presented within that context.
Putting the above mentioned in concrete terms, we will see that things are easier said
than done. The culture and traditions of the Chinese had gone through a vast change. In the
present time, the term ‘culture’ is a very subjective term. Long gone is the time when we can
easily associate the traditional Confucianism, Buddhist and Taoist teachings and thinkings as the
main source of Chinese culture. With materialism, modernization and globalization engulfing
China, the modern Chinese culture is totally different and new.
Some theologians have argued that under such uncertain cultural phase, many people,
especially the younger generation experiences a “Cultural Alienation”, where they become
strangers to their own cultural identity. They affirm and defend their false identity as their own
real identity.38 However, instead of looking at these people as culturally alienated, I believe it
would of better help to be non-judgemental and take their current culture as is. After all, would
we not be doing exactly what we have be so cautious against when we make a statement that
they are not cultured and therefore need to change?
The important thing here would be therefore to fully understand the new culture. No
doubt there might exist some unfavourable elements in this ‘new culture’ (elements that go
37
See Tan. The Problem of an Alien Jesus for Asian Christianity.
38
See Jacob Theckanath, “The Asian Image of Jesus: Theological, Biblical, Catechetical & Liturgical Renewal”, FABC
Paper No 92q. (2000).
36 | P a g e
directly against the ‘common good’), but with careful study and dialogue, we could definitely
find the values of the current value, and begin the introduction of Jesus at where they are.
Besides this, other distinct Chinese phenomena, such as the cyber-culture, communism,
and the social policies are crucial aspects to understand for the missionary to truly be able to
communicate with them at where they are. Ultimately, the Jesus that is introduced must make
sense within these realities.
3. We will Always be Strangers

One important aspect the foreign missionaries have to bear in mind is that no matter
how long they might be in a mission land, they are ultimately still a stranger within that land.
What this implies is that the missionaries might be able to understand and appreciate the
context of the people, but they would not be able to think and function totally as a local. They
need to develop an Emic(insider) perspective 39 , which is the attempt by foreigners to
understand local perspective of realities in order to accurately describe situations and
behaviours, but they have to be aware that they will always carry with them their own cultural
heritage, mannerism and prejudices.
It is therefore important for the missionaries to work with the locals. They need to move
from being the ‘producers’ to ‘facilitators’. Instead of trying to be the active theologians,
missionaries should bring the locals together in reflecting on their own understanding of Jesus
and His message. The Christology should come out from the people, facilitated through the
missionaries. The theology should also come out from the people, through the tools and
methods shared by the missionaries. The process of mission has to move from ‘giving a fish’ to
‘teaching how to fish’. This unique ability where only the persons who lived and breathed the
air could come out with their distinctive set of understanding is beautifully put by Fareed
Zakaria: being able to feel it in your bones is one powerful way! 40
39
See Tan. The Problem of an Alien Jesus for Asian Christianity.
40
Fareed Zakaria, “The Power of Personality”, Newsweek. (December, 2007).
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4. Correct the Misunderstandings

Another important task for Missionaries in China would be to correct the non-Christian’s
misunderstandings of the portraits of Jesus.
As have been described above, China is no more ignorant of Jesus. The image and idea
of Jesus is well known to many. However, the understanding is strongly varied, and to some
extent, rather erroneous. These misconceptions of Jesus probably originated from the historical
developments of mission and general social misunderstanding. Some of these portraits are
cultural misunderstandings (Jesus is a Westerner), some are historical marks (Christianity as
imposer), and some are derived from non-Christian teachings of scriptures (Jesus as a mere
prophet in the Quran).
If the first task had to deal with cultural misunderstandings from the transmitter’s
culture, the second task relates to cultural misunderstandings associated with the recipient’s
culture. The Jesus Christ of the Bible must take over these wrong believes and
misunderstandings. Therefore, missionaries need to learn how to address the socio-religious
misunderstandings of who Jesus is.
In executing this task, sensitivity is the key. It was greatly due to “insensitivity” of the
past that have led to many of the current misunderstandings among the people. Therefore, to
break down this wall of prejudice, total respect for the culture and tradition is a must. The key
method to this is probably still the ever emphasized dialogue. It is through the facet of sincerity
and open dialogue that we can reach out to those who have been holding an undue bias against
Catholicism and Christianity.
5. Play the Game

As known by now, China in a very different political state as compared to the time of the
first encounter. Communism strongly prohibits the strong spread of religion that would
destabilize the control or balance of the people. However, it was also stated that in this
38 | P a g e
situation of tight controls and regulations, religions still find the ways and means to survive,
sustain and grow. It is within such trying environment that the faith grows resilience and deep
rooted. There have been indications of relaxation in the part of the government in allowing
growth of Christianity, especially Catholicism, within the country. However, this friendly gesture
is also veiled by a strong political motive.
It is therefore important for missionaries to truly understand the implications of these

regulations. As much as they should not get involved or be a pond in the political plots, the
missionaries have to fully analyze the situation and make the best use of the opportunities. This
might be difficult in the ground level, but probably the fundamental principle would be to seize
all possible opportunities for sincere dialogue and introducing the encounter with Jesus.
Missionaries will probably also need to be equipped with the tactfulness to deal with
bureaucracies or dialogue with civil authorities, for that would be necessary for the smooth
operations of evangelizations and missions.
Apart from that, new missionaries have to also be clear in the current church situations
in China. The split between the underground and patriotic church is a complex situation, and
missionaries need to understand the situation properly in order to function effectively. Differing
sentiment and opinions have surfaced on how to deal with this split. While some favour the
rapprochement efforts, others believe that it is just wishful thinking and should support only
one side of the church. No matter where one stand on the issue, one thing is for sure, this
complex situation is not going to be resolved for a long time to come.
How then, can missionaries effectively work within such conditions? Again, the
fundamental principles apply: firstly, understand the situations and be ever so sensitive while
dealing with them. Secondly, grab on to all opportunities to dialogue with the people and
introduce Jesus to them in a way and context that makes sense to them. Ultimately, if the
missionaries stick on to their conviction to share this special encounter with the person of Jesus,
it could be done under varying circumstances.
39 | P a g e
6. A local Jesus
After all that is being said, missionaries should ultimately aid in the flourishing of a local
Jesus.
The understanding of the context, the honest dialogue with the locals and the sincere
introduction of the person of Jesus is ultimately meant to help in creating a local Christology.
Missionaries of today are meant to be the tools in aiding the locals come to terms with their
own relationship with the person of Jesus, and ultimately find their own expression of who this
Jesus is. By doing so, the missionaries fulfil the contemporary missionary thrust of bringing
Jesus to the people through dialogue.
The process of the creation of a local Christology is also a “missionary course” in a sense.
When the locals are taught this process, they will not only experience the creation of their
encounter and relationship with Jesus through the birth of their own Christology, they will also
at the same time learn the process of attaining the Christology. With that, they could easily
understand the importance and meaning of the process, and become missionary themselves in
the future, aiding others in creating their own Christology.
Following this, the missionaries should go a step further and help in building up a Sino-
Theology: a unique theological orientation specifically designed for the Chinese people in
contra-distinction from traditional western theology, employing the Chinese cognitive pattern,
Chinese way of social interaction and social themes.41 The Chinese should ultimately be trained
to reflect on the presence of God in their lives and situation. They should claim their theology,
and express their faith through their culture and way of life. The missionaries’ work here would
be to plant the seed by providing the tools for theologizing, and assist the locals in their
theologizing efforts. Ultimately, the locals should be able to be comfortable and grow in their
theological understanding of their faith.
41
Enoch Wan, “Practical Contextualization: A Case Study of Evangelizing Contemporary Chinese”, Missiology.org,
(March 2000): 1.
40 | P a g e
When this is achieved, when the Chinese can see Jesus and accept the message of God
through their own paradigm, and when they can finally theologize through their context and
mind set, the missionaries will be able to be truly jubilant of their great works.
Conclusion
China is a country filled with rich history and culture. For 5000 years, the country had
gone through countless changes and developments. For a long time, its ‘absolute monarchy’
system had forced the people to be inward looking, focusing on an ethnocentric birth of a
unique and rich identity and culture.
Therefore, the study of the theory, history and development of Christology and
Missiology in this country will shed valuable light and provide good lessons and learnings for
those who are actively involved in spreading the Word of God to others.
The unique social situation and philosophical outlook of the Chinese had brought about
their specific Christology. They looked at Christ through their paradigm and their understanding
and ultimately came out with a Christ that they could call a friend and a God.
The mission history of China was a great lesson on methods and mentalities of
spreading the word of God. The second look at ‘China today’ also brought out the complexity of
mission and cautioned one in attempting to preach without proper preparation.
Ultimately, the whole study provided an overview of how missionaries today should
treat and reflect on a mission. The understanding of context is of utmost importance. Dialogue
and not force is the means in bringing the message of God to the people, and most of all,
missionaries should always remember the simple yet most critical objective of mission, to
introduce the person of Jesus and His message of the Kingdom to other. They should never lose
sight of this mission and exhaust all means in achieving this definitive mission.
41 | P a g e
Appendix A:
Summary of Major Philosophical Schools during the “Spring and Autumn” Period
Schools Thinkers Date Philosophy

School of Literati Confucius 551-479 B.C -Believed that the only way such a system could be
(Confucious School) made to work properly was for each person to act
according to prescribed relationships. "Let the ruler be a
ruler and the subject a subject."
the functions of government and social stratification
were facts of life to be sustained by ethical values. His
ideal was the JUNZI, which came to mean gentleman in
the sense of a cultivated or superior man.
-Declared that man was by nature good. He

Mencius 372-289 B.C expostulated the idea that a ruler could not govern
without the people's tacit consent and that the penalty
for unpopular, despotic rule was the loss of the
"mandate of heaven."
School of Tao Lao Zi 604-531 B.C -The individual in nature rather than the individual in
society. It holds that the goal of life for each individual is
(Taoism)
to find one's own personal adjustment to the rhythm of
the natural (and supernatural) world, to follow the Way
(dao) of the universe.
School of Mo Mo Zhi 470-391 B.C -Believed that "all men are equal before God" and that
mankind should follow heaven by practicing universal
love. Regarded warfare as wasteful and advocated
pacificism. He believed that unity of thought and action
were necessary to achieve social goals. He maintained
that the people should obey their leaders and that the
leaders should follow the will of heaven.
School of Law Han Fei Zi ?-233 B.C -maintained that human nature was incorrigibly selfish
and therefore the only way to preserve the social order
was to impose discipline from above and to enforce
laws strictly. The Legalists exalted the state and sought
its prosperity and martial prowess above the welfare of
the common people.
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When The Chinese Met Jesus

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Missiology & Christology

St Alphonsus Theological and Mission Institute

Terence Wee C.Ss.R

When the Chinese Met Jesus

Historical and Social Situation ................................................................................................... 2

Philosophical Background .......................................................................................................... 5

The Christian Offer ..................................................................................................................... 9

“The First Date”........................................................................................................................ 11

The Chinese Christology........................................................................................................... 17

The History of Encounter ......................................................................................................... 22

The Second Encounter ............................................................................................................. 35

When the Chinese Met Jesus

With this background in mind, it is interesting to study in significant details the

Historical and Social Situation

Figure 1. Dynasties of China

“The period, though marked by disunity and civil strife, witnessed an

Schools Thinkers Works

The Christian Offer

“The First Date”

Situation that requires attention: (Jesulogy):

General desires: teachings:

Table 3. The Chinese Situation and the Christian Offer

The Chinese Christology

Jesus the Western Teacher

Figure 2. Jesus as the Western Teacher

Jesus the Moral Teacher

of transformation for the worldviews of Chinese Buddhist rather than presented

Jesus the Deity

Jesus the Sovereign God

Figure 5. Jesus as the Sovereign God

Jesus the Liang-You (良友)

Figure 6. Jesus as the Liang-You

The History of Encounter

He began his systematic evangelization by intriguing the Chinese with Western

“Reading this proclamation, I have concluded that the Westerners are

1. Slow and Steady

integrated and implemented at once. Change, particularly in respect to rituals, ceremonies,

2. Don’t Force it Down People’s Throat

3. Dialogue, Dialogue, Dialogue

5. Leave the Politics Outside the Door

1980 2000 2005 2020 2030

The Second Encounter

1. Don’t Plunge, Listen First

2. 这是耶稣 This is Jesus, as you Chinese Would Know It

3. We will Always be Strangers

4. Correct the Misunderstandings

5. Play the Game

It is therefore important for missionaries to truly understand the implications of these

Schools Thinkers Date Philosophy

-Declared that man was by nature good. He

—. “Tang Dynasty.” Wikipedia. 2009.

Dupuis, Jacques. “Jesus with an Asian Face.” SEDOS. September, 1999.

Sisci, Francesco. “China's Catholic Moment.” Firstthings. June/July, 2009.

—. “Pratical Contextualization: A Case Study of Evangelizing Contemporary Chinese.” Missiology.org.

—. “Sailing in the Western Wind.” Missiology.org. March, 1999.

—. “Theological Contributions of Sino-Theology to The Global Christian Community.” Missiology.org.

Zakaria, Fareed. “The Power of Personality.” Newsweek, 24 December, 2007.

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