Chapter 2 - Seismic Acquisition

This Chapter presents a very brief look at Seismic Acquisition, with particular
emphasis on those topics relevant to the seismic processor. If youve spent the last
!" years on a lan# crew in the Ama$on, or an equivalent len%th of time in the mi##le
of the Arctic &cean collectin% marine #ata 'or are #oin% either of these as you rea#
this(, you mi%ht want to skip this bit)
*a%e +2.+2 - The i#eal seismic source
,hat %oes into the %roun# comes back out a%ain) The characteristics of the i#eal
seismic source are #iscusse#.

*a%e +2.+- - &nshore seismic sources

The use of e.plosives onshore - still the most common source for /0an#/ recor#in%.

*a%e +2.+1 - &ther 0an# sources

&ther lan# sources are mentione#, an# vibratory sources 'the secon# most common
source( are e.amine# in some #etail.
*a%e +2.+" - 2ecor#in% the #ata - &nshore

The lo%istics an# mechanics of recor#in% #ata onshore can be enormous. A brief
e.planation of the stan#ar# recor#in% #evice is followe# by a wi#er review of
recor#in% techniques.
*a%e +2.+3 - &ffshore seismic sources

4rom lan# to sea) The #ifferences in the marine environment, an# #etails of Air-
5uns, the most common offshore seismic source.
*a%e +2.+6 - 2ecor#in% the #ata - &ffshore

7i%hli%hts the #ifferences between onshore an# offshore recor#in% an# a##resses
the %eneral problems associate# with 8arine Acquisition.
*a%e +2.+9 - :uestions

A set of questions to test your knowle#%e of this very brief intro#uction to Seismic
Acquisition.
The I#eal Seismic Source ... ;<=T *A5<

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1998
W.D.P. Cop!ter "er#ices
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The i#eal seismic source
Chan%es in the spee# '#elocity( of soun# an# the #ensity within particular rocks
causes re$lection an# re$raction of the soun# waves pro#uce# by a seismic source.
Specifically, variation of these parameters at an inter$ace between two #ifferent rock
types causes a reflection of some of the seismic ener%y back towar#s the surface. It
is the recor# of these reflections a%ainst time that pro#uce our seismic section.

A seismic reflector can only reflect back to the surface an ima%e of the ener%y pulse
it receives. If we sen# a comple. pulse into the %roun#, that pulse will be
superimpose# on every reflector we recor#. 4or this reason we wish to make the
actual seismic source as close as possible to a sin%le pulse of ener%y - a spi%e.

A spike of
ener%y
sent into
the earth
pro#uces a
set of clear
reflections.
A more
comple.
ener%y
pulse
pro#uces
confuse#
reflections

In practice an# i#eal spike is impossible to achieve. As we will see later, a spike
implies that an infinitely wi#e ran%e of frequencies nee# to be present in the source,
all release# over an infinitesimally small time ran%e.
The earliest seismic surveys use#
e.plosives as a seismic source with,
for offshore e.ploration, up to "+
poun#s '2- k%( of #ynamite bein%
e.plo#e# >ust below the surface of
the water.
This is a very effective source, still
use# for onshore surveys, but is
environmentally obviously no lon%er
a #esirable source for offshore
acquisition.
8any other #esi%ns of source have
been use# over the years, an# we
will now %o on to #iscuss the most
common.
0an# Sources ... ;<=T *A5<

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Robertson Research International
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Copyright 1997-
1998
W.D.P. Cop!ter "er#ices
Ltd.
W.D.P.
&nshore seismic sources
There are enormous lo%istical problems associate# with &nshore Seismic
<.ploration.


The seismic /line/ must first be
accurately marke# out by
surveyors.

This may mean paintin% marks on
roa#s throu%h resi#ential areas ...

... or cuttin% throu%h #ense >un%le
to mark shot an# receiver
positions.

In either case mo#ern 5*S
equipment has simplifie# the
positionin%, but accurate elevation
'hei%ht above sea level(
measurements must also be ma#e
usin% conventional surveyin%
techniques.

&nce the line position is marke#, the shootin% an# recor#in% equipment can be
transporte# onto the line. &il ? 5as #eposits ten# to be in some of the more
inhospitable re%ions of the <arth, so the actual terrain con#itions may limit the
available shootin% @ recor#in% positions as well as #efine the costs of the acquisition.

Aynamite an# other e.plosives are still use# for rou%hly half of all onshore seismic
e.ploration. ! k% of seismic e.plosive releases about "8B of ener%y almost
instantaneously, enou%h ener%y to keep your electric fire burnin% for almost !C
hours. The part of this ener%y which can usefully be converte# into a compressional
wave of seismic ener%y #epen#s on the #epth of the shot in the %roun#, an# the local
%roun# con#itions.

Seismic shots are normally place# below the near-surface hi%hly weathere# layers of
the earth. This improves the co!pling of the source to the %roun#, an# avoi#s
problems with the vary variable 'slow( acoustic velocities in the &eathering layer.
Tests may be necessary in a new e.ploration area to #etermine the optimum shot
#epth an# char%e si$e.

It may be necessary to fire an array of shots for each shotpoint. The number an#
position of each shot #esi%ne# to improve the #ownwar#-%oin% ener%y but to
attenuate the ener%y %oin% in other #irections.


In areas where the near-surface
con#itions #eman# it, lar%e
#rillin% ri%s may be necessary to
#rill the shot-holes for burial of
the e.plosive char%e.

As mentione# above, the position
an# hei%ht of each shot-hole are
carefully recor#e#, an# the #epth
of the shot in the hole is measure#
by simply notin% the len%th of the
tampin% ro# use# to place the shot
in the hole.

These parameters are necessary
for the correct processin% of the
#ata.

Char%es can vary from a few %rams to several tens of kilo%rams,
#epen#in% on the #epth of the tar%et reflectors.
The e.plosive use# is very stable, almost impossible to #etonate
without the correct electrical #etonator, an# often comes in small
/cans/ which can be combine# to%ether to make lar%er char%es.


,here better surface con#itions
e.ist, or access is #ifficult, a
portable form of #rillin% ri% may
be use#.

,ater ? mu# pumps, compresse#
air, emulsion an# foam have all
been use# to improve the
circulation of the #rill bit in
#ifferent con#itions. The types of
#rill use# e.ten#s from han#-hel#
au%ers to lar%e truck-mounte#
hammer #rills.
*ro#uction rates for
/con#entional/ '#ynamite(
e.ploration #epen# almost entirely
on the rate at which holes can be
#rille#.
If we assume that the shootin% me#ium is consistent in all #irections, we can make
some %eneralisations about the effect of an e.plosive char%e on the surroun#in%
rock.
In the imme#iate vicinity of the char%e e.tremely hi%h pressures will e.ist very
briefly at the shot instant, pulverisin% the nei%hbourin% earth materials an#
#isplacin% these to form a physical cavity within the shot hole. Deyon# this actual
cavity there will e.ist a re%ion where movement is so %reat that materials are
stresse# beyon# their elastic limits. This part of the sub-surface will be permanently
altere#.
This re%ion is e.pecte# to be a spherical volume, an# is commonly referre# to as the
equivalent cavity. Deyon# the ra#ius of this notional equivalent cavity,
#isplacements are such that we can simply consi#er the compressional wave
pro#uce# by the shot as a conventional /seismic/ wave, an# assume that any
pressure chan%es will only cause transient chan%es in the rocks - they will return to
their normal state after the wave has passe#.
&ther 0an# sources ... ;<=T *A5<

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Robertson Research International
Ltd.
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1998
W.D.P. Cop!ter "er#ices
Ltd.
W.D.P.
&ther 0an# sources
Almost anythin% that coul# possibly be use# as a source of acoustic ener%y has been
trie# onshore at one time or another.

8etal plates hit with hammers 'still use# for very shallow refraction surveys(,
wei%hts #roppe# from various #evices, e.plosive char%es an# offshore seismic
sources in water containers, even shot%uns fire# into the %roun#.

8o#ifie# har#core-tampin% equipment has been use# for shallow surveys, an#
%roun# penetratin% ra#ar is use# by archaeolo%ists 'an# some police forces( for
#etectin% near-surface #isturbances.

&ut of all of these, by far the ma>ority of other onshore surveys are con#ucte# usin%
a vibratory source on the surface. The most common of these bein% the #ibroseis
metho# #evelope# by Conoco.
Vibroseis
In a Eibroseis survey, specially #esi%ne# vehicles lift their wei%ht onto a lar%e plate,
in contact with the %roun#, which is then vibrate# over a perio# of time 'typically 9-
!3 secon#s(, with a s&eep of frequencies.


In !ps&eeping, the frequency be%ins low an# increases
with time an# in do&ns&eeping the sweep be%ins hi%h
an# #ecreases in frequency with time.
Fp
Sweep
Aown
Sweep



2e%ar#less of the sweep #irection,
vibroseis trucks normally operate
in synchronise# %roups, so
increasin% the total amount of
vibratory ener%y input into the
%roun#.

,ith less chance of #ama%e to
surroun#in% property than
e.plosives, vibrators are i#eally
suite# for use# in urban areas an#
have been use# successfully in the
centre of ma>or cities an# alon% the
shoul#er of ma>or hi%hways.

&f necessity, vibrators are a s!r$ace
source.
&n the first pa%e of this Chapter, it was pointe# out that the i#eal seismic source is a
spike, or as close to it as possible. <.plosives meet this criteria very well, but
vibroseis is obviously very #ifferent - its akin to the /chirp/ use# by ra#ar systems -
very lon% in #uration but carefully controlle# an# very repeatable.

Decause the vibroseis sweep is so carefully controlle# 'an# #irectly recor#e# for each
shot(, its effects can be rea#ily remove# #urin% the #ata processin%. The technique,
involvin% correlation of the recor#e# #ata with the recor#e# sweep, re#uces the
apparent source to a symmetrical wavelet containin% the same frequencies as the
sweep. The vibroseis correlation is now often performe# #irectly in the fiel# an#
will be #iscusse# when we come to look at correlation.
2ecor#in% the #ata ... ;<=T *A5<

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Robertson Research International
Ltd.
Copyright 1997-
1998
W.D.P. Cop!ter "er#ices
Ltd.
W.D.P.
2ecor#in% the #ata - &nshore
&nshore seismic #ata is recor#e# usin% a simple 'normally electro-ma%netic( #evice
known as a geophone.


A movin%-coil %eophone consists of a coil of wire, suspen#e#
from a sprin%, surroun#e# by a /,/ shape# ma%net.

The metal spike is pushe# into the %roun#, an# any upwar#-
travellin% ener%y from the seismic shot is recor#e# as the
electric current %enerate# by the movement of the coil
relative to the ma%net.
The amount of ener%y recor#e# by the %eophone is, of course, minute. ,here
con#itions allow 'for e.ample on relatively flat %roun#(, several %eophones may be
%roupe# to%ether, or place in strings aroun# the central 'nominal( receiver position.
This not only improves the total si%nal output from the %roup, but also /tunes/ the
%eophones so that ener%y from below is enhance# whilst that from the si#e 'gro!nd-
roll( is attenuate#. ,ell see more on this when we #iscuss marine seismic sources.

In some cases, where the surface elevation varies rapi#ly, or there is very loose near-
surface material, it may be necessary to #rill holes an# bury the %eophones below
%roun# level. In other cases 'for e.ample alon% a shoppin% street in the mi##le of a
town( the %eophones may be mounte# on metal cones an# >ust place# in contact with
the %roun#. Doth of these techniques have their own problems which must be
a##resse# in the processin% of the #ata.


&nce the shot positions have been
marke#, the %eophones are lai#
out 'in %roups if necessary( an#
connecte# either by wire or ra#io
'a teleetric system( to the
recor#in% truck.

Althou%h this may seem a trivial
task, the planting of one %eophone
every metre over maybe "
kilometres is non-trivial, an# an
enormous amount of plannin%
'an# labour( must be use# to
/lay/ the line of %eophones.

2emember once a%ain the possible
environmental problems - from
#esert to fro$en tun#ra)
The %eophone %roups may be lai# out for several kilometres prior to the start of
shootin%.

As the shot position a#vances #own the line, #ifferent sections of the recor#in%
%roups are ma#e /live/ by the recor#in% instruments to maintain a similar ran%e
of o$$sets '#istances from shot to receiver( for each shot.

At some sta%e the %roups of %eophones must be physically move# in or#er to
maintain the /live/ section.


<ven in a rural settin%, %eophone
placin% can be ar#uous, an# noise
can be %enerate# by traffic or power
lines 'typically "+-3+ 7$(.

In more remote locations,
transportation problems can a## to
the alrea#y consi#erable cost of
0an# Acquisition.

,ith these problems a conventional
'e.plosive( seismic crew may only
recor# about 9+-!++ shots per #ay.
A Eibroseis crew 'in i#eal
con#itions( may achieve as many as
9++.


5ettin% our feet wet - &ffshore Acquisition ... ;<=T *A5<

Robertson
Robertson Research International
Ltd.
Copyright 1997-
1998
W.D.P. Cop!ter "er#ices
Ltd.
W.D.P.
&ffshore seismic sources
8ost &ffshore seismic e.ploration
#oes not have the lo%istical
problems associate# with &nshore
e.ploration, but the operational
#ifficulties more than compensate
for this)

All of the necessary shootin% an#
recor#in% equipment must be
#eploye# from the rear of the vessel,
an# towe# continuously.

&f necessity, offshore seismic
e.ploration vessels have become
lar%er over the years to cope with
the increasin% workloa#, an# are
e.pecte# to operate in all but the
very worst weather con#itions.

In many areas of the worl# 21-hour
operations are con#ucte#, requirin%
sufficient personnel to operate both
the vessel an# the seismic equipment
roun#-the-clock. 8ultiple seismic
sources an# receiver cables are use#
to provi#e the hi%h #ensities of #ata
now require#.
<ven in the simplest 2A work, such
a vessel can easily obtain !+ times
the amount of #ata as the best
'Eibroseis( lan# crew in any %iven
time.
Althou%h e.plosives were once use# as an ener%y source for offshore e.ploration,
the environmental repercussions, an# the nee# for rapi# firin% an# repeatability
have brou%ht about the #esi%n an# construction of new sources.

The most common offshore 'or 'arine( source in use to#ay is a variety of (ir-)!n,
first pro#uce# in the !G3+s. These %uns use compresse# air 'at typically 2,+++ to
",+++ psi( to pro#uce an e.plosive blast of air into the water surroun#in% the %un.
The latest of these, with the movable shuttle that releases the air on the outsi#e, is
the "lee#e-)!n.

Air enters throu%h the pipe 'A( an# is fe# into the main chamber 'A( an# the air-
sprin% return chamber 'C(.
&nce the Solenoi# valve 'D( opens, air is allowe# into the firin% chamber '<(, an#
the pressure #ifferential forces the outsi#e sleeve to the left with %reat force,
releasin% the air from the main chamber. The resultant air-bubble pro#uces a
shock-wave in the surroun#in% water.

A sin%le air-%un pro#uces a pulse of ener%y 'or signat!re( that looks somethin% like
this 'the upper plot shows the time-function, an# the lower shows the frequency
content of the si%nature(H-

7ar#ly a perfect ener%y source)

Althou%h the initial ener%y burst is
reasonable, a comple. pressure
interaction between the air
/bubble/ an# the water causes the
bubble to oscillate as it floats
towar#s the surface - this pro#uces
the e.traneous bursts of ener%y
followin% the initial burst.
The amplitu#e an# perio# 'time
#ifference( between these bubble
pulses #epen# on the #epth of the
%un an# the si$e of the main
chamber in the %un.

,e cant #o much about the #epth 'see 5hosts in the ne.t Chapter(, but, if we buil#
an array of %uns, ma#e of #ifferent chamber si$es, an# fire these simultaneously, we
%ain several a#vanta%es.
1. ,e obviously increase the total amount of ener%y bein% #irecte# into the
%roun# for one /shot/.
2. The #ifferent chamber si$es will pro#uce #ifferent bubble responses, an#
these will ten# to cancel out.
3. ,e improve the #irectivity of the source. &ther than #irectly below the
source array, some frequencies will be attenuate# by the spatial #esi%n of the
array.

7eres a
typical
%un
array,
an# the
sleeve
%uns
bein%
#eploye#
from the
rear of
the
vessel.

&nce a%ain, heres a plot showin% the time an# frequency response of the entire
array.

,hen the entire array is fire#, the
bubbles /cancel-out/ 'more or less(,
an# the frequency content is much
flatter over the ran%e of typical
seismic frequencies.

This is now close to an i#eal source,
an# is very repeatable.

It has to also be very reliable as
shots are normally fire# rou%hly
every "-!+ secon#s - possibly up to
!+,+++ shots in 21 hours)
,e have mentione# before the concept that an array or %roup of shots or %eophones
can improve the spatial response of our source an#@or receivers.

This plot shows the hemisphere of ener%y emanatin% from the source array shown
above 'viewe# from below(.
The %rey line shows the #irection of the seismic line 'the #irection the boat is
movin% in( with the arrow showin% the vertical output from the array. The
colours show the total ener%y, re# bein% the hi%hest.
Chan%e the frequency of interest an# see how, althou%h the #ownwar# ener%y is
always ma.imum, the ener%y at other an%les is attenuate# by the array #esi%n.
Althou%h the actual /shootin%/ of 8arine #ata is ma#e simple by mo#ern Air-%un
arrays, there are still some operational #ifficulties associate# with these sources.
The hi%h operatin% pressures are very #an%erous. Air at 9+-!++ psi is use# in
in#ustry, with an appropriate abrasive, to remove paint from metal. Air at 2+++-
"+++ psi will remove almost anythin% 'inclu#in% skin( without any abrasive.

The %uns must be properly maintaine# - any %un failure will #ama%e the #esire#
array output response an# re-intro#uce bubbles into the si%nature. Aeployment of
the arrays is ma#e relatively simple by the use of floats etc., but the position of each
array 'multiple arrays may be use# for alternate shootin% etc.( must be carefully
monitore# in all three #imensions. ,ell #iscuss the positionin% of arrays in more
#etail when we #iscuss shootin% %eometry.

A%ain, >ust like on lan#, many #ifferent types of seismic source have been use# in the
marine environment. 7owever, as almost all mo#ern #ata is acquire# with
variations of air-%uns, we will restrict our #iscussion to those an# move on to the
recor#in% instruments.

2ecor#in% the offshore #ata ... ;<=T *A5<

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Robertson Research International
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Copyright 1997-
1998
W.D.P. Cop!ter "er#ices
Ltd.
W.D.P.
2ecor#in% the #ata - &ffshore
The recor#in% of offshore seismic #ata is complicate# by the fact that all of the
recor#in% equipment must be encase# in an oil-fille# cable or streaer 'about !+ cm
in #iameter( that is towe# behin# the vessel.

Fnlike lan# %eophones, the hydrophones use# in marine recor#in% normally use a
pie$o-electric #evice to recor# the incomin% ener%y. These hy#rophones are
connecte# to%ether in %roups '>ust like lan# recor#in%( an# may be place# every
metre or so alon% a -+++ metre streamer.

The front-en# of the streamer is connecte# to the vessel by a comple. system of
floats an# elastic stretch-sections, which are #esi%ne# to eliminate any noise reachin%
the streamer from the vessel. The en# of the streamer farthest from the vessel is
connecte# by similar stretch-sections to a tail-b!oy. This buoy may contain its own
5*S receiver an# ra#ar reflector so that its position can be establishe#.
There are several problems associate# with marine acquisitionH-
1. Ieepin% the streamer at a constant #epth is important.
2. Aeterminin% the position of 'possibly( multiple %un arrays, an# every
hy#rophone %roup in multiple streamers 'vessels are now on the #rawin%
boar# with up to 2+ streamers)(.
3. 5ettin% all of the seismic si%nals from all of the recor#in% %roups 'in all of the
streamers( back to the recor#in% system on the vessel.
All of these problems are solve# by the comple. system of mechanical an# electronic
systems insi#e or on the outsi#e of the streamer itself. 7eres some of themH-

Althou%h the oil use# within the
streamer is #esi%ne# to %ive the
streamer neutral-buoyancy, chan%es
in ti#es an# currents can effect the
#epth of the streamer.

8echanical #epth controllers
'known as birds( are place# at
intervals alon% the streamer which
'usin% pressure as a %ui#e( a#>ust
the an%le of their /win%s/ to correct
for un#esirable chan%es in #epth.

Combinations of acoustic
transceivers 'transmitter-receivers(,
operatin% at frequencies above the
normal seismic frequencies can be
use# to establish #istances from one
part of one streamer to another an#
to the source array.

Compasses are also use# within the
streamer itself to check the an%le of
the streamer at several positions
alon% its len%th.

Comple. electronics within the
streamer filters the incomin% si%nal
from a whole %roup of %eophones,
an# then converts the resultant
volta%e into a numeric value
'digitisation(.

The numbers correspon#in% to the
values for all of the %roups at any
one time are !ltiple*ed
'interleave#( to%ether an# sent
#i%itally #own >ust a few wires to
the recor#in% instruments.

This process is repeate# rou%hly
every 2 millisecon#s '2 ms or
!@"++th of a secon#( an# the
resultant #i%ital recor#in% is
eventually sent to the processin%
centre. ',hich may also be on the
vessel)(.
&ther equipment, either in the streamer or in the instrument room on the vessel, can
be use# for real-time processin% of the seismic #ata. &ther, more comple.
processin%, can be #one while the vessel is turnin%-aroun# between seismic lines.
'This can take a time - remember the - kilometres of equipment out the back)(.

&ther techniques can be, an# are use# for the recor#in% of marine #ata. &cean-
Dottom Cables, where the receivers are actually place# in contact with the seabe#,
are becomin% increasin%ly common. These allow for the recor#in% of S-,aves
'remember, these #ont travel thou%h water(, an# can be fi.e# in position to allow
for the re-recor#in% of the #ata in future years. This technique, or 1A recor#in% '-
#imensional seismic #ata recor#e# at time intervals(, can be use# to measure
chan%es in an &il or 5as fiel# cause# by the actual e.traction of the hy#rocarbon.
Althou%h the /per-kilometre/ rate for offshore acquisition is much less than that for
onshore, there are still consi#erable costs involve#. A sin%le, mo#ern, seismic
streamer costs about J!,+++,+++, an# the runnin% costs of personnel an# equipment
are also hi%h.
;ow a few questions on acquisition ... ;<=T *A5<

Robertson
Robertson Research International
Ltd.
Copyright 1997-
1998
W.D.P. Cop!ter "er#ices
Ltd.
W.D.P.