Breath Management Terminology:

How Far Have We Come?

The Problem
Breath managementcoordinating,
training, and refining breathinghas
been an area of disagreement among
teachers. A variety of terms and
descriptions are used in teaching
breathing and in pedagogical texts.
The potential for confusion
is great, as there is no
standard terminology.
Noted pedagogues have
alluded to this problem for
decades. Miller indicated
that breathing is an "area of
pedagogical controversy"
1)oz ahl (
(1977,p.xv). Fields (1947)
stated that commentary about breathing
for singing is "diversified and
fragmentary" (p.94) and also pointed
toward the "need for scientific
organization of the subject," indicating
that "authorities disagree on many
fundamental issues, basic teaching
concepts are not clearly defined,
conflicting and ambiguous
terminologies exist"
(pp.
4-5).
Pedagogues have pointed to the
controversy between scientific and
empirical methods of teaching voice
(Jorgensen, 1980; Fields, 1972; Hisey,
1970; Wohlmann, 1953). Texts from the
turn of the century show differences
between scientific and empirical
teaching in approaches to breathing.
F{isey (1970) traced this difference to the
writings of Garcia and F. Lamperti. This
controversy has extended into more
recent times:
"Support the tone" is another bit of
ludicrous advice. To support a
material substance which is at rest is
a simple matter, but tone is not
material and will cease if brought to
rest. In every unskillful act the mind
overestimates the energy required.
That is why propulsive ideas are
destructive to correct tone
production. Every mental change
has in its twin bodily change and the
singers (sic) every thought tends to
realize itself in action;
therefore propulsive
concepts overload muscles
and develop strains, pulls,
and tensions (McLean,
1951,p. 15).
Despite McLean's
commentary, recent texts
(Stanton,1983; Lindsley,1985)
tillen Freed

use the term support. Miller

(1986), while using the term breath
management and advising "breath-
pacing versus more support" (p.37),
titled his chapter on breathing "The
Supported Singing Voice." Gregg (1990)
indicated that use of the term support,
without definition and relationship to
muscular balance with the larynx, can
cause undesirable "abdominal muscular
rigidity"
(p.39).
This continued
controversy suggests that further
examination of breath management
terminology is warranted.
Purpose
The purpose was to investigate
and compare definitions and descrip-
tions of primary terms for teaching
breathing in two periods of American
voice pedagogy.
Research Questions
1. What are the similarities and
differences in breathing pedagogy
between the early 1900s and the
contemporary period? Are there
terms which are consistent between
these periods?
2. What are the problems in
developing a standard terminology
for teaching breathing in singing?
3. How do texts, both recent and
historical, define breathing for
singing?
4. Are any terms preferred over
others and if so, are there reasons for
this preference?
5. Is there greater or less
standardization in terminology in
current pedagogy as compared to the
early period?
Definition of Terms
Textbooks were defined as method
books, such as those which might be
used to teach the individual student or
voice class, and books that might be
used for pedagogical study or reference.
Vocal pedagogy is defined as solo voice
pedagogy. The term breathing refers to
the breathing process for singing.
Delimitations
This study examined texts published
in the U.S. 1970-1990 for current
terminology, and texts published in the
U.S. from 1900-1910 for the historical
perspective, and could include works
first published in Europe and
subsequently published in the U.S.
during these periods. Subsequent
editions published within the periods
investigated were included, even if the
original work was published prior to the
period.
Related Literature
Vocal terminology is a newer area of
research, although the use of terms to
define vocal concepts, including
IS
breathing, has a historical basis. A few
pedagogues (McClean, 1951; Van den
Berg & Vennard, 1959; Jorgensen, 1980;
Titze 1986a, 1986b) have called for
standardization of vocal terminology.
Otherwise, the literature indicates
varied and divergent opinion regarding
breathing terminology.
Reid's A Dictionary of Vocal
Terminology (1983) is the most
comprehensive study of terminology.
Reid defines the following terms related
to breathing: (a) breath (which "should
never be confused with the mechanics of
breathing"), (b) breath capacity, (c) breath
compression, (d) breath consciousness, (e)
breath control, (f) breath expulsion, (g)
breath management, (h) breath pressure
theory, (i) breath support, and (j) breathing.
The discussion of "breathing" includes
types of breathing: (a) abdominal or
diaphragmatic; (b) anxious; (c) auxiliary;
(d) back; (e) belly (similar to abdominal,
but with slightly more emphasis on
protrusion); (f) clavicular, (g) costal; (h)
forced; (i) intercostal; (j) nose; (k) prone; (I)
shallow; (m) silent; and (n) sustained. Reid
also defines and discusses: (a) breathing
and emotion, and (b) breathing
exercises. Other related terms, such as
(a) natural breathing, (b) appoggiare la voce,
and (c) gesture of inhalation, appear in
Reid's Dictionary. Thus, Reid has
indicated that there are many terms and
concepts of breathing. Reid's compre-
hensive analysis was his own and not
without bias, he freely admitted,
although he did much research to
compile these terms. Despite this, he did
not indicate a method for his analysis.
Thus, his analysis may not be the only
approach.
Miller (1977) undertook an
observational study comparing four
national schoolsItalian, German,
French, and Englishin which he
described the national approaches he
discovered. Miller's preferred term was
"breath management techniques," a
term Reid barely addressed. Miller
discussed management by describing
physical function and pedagogical
principles, using terminology in the
language of each school. According to
Miller, elements of the European schools
are represented in American voice
pedagogy: "There is no American
national school of singing because
teachers trained in each of the national
vocal traditions have continued to go
their diverse ways; within American
pedagogy there is less unity of approach
than in any of the major countries of
Western Europe" (Miller, 1977, p.201).
Fields (1947) examined books and
articles in American pedagogy from
1927-1942, comparing breathing
concepts and directives for breathing.
His preference was for the term breath
control. In a study modeled on that of
Fields, Burgin (1973) summarized
concepts from the time of Fields's study
to circa 1970. Monahan's (1978) study
was similar, but was international and
covered the period from 1777-1927. Y et
Monahan selected onl y 100 works from
approximately 750 in this period, and
American books were included with
those from other countries, so a view of
American pedagogy is not represented,
unlike the studies of Fields and Burgin.
Monahan's conclusions are similar,
however: There is a wide variety of
terminology and pedagogy of breathing.
Nonhistorical studies are also related.
Swank (1984), using an experimental
design in which sung tones were
compared with different breathing
directives, found that choice of
terminology can make a difference in
technique. Spifiane (1989), using a
modified Delphi (survey-resurvey)
technique, found that teachers use many
ways to teach breathing and disagree
about what are good directives. Ninety-
three directives were generated in
Spillane's original survey, indicating the
diversity of directives currently used.
There was also much variety in the top
20 directives chosen. A survey study on
training the male high voice also
showed diversity in breathing
terminology (Johnstone, 1991).
The literature on breathing
terminology suggests the following:
1. There is controversy in the number
of approaches and terms used to teach
breathing.
2. Differences in terminology used to
teach breathing are clearly evident.
3. Some believe that standardized
terminology is important; some believe
it is less important.
4. Some researchers believe that
clarification of terms is necessary.
5. Some researchers have found that
choice of breathing terminology affects
vocal production.
Method
Materials
Texts chosen from the recent period
received favorable review in The NATS
Bulletin or The NATS Journal and are
marked in the references by a bullet(.).
Historical tests investigated depended
upon availability and are marked in the
preferences by an asterisk(*).
Procedure
Texts were examined for terms, key
words, and descriptions of breathing
used consistently throughout the text,
using a historical-qualitative approach.
Emphasis was upon internal consistency
and content analysis. Terms and
16
TANAT$J.4
DONAIDFREEDJ
definitions were compared and
summarized, and conclusions drawn.
Data Analysis
Folders were constructed containing
photocopied pages of material
describing breathing. Annotations were
made indicating the use of a key term
and its related concepts. Key terms,
concepts, and relevant quotes were
noted. A primary term was chosen first
based upon frequency; if a term could
not be determined as primary because of
frequency, headings were used. Folders
were compared and common areas
determined. Then folders were re-
examined for congruent or divergent
definitions or descriptions of terms.
Tables were constructed indicating
frequency of a primary term's use and a
listing of commonly held concepts.
RESULTS 1900-1910: BREATH
CONTROL THECENTRAL TERM
Forty-four sources were identified
from 1900-1910. Thirty-five (80%) were
available for examinations.
Control, according to some, is a
contradictory term in that it does not
always produce vocal freedom in the
student:". . . it is the effort to control
breath which is productive of much of
the want of freedom that so disturbs the
student" (Manchester, 1907, p.13).
Despite this, the favored term in turn-of-
the-century America was breath control,
as indicated in Table 1. General areas of
agreement about control are also
presented in Table 1.
Breath control's main descriptors
included: (a) muscles used, (b) effort, (c)
rigidity versus flexibility, (d) efficiency
versus capacity, (e) control and nature,
(f) automatic versus conscious control,
(g) sources in which control was not the
primary term, and finally, (h) a source
which was anti-control.
Breath control in the early 1900s was
discussed in terms of respiratory
muscles. This included the use of one
muscle as the center of control, two or
three muscles, or points, as centers of
control, and a more holistic approach.
There were varied descriptions of
control in terms of which muscles are
active in breath management.
There were also those who believed
that studying breathing physiology was
not important, and thus mentioned no
muscles as being important. Powell
(1905, p.7) wrote of "the evil of vocal
physiology":
I spent years in trying to hold down
the back of my tongue, and more
years in studying diaphragmatic and
abdominal breathing. Both resulted
in serious inflammation of the abused
organs. Will the mastication of your
food be more thoroughly
accomplished by a knowledge of the
position of the muscles when the
teeth close upon the food?
contrast: "The lungs and diaphragm and
the whole breathing apparatus must be
understood, because the foundation of
singing is breathing and breath control."
However, Tetrazzini offered no
descriptions nor anatomical diagrams.
This was also the case with Miller (1910).
A relative balance exists between
sources which discussed physiology and
those which addressed the subject
sparsely or not at all.
One Center of Control
The function of the diaphragm as a
nonpaired muscle often has been
discussed, both correctly and
incorrectly. For some, it was the only
important muscle (Girard, 1909;
Clippinger, 1910). In contrast, Heinrich
(1910) advised holding out the rib
muscles. Other single muscle definitions
of control were more unusual: "The
breath should therefore be controlled at
the lower end of the trachea, by the
bronchial tubes, and not by the lips of
(N=35)
Frequencies
BreathControl..........................................................................................21
BreathSupport...........................................................................................1
BreathManagement..................................................................................2
Appoggio....................................................................................................1
VocalizedBreath ........................................................................................ I
Inspiration-Expiration .............................................................................. I
Respiration.................................................................................................3
NoCentral Term........................................................................................3
Anti-Control...............................................................................................
General Areas of Agreement
Deep Breath
Silent and Effortless Breath
Physical Exercise to Increase Breathing Efficiency
Central Importance of Breath and Breathing Pedagogy for Control
Steady Pressure/ Flow of Breath
Breathe Through the Nose (More Efficient; Expansion)
Clavicular Breathing to Be Avoided
Exercises for Training the Breath (with and without vocalization)
Expanded or Lifted Chest
TABLE I
Frequencies of Major Terms and General Areas of Agreement in American V oice Pedagogy T ex b o o k s ,
1900-1910
Control Defined in Muscular Terms Tetrazzim (1909, p.8) offered a
*4
1
the glottis" (Broekhoven, 1908, p.')). Lunn
(1900) and Myer (1903) identified a
double valve in the larynx as the source
of control.
More than One Center of Control
One pedagogue advocated the use of
two muscle groupsthe diaphragm and
the intercostals (Hulbert, 1903).
However, a majority recommended the
use of three muscle groups in breath
control, although not all were in
agreement. Most often suggested were
the abdominals, intercostals (rib), and the
diaphragm (Lehmann, 1902; James, 1903;
Aikin, 1910, Henderson 1906;
Manchester, 1907; Miller, 1910). Russell
(1904a, b, c; 1907) and Myer (1903), while
advocating the use of abdominal
/diaphragmatic/ intercostal breathing,
took a more holistic approach:". . the
body must be trained to a condition of
automatic action, which throws the effort
of singing upon the muscles surrounding
the lower thorax, relieving the throat of
all strain" (Russell, 1904b, p.11). "Expand
the entire body in a flexible, elastic
manner. This will bring into action every
muscle of the body, and apply strength
and support to the voice, for, as we have
found, there is no strength correctly
applied except through right movement"
(Myer, 1903, p. 58).
Balance of Muscles, Forces
Implicit in the use of muscle groups is
balance, also referred to as equilibrium or
opposing forces. Russell's (1904b)
discussion of control referred to
equipoise: "Buoyancy is the perfection of
physical equipoise; there is in it no
interfering muscular tension; every fibre
of the body is active"
(p.
12), an idea to
which James (1903) and others
subscribed. Other ideas of balance
included: (a) lifting the intercostals and
the simultaneous descent of the
diaphragm (Lehmann, 1902); (b)
opposites which need to be balanced
the "vitalization zone" of the breath is
the area below the breast bone, while the
"relaxation zone" is from the shoulders
upward to the jaw (Mills, 1908,
p.
73); (c)
the vertical versus horizontal direction of
the air against the vocal cords and false
vocal cords (Lunn, 1900).
Effort
Nearly all agreed that effort should be
invisible and silent. Beyond this, control
also centered around issues of freedom
versus rigidity, and efficiency versus
capacity; for some, these issues were
intertwined. Efficiency involved a steady
flow of breath, whether based on retain-
ing air or narrowing the stream of air.
Freedom versus Rigidity
Lehmann (1902) wrote of
strengthening the breathing muscles and
then gradually releasing them over time.
Russell (1904a) referred to "correct
tension:" "The matter of developing
power for breath-control is one simple
development of the muscles of the waist
and lower walls of the thorax, so that
they may be in any degree of controlling
tension without the least degree of
sympathetic tension elsewhere.
( p.
20). Tension was to be avoided in the
spine, according to Tetrazzini (1909).
Mills (1908) defined breath relaxation
and tension in the upper zone of the
bodylarynx, throat, and shoulders
which should be relaxed by displacing
the tension to the "vitalization" zone, in
the body below the "relaxation" zone.
breathing apparatus . . . must be fully
flexible, easily responsive to the mind,
and capable of making thoughtful
movements..." (Hulbert, 1903,
p.
iii).
But: "Flexibility of the muscles does not
mean looseness, or flabbiness of the
muscles" (Broekhoven 1908,
p.
17), a
concept with which Manchester (1908)
and Russell (1907) agreed. Myer favored
the right amount of effort: "Flexible
firmness without rigidity, the result of
flexible, vitalized position and action, is
the only true condition (1903,
pp.
19-20).
Ef f iciency versus Capacity
Breath control defined as capacity
versus efficiency was important. For
Clippinger, the issue of rigidity vs.
flexibility was closely related to capacity:
"In the effort to breathe deeply the pupil
often crowds the lungs so full that, in
order to hold it he must assume a rigid
condition from head to foot. Breath
control for the purpose of singing can
never be gained in this way. . . . It is
well to avoid extremes. Too much breath
is as bad as too little" (Clippinger, 1910,
p.')). Miller (1910) and Heinrich (1910)
agreed, and also indicated that
nervousness is a hindrance to efficient
breath. Thus, efficient use was as
important as quantity. Pedagogues had
two different ways of defining
efficiencyretention (Miller, 1910;
Broekhoven, 1908) and focusing the air
stream (Lehmann, 1902; Henderson,
1906). Mills (1908) was opposed to
retention, and instead encouraged
"rhythmical breathing."
Control and "Nature"
"The law of naturalness = beauty in
movement" (Hulbert, 1903). Yet nature
had many different meanings. What is a
natural mode of breathing? Is it
desirable? These questions were
be trained (Smith, 1907; Lehmann, 1902;
Russell, 1904b, 1907; James, 1903; Girard,
1909); and (b) nature must be obeyed
(Myer, 1903; Henderson, 1906).
Some were more comprehensive: "The answered in two ways: (a) Nature must
TANAT$J....4
Automatic Control
"Psychology insists upon the
breathing apparatus being in a suitable
condition to satisfy the dictates of the
mind. It must be fully flexible, easily
responsive to the mind, and capable of
making thoughtful movements"
(Hulbert, 1903,
p.
iii). According to
Hulbert, mastering all the muscles of
breathing gives the singer automatic
control. "This control must be made
automatic. . . with such certainty and
ease that it becomes a second nature.
(Manchester, 1907, p. 13). Automatic
control was to come as a result of
conscious control: "Automatism is the
final result of physical culture, toward
which all voice study should tend"
(Russell, 1907,
pp.
8-9). Control was also
equated with artistry in singing and
breathing: "The brain's culture asserts
itself, and art controls the processes
(Russell, 1904a, p.4) (italics original).
Myer (1903,
pp.
43-44) agreed:". . . the
singer whose position and action are
correct need never give his breathing a
thought." Mills (1908) also supported
this position.
Term

NDescriptors
Breath Support

Ipush the diaphragm inward

Breath Management

2 Steady breath pressure; the less singer

concentrates, the better
Vocalized Breath

Iair should be focused as far forward as

possible
Natural Breathing

Icontrol of the bronchial tubes and lungs;

diaphragm mentioned; balance
internal I external breath pressure
Appoggio I steady pressure, balance of muscles, and
deep inspiration; exertion to be avoided;
exercises important
Inspiration-Expiration

1 Flattening the abdomen; against breathing

through nose and expanded chest; exercises
important
Respiration

3closely linked with freedom; inspiration and

expiration sub-terms; diaphragm /abdomen;
agreement with major concepts of breath
control
No Central Term

3one cannot readily be identified or no one

central term; involuntary/ subconscious
Anti-Control

Ilaryngeal factors come first, then breath in

relationship
TABLE 2
Primary Terms Other than Breath Control (1 900-1 91 0)
breathing. Later, all the breathingouter edge of the lips." (p. 36). Focusing
apparatus works freely andair and changing its shape were how to
spontaneously" (p.2 3). manage the breath.
Primary Terms Other Than Breath
Control
In addition to the twenty-one sources
in which control was the primary term,
there were sources which gave a key
term other than control, or in which
there was no central term. A summary
of these terms and their descriptors is
found in Table 2 . An examination of
each follows.
Breath Support
Neidlinger (1903) used the term
support. To obtain proper support, one
must push the diaphragm inward:".
at first this exaggeration of motion is
necessary to overcome bad habits of
Breath Management
Two sources advocated a steady
pressure as the greatest factor in breath
management, and said that sometimes
the less singers concentrate on
breathing, the better it becomes (Breare,
1907; Santley, 1908). "There is no great
mystery or difficulty about breathing.
All it requires is care in arranging
convenient and appropriate places to
take breath, and practicing.
(Santley, 1908,
pp.
62 -63).
Vocalized Breath
Preetorius (1907) discussed breathing
under the "the placement of tone,"
indicating that the air should be focused
as far forward as possible, near "the
Natural Breathing
Brouillet believed in" artistic tone
production through natural breathing."
However, his concepts of nature were
curious. A goal was to "get the control
of the bronchial tubes" and lungs (p.43),
a unique concept. The diaphragm was
mentioned, but its use depends upon
one's voice type and the lung structure
one has (was an X-ray necessary?).
Balancing internal and external air
pressure was also important.
Appoggio
Appoggio was Lamperti's (1905)
central term. It involved steady
pressure, balance of muscles, and deep
inspiration, especially for higher tones.
1 %
"Exertion" was to be avoided and
exercises were important. Eventually the
terms support and control appeared as
synonyms; this may have been due to
the unidentified translator's bias
(Lamperti, 1905, p.9).
Inspiration-Expiration
Howard (1904) used inspiration-
expiration, and gave exercises and
directives much more than others. His
emphasis was upon flattening the
abdomen. He disagreed with the
majority of pedagogues who advocated
breathing through the nose and was also
against the expanded chest.
Respiration
Cappiani (1908) closely linked the
term respiration with freedom. Marchesi's
discussion of respiration used inspiration
and expiration as sub-terms; "these two
movements succeed one another in a
regular and rhythmical manner and
without any intervention of the will, as
during sleep" (Marchesi, 1903, p. xi).
Use of the diaphragm/ abdomen was
central to this seemingly natural
breathing pedagogy. Much of Curtis's
(1909) writing about respiration agreed
with the major areas of breath control
(Table 2).
No Central Term
Three sources contained no primary
term (Marchesi, 1901; Curry, 1910;
Thiers, 1903). These sources referred to
breathing as "involuntary" and
"subconscious"
(pp.
8-9), and may have
come closest to the one source which is
anti-control (see below).
Some pedagogues who used control
as their primary term used management
or support as secondary terms. These
terms were used with much less
frequency but nonetheless were present
Anti-Control and Anti-Terminology
Taylor (1908) believed that control by
any method was impossible, and
criticized both the "opposed action" and
"breath band" control pedagogues. He
attacked retention; he also criticized
those who believed that anatomical
forcefully: "An understanding of
muscular processes does not contribute
in any way to skilful (sic) execution. The
anatomist does not play billiards or row
a boat one whit the better for all his
knowledge of the muscular structure of
the body"
(p.
145). "Further, no amount
of attention paid to muscular sensations
will inform us exactly what muscles are
contracted in any complex action"
( p.
171). Taylor instead advocated
empirical pedagogy based upon
hearing, psychology, sensations, and
imitation, "These few simple phrases
open the throat, support the tone, sing
the tones forward, sing on the breath
embody a most beautiful and complete
description of vocal perfection. The
empirical study of the voice can hardly
be expected to go further than this"
(p. 197). (Taylor used the term support,
but as an unconscious process.) Rather
than making control automatic, action is
cords remain in the position for
producing tone, they also control
expiration. In this sense breath-control is
an inseparable feature of tone
production" (pp. 224-225).
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD: SUPPORT
AND CONTROL AS CONCURRENT
CENTRAL TERMS
While the favored terms of recent
pedagogues are breath control and breath
support used concurrently, there is much
variance in the choice of a preferred
primary term, as shown in Table 3.
General areas of agreement among
nearly all contemporary sources are
presented in Table 3.
understanding was necessary, but morealready automatic: "So long as the vocal
(N=23)
Frequencies
BreathSupport & Control..........................................................................7
BreathControl..............................................................................................3
Appoggio...................................................................................................... .3
BreathSupport.............................................................................................2
Support
I Control / Management...............................................................2
BreathPressure............................................................................................2
BreathManagement....................................................................................I
BreathEnergy ............................................................................................... I
NoCentral Term..........................................................................................1
Anti-Control! Terminology.......................................................................
General Areas of Agreement
Deep Breath
Silent and Effortless Breath
Physical Exercise to Increase Breathing Efficiency
Central Importance of Breath and Breathing Pegagogy
Steady Pressure! Flow of Breath
Clavicular Breathing to be Avoided
Exercises for Training the Breath (with and without Vocalization)
Expanded or Lifted Chest
Importance of Posture/ Body Alignment to Breathing
Greater Integration of Laryngeal! Pharyngeal (Production! Resonance) Factors
with Breathing
Basic Anatomical! Physiological Understanding Is Important
TABLE 3
Frequencies of Major Terms and General A reas of A greement in A merica! Pedagogy Tex tbook s, 1970-1990
20
TtLNAT5JO.W4
Support and Control in
Muscular Terms
Support and control included the use
of two, three, or four major muscles or
muscle groups, with numerous
definitions and descriptions because
two terms are involved, explanations of
support and control become somewhat
more complex. Those who advocated
support and control generally indicated
that knowledge of physiology is
important, either through descriptions
or illustrations.
Two Muscle Groups
Henderson (1979) and Harlow (1985)
advocated the use of the abdominal
muscles and the diaphragm in control
and support of the breath, and related
both to vocal production.
Diaphragmatic/ costal breathing was the
key for Stanton (1983), although he
included the muscles of the lower back.
Three or More Muscle Groups
Fields (1977) referred to the
interrelated actions of ribs, diaphragm
and abdominal wall,"
(p.
51).
Abdominals, intercostals, and back
muscles were discussed by Sable (1982).
Lindsley (1985) discussed diaphrag-
matic-costal breathing, but also
introduced the abdominals in relation
to the diaphragm. Muscles of the chest,
back, abdomen, and the diaphragm
were mentioned by McKinney (1982);
with abdominal expansion being
most important.
Balance of Muscles, Forces
The balance of when inspiratory
muscles should cease and expiratory
muscles should begin, as well as
posture, are important balancing factors
in breathing (Fields 1977). Balance of the
abdominal muscles with the diaphragm
was important for I lendersoii (1979).
The epigastrium was important to
Harlow's (1985) idea of balance. For
Sable (1982), balance was closely related
to the involvement of the abdominal,
intercostal, and back muscles; "balance
of breath control and breath support
with the method of phonation" is
important. The student might have to be
taught an overbalance: "In order to
establish one habit or to break another,
the student is often taught to overdo; he
must then relearn as he brings the sound
into balance" (Sable, 1982, p.fi). Thus,
opposing terminology might be used to
achieve a balance result.
Lindsley (1985) referred to a balance
between the intercostals and diaphrag-
matic-abdominal support and control,
and used the Greek term diad ocho k inesis
for breath management as described by
Vennard (1967, p. 260). This concept was
not much different from McKinney's
(1982): "When a person establishes the
correct posture, breathes in properly,
and then suspends the breath, a
balanced tension is set up between
muscles of inhalation and the muscles of
exhalation" (p. 56). McKinney also
preferred a balance between breathing
and laryngeal factors, and posited that
either overbalance or underbalance of
the breathing mechanism can present
vocal problems.
Effort
Nearly all agree that breathing
should be invisible and silent, whether
effort is local or balanced in the body.
Discussion of effort centers around
issues of freedom versus rigidity, and
efficiency versus capacity. These factors
were intertwined with balance for some
pedagogues. Inherent in nearly all
discussions of efficiency was the idea of
a steady flow of breath (Table 3).
Freedom versus Rigidity
Sable (1982) described the delicate
balance between rigidity and flexibility
that is tonicity of the breathing muscles:
Vitality is not tension. ...Tension, over
clutched muscles, will destroy good
tone" (Sable, 1982, p. 2). McKinney
(1982) seemed to agree. While most
were against excessive rigidity, there
was not always agreement as to which
muscles should be held firm and which
should be more relaxed.
Efficiency versus Capacity
Capacity was also related to freedom
and efficiency (Stanton, 1983). Lindsley
(1985) also believed capacity was
important, and was related to relaxed
abdominal muscles. Sable (1982) defined
capacity as a "reservoir. . . a feeling of
expansion between the waistband and
the bottom two ribsthe floating ribs-
which grows when breath is taken
properly" (p. 1). Capacity was important
to McKinney (1982), but not as
important as efficient use of breath.
Fields (1977) also encouraged a
moderate approach, but was perhaps
the strongest advocate of control of
expiration and "breath economy" (p.
57). McKinney (1982) also believed in
retention, but added the idea of
suspension, or momentarily holding
back, before releasing the breath. In
contrast, Sable (1982) advocated release:
"the singer should be prepared to let the
air out" (
p.
3).
Nature Must Be Trained
"Although the singer is not
necessarily aware of specific breathing
controls. . . during the training period
preceding the mastery of his art he
Wi'
21
Breath Management 1 abdominal expansion; silent and deep
breath; integration with posture and larynx;
balance of muscles
Breath Pressure 1 laryngeal! pharyngeal function closely
allied; cords act as a valve against the breath
Appoggio 2 overall body balance; including
laryngeal/ pharyngeal factors; nature less
disturbed
No Central Term I balance; automatic control; problems in
studying breathing
Breath Energy I supportproblems of wrongful tension;
careful consideration of terminology as
related to freedom and balance
Anti-Control and 1 terminology is evil; empirical teaching based
Anti-Terminology on vocal sensations instead
TABLE 4
Primary Terms Other Than Control/Support (1970-1990)
needs much expert guidance.
Moreover, the approach to this
achievement often demands rigorous
training or retraining of muscles and
movements that are used in quiet
breathing or in everyday speech

Breath Support
behavior" (Fields, 1 977, p. 50). Fields
provided a convincing argument for the
idea that natural breathing is not Breath
adequate for singing, which was the

Support! Control/
Management
predominant view among
2tension! freedom, muscles
I balance; released
energy vs. stronger muscular tensions;
abdominal
2used interchangeably; ribs and
back; automatic control; importance of
individual; inspiration and expiration; need
for physical exercise
TermNDescription
Breath Control3all muscle groups, but mainly abdominal;
(separate term)nature must be trained; disagreed with
abdominal expansion; controlled by
abdomen and chest, diaphragm relaxed
support / control pedagogues. McKinney
(1 983) agreed, especially in regard to the
idea of suspension before exhaling.
Finally, one works to increase natural
breath capacity, (Stanton, 1 983;
Henderson, 1 979).
Automatic Control
Those who spoke of support and
control generally believed in automatic
control, even though it was not always
described in the same manner. Sable
(1 982) wrote about the rhythm of
breathing: "The rhythm of breathing
ought to become habitual: an open
throat, the inhalation, followed by an
sigh that carries the singing tone
outward. . with no catches during the
entire cycle .....(p. 3). Fields (1 977)
advocated that automatic control should
replace conscious control. Stanton (1 983)
presented the idea of automatic control
at the outset. Henderson (1 979) stated
that exercises are important in acquiring
automatic control. McKinney (1 982) was
somewhat more reluctant to give up
conscious control, but finally did so:
"Breathing for singing has four stages:
(1 ) a breathing-in period (inhalation), (2)
a setting-up-controls period
(suspension), (3) a controlled-exhalation
period (phonation), and (4) a recovery
period; these stages must be under
conscious control until they become
conditioned reflexes" (p.51 ).
Primary Terms Other than
Control/Support
In addition to the sources in which
support and control were used
concurrently as primary terms, other
sources used either support or control as
the primary term, or in combination
with other terms. One source gave no
central term, one source proposed a new
term, and one source was anti-control
and even anti-terminology. A summary
of these terms and their descriptors is
found in Table 4.
Breath Control as a Separate Term
Proctor (1 980) believed that control
involved all muscle groups, but was
mainly abdominal, with some help from
the intercostals, and should be
conscious. He agreed that nature must
be trained, although we do not know
everything about physiology. Sundberg
(1 987) agreed with Proctor in that not
everything is known about breathing,
but disagreed with abdominal
expansion:". . . one can phonate with
the abdominal wall both expanded or
pulled in"
(p.
25). Control for Sundberg
was primarily laryngeal, but respiratory
muscles and laryngeal control may be
interrelated; there is a relationship
between breathing and phonation, but
the degree of that relationship may not
be easy to define, nor may it be the same
for everyone. He also discussed a
22 T4NATJ0.4
difference between nature and training.
Punt's discussion was relatively simple
". . . release of breath ... is controlled
by muscles of the walls of the abdomen
and chest, the diaphragm being in
relaxation" (1979, p.58).
Breath Support
Alderson (1979) discussed tension
and freedom, muscles and balance, yet
seemed contradictory: "Support is a
sensation of released energy" is a
contrast to "the stronger the muscular
tensions, the stronger the support" (p.
29). Like Proctor's definition of control,
for Schmidt (1989) support was
primarily abdominal, yet she agreed
with Sundberg in terms of laryngeal
relationship. Like Alderson, Schmidt
used control as a secondary term.
Breath Support/Control/Management
Two sources used a combination of
support, control, and management.
Wormhoudt (1981) used the terms more
or less interchangeably, and referred
primarily to "rib and back breathing
which lowers the larynx because the
breathing muscles and larynx are
hooked up physiologically" (pp. 25-26).
She referred to nature and agreed with
Sable (1982) but disagreed with
McKinney (1982) in calling for
"immediate expiration" of the breath
(p.23), and suggested automatic control
and the importance of the individual.
Leyerle (1986) associated support and
control with inspiration and expiration,
carefully separating physiology and
pedagogy. Both Leyerle and
Wormhoudt agreed on the need for
developing the breathing muscles.
Breath Management
Hammar (1978) preferred breath
management; there was no need to
concentrate on control. Yet many of his
ideas agreed with support and control
pedagoguesabdominal expansion,
silent and deep breath, integration with
posture and larynx, and balance of
muscular forces.
Breath Pressure
For Coffin (1980), breath and
laryngeal / pharyngeal function were
closely allied. There was very little
discussion of the breath, except in terms
of retention, and breath pressure was the
only central term used in his extremely
abbreviated discussion. Coffin's
laryngeal relationship of the breath was
somewhat similar to Sundberg (1987),
Wormhoudt (1981), Sable (1982) and
others. In another source, however,
Coffin used a different central term (see
appoggio, below). Rossell (1983) also used
the term pressure, and always discussed
the breath in relation to the vocal folds,
without discussion of the breathing
musculature, indicating laryngeal
integration found in previous
pedagogues, perhaps to a greater
degree. The folds act as a valve against
the breath. Thus, when the term pressure
was used, laryngeal factors were closely
allied with breathing.
A ppoggio
While Miller used the terms support,
control, and management in two sources
(1977; 1986), in both sources he clearly
advocated the term appoggio an
integrated concept from Italian
pedagogy. Emphasis in appoggio is upon
overall body balance, including
laryngeal/ pharyngeal factors. Nature is
less disturbed in appoggio than in other
techniques, according to researchers.
Coffin (1987) borrowed much of his
discussion from Garcia and F. Lamperti,
and in the end was also an advocate of
appoggio; like Miller, he did not separate
breath from the rest of the singing act.
No Central Term
The terms support, control, and
management all appeared in Bunch
(1982), but without apparent preference.
Balance was important, although
laryngeal factors are not discussed in the
section about breathing; automatic
control was also important. Bunch also
commented upon problems of studying
breathing pedagogy.
A dvocating a New Term: Breath Energy
Doscher (1988) discussed the
problems of wrongful tension which
support presents more than other
pedagogues. She advocated the term
breath energy
and careful consideration
of terminology as related to freedom
and balance.
A nti-Control and A nti-Terminology
Whitlock (1975) stated that breathing
cannot be separated from singing itself
(like other pedagogues), but breathing
often receives too much emphasis.
There is brief mention of the abdomen,
and of the problem with the idea of
"support from the diaphragm" as
mentioned by Doscher (1988).
However, the most fascinating
discussion concerned terminology.
Whitlock addressed the problem of
terminology, but indicated that the
solution was less analysis. "Breath
control is: a confusing imagery and not
fact. The early Bel Canto teachers
taught that tone controls the breath,
and not the breath the tone" (p.101).
Terminology is: "... the greatest
deterrant (sic) to good singing known
to man. It is the vocal 'Tower of Babel,'
causing endless confusion"
(p.
105).
23
Comparison
Greater Variance in Contemporary
Terminology
There is much greater variance in
breath management terminology in the
recent period versus 1900-1910. Twenty-
one of 35 sources (60%) at the turn of the
century preferred the most-used term
breath control, while 7 of 23 sources (30%)
preferred breath control and breath
support used concurrently as central
terms. Thus, there is much less
agreement upon a central term or terms
to describe breath management and its
pedagogy in singing, despite the
increase in anatomical and
physiological description in
contemporary sources and increased
scientific research since the turn of the
century (although not with large
samples) which has preceded, and in
some cases, guided recent writings.
In both periods, terminology reflects
a range of concepts from muscular
control, to automatic control, to
empirical teaching and anti-control.
More sources in the recent period
favored automatic over local control.
While only one source from each period
was anti-control, each emphatic in
arguing against control. No matter what
term was preferred, similar concepts
were found in both periods, i.e., the
larynx as a valve, retention, and
automatic control.
Other Central Terms
While there is greater variance in
central terms during the recent period,
three primary terms appear in 1900-1910
that do not appear in the contemporary
period: (a) vocalized breath, (b) inspiration-
expiration, and (c) respiration. Only one
term appears in the modern period
which was not found at the turn of the
century: Breath energy.
Agreenien t and Disagreement Between
Periods
While there has been a change of
primary term, many underlying
concepts have remained the same. These
include: (a) deep breath, (b) silent and
effortless breath, (c) physical exercise to
increase breathing efficiency, (d) central
importance of the breath and breathing
pedagogy to singing, (e) steady breath
flow, (1) avoidance of clavicular
breathing, (g) exercises for training the
breath, and (h) expanded or lifted chest.
However, in the contemporary period,
there is less agreement with the idea that
one should breathe through the nose
versus the mouth; breathing through the
nose was more universal at the turn of
the century.
New Concepts in the Contemporary Period
Four new concepts are important to
contemporary pedagogues, and perhaps
reflect the increase in scientific study
since the turn of the century. These
concepts are: (a) importance of posture
and body alignment to breathing; (b)
integration of laryngeal / pharyngeal
factors with breathing, found in sources
such as James (1903), but having more
emphasis in the contemporary period;
(c) importance of physiological
understanding, and (d) clarification of
the physiology of the diaphragm.
Muscles and Muscle Groups
There is less emphasis on local
control, or control by one muscle or
muscle group, in the contemporary
period, perhaps owing to advances in
physiological research. Instead of one,
two, or three muscle groups as found at
the turn of century, two to four muscle
groups are indicated as being important.
There is less emphasis on the diaphragm
as the sole center of control. While two
pedagogues (Lunn, 1900; Myer, 1903)
believed in laryngeal valve control, only
one (Rossell, 1983) presented this idea in
the contemporary period.
Balance
There is greater consciousness in the
contemporary period of the
interrelationship of muscles and
muscular forces; more sources discussed
the concept of balance or its synonyms,
equilibrium and opposition of forces.
More muscles are involved in equilib-
rium in the recent period, although a
few sources from 1900-1910 spoke of the
process perhaps more eloquently, using
terms such as buoyancy, equipoise
(Russell, 1904b), vitalization zone (Mill,
1908), or the law of poise (Hulbert, 1903).
Ef f ort: Freedom and Rigidity
The line between freedom and
rigidity is finer in the contemporary
period, as might be expected with less
tendency toward local effort and greater
tendency toward muscular balance.
While some (Russell, 1904a) referred to
"correct tension," a balance between
flexibility and rigidity (Broekhoven,
1908), "flexible firmness" (Myer, 1903),
or "just enough tension" (Russell, 1907),
contemporary pedagogues expanded
this view, adding the factor of posture,
as previously indicated. For example,
Sable (1982) referred to vitality and
tonicity, which are not tension, and
McKinney (1982) and Alderson (1979)
referred to "balanced" tension. On the
other hand, exactly which muscles
should have "just enough tension" and
which should be more relaxed was a
matter of debate in both periods.
Ef f ort Ef f iciency and Capacity
In the contemporary period,
capacity was perhaps seen as slightly
less important than efficient use of air.
Release as part of efficiency is a new
24 16NA75J4
theme (Sable, 1982), but retention is
still viewed as important by some, as it
was at the turn of the century. Focus of
air, important to early pedagogues, is
less important today; this may be
related to a better understanding of
physiology, although air focus could
have been a real sensation to the turn-
of-the-century singer and thus
significant in certain pedagogues.
Nature
Turn-of-the-century pedagogues
were more divided as to the role of
nature in breath management. They
disagreed as to whether nature should
be trained versus obeyed. This division
in hardly seen in the contemporary
period. Rather, there is more emphasis
upon nature and training being hand-in-
hand: Nature must be trained, but in the
process must not be violated
(Sable,1982; Miller, 1977; Fields, 1977).
There were many definitions of nature
1900-1910; nature in the contemporary
period is more physiological, although
points of physiology may be viewed
somewhat differently. Even so, some
(Bunch, 1982; Sundberg, 1987) still
indicate that much about breathing
physiology remains a mystery.
Automatic Control
More contemporary pedagogues
ascribed to the idea of automatic control
than pedagogues at the turn of the
century, although the discussions from
both periods (Myer, 1903; Fields, 1977;
Bunch, 1982) regarding automatic
control have some similarities. Modern
pedagogues (Sable, 1982; Stanton, 1983;
Doscher, 1988; Sundberg, 1987) discuss
the role of the individual singer in
automatic control more than peda-
gogues from the turn of the century.
Dif f erences in Descriptors Dt'scribm,c.
Noncentral Terms
In both periods, different descriptors
of muscles and muscular balance, effort,
nature, and automatic control were used
to describe the same central term.
Further, for both periods, concepts of
terms which are not central, or of
writings which have no central term,
were often in agreement with concepts
of the central term or terms. The
exception is those who are anti-control
or anti-terminology, who were not in
agreement with the majority in either
period and were quite outspoken.
Discussion
If one examines Reid (1983) for
definitions of breath control and breath
support, one finds that Reid is opposed
to both. Breath control is "an attempt to
limit breath expenditure through some
system of consciously controlled
breathing. . . . Both experimentally and
experientially, it is evident that no
controlled technique of breathing
reduces the amount of breath
expenditure or improves function.
when the laryngeal muscles coordinate
effectively, little or no excess breath will
escapein effect, the properly
functioning mechanism itself controls
and regulates the breath"
(p.
39). Breath
support is also a fallacy for Reid: "The
utilitarian value of breath support as a
pedagogic practice is highly suspect. It is
not based upon a valid functional
principle, it leads to a self-conscious
awareness of the body, confuses ends
with means, and overlooks the fact that
in an ideal technique all of the muscular
systems involved are in equilibrium,
which means that they are self
supporting" (Reid, 1983, p. 43). Reid
seems to be in agreement with the
dissenters (Taylor, 1908; Whitlock, 1975),
despite all the scientific study between
the Italian masters and the present day.
Reid's agreement is that control and
support, as he defines them, are not
possible, and that breathing must be
taught laryngeally and pharyngeally, or
"from the top down" rather than "from
the bottom up." This is an argument for
muscular efficiency, but a different
efficiency than is taught in many
support/ control pedagogies alone. If the
laryngeal muscles are balanced and
suspended, then less air is required to
vibrate the vocal folds, which vibrate
less thickly and whose muscles work in
absolute harmony and balance with
those of respiration. Even Sundberg
(1987) indicates that one is able to
phonate whether the abdomirials are in
or out. From this perspective, Taylor
and Whitlock are reasonable in not
advocating control! support. In fact,
Reid also posited that the terms breath
management, breath pressure, and breath
consciousness all have something to do
with "volitional control" and therefore
are also less than desirable terms
because they do not consider total
balance.
The results suggest that
standardization of terminology
probably is not possible. This problem
may be compounded when one
considers that much pedagogy is oral
tradition, and is complex due to the
intertwining of various breath
management schools during the course
of the century.
Pedagogical Considerations
If support, control, management, and
pressure are less than desirable terms
but they have been used for nearly a
century, what should be used? Reid
seems drawn to the dissenting Taylor
142S
(1908) and Whitlock (1975), but he is also
drawn to Lamperti (1905), Miller (1977;
1986), and Coffin (1987):
Appoggiare la voce: Taken at face
value, this early pedagogic directive
appears to be nonsense, since vocal
tone, like that produced by all other
instruments, is merely a series of
complex sound waves that cannot be
"leaned" upon. The structure of the
vocal mechanism, however, suggests
a possible explanation for the coinage
of such a phrase. The larynx, a
respiratory organ which is also a part
of the digestive tract, can be moved
up and down to permit swallowing
and ingestion. When used as a vocal
organ, this mobility permits it to
function efficiently as a primary
resonator. Four paired suspensory
muscles participate in stabilizing
these movements, and when held in
balanced tension, they coordinate to
provide the resistance necessary to
energy economy. When the
suspensory muscles are maintained
in equilibrium, the singer is able to
"lean on the voice" and sing without
fatigue (Reid, 1983, p. 13).
Thus, it would seem that from the
sources investigated, appoggio (Lamperti,
1905; Miller, 1977,1986; Coffin, 1987)
deserves consideration as a pedagogical
term which considers all factors.
Others (i.e., Sundberg, 1987; Sable,
1982) mention the laryngeal/ pharyngeal
relationship to breathing, an emphasis
which has increased since 1900-1910.
Lunn (1900) and Myer (1903), in the
double-valve theory, advocate local
control; while Reid (1983) indicates that
this may not be totally impossible, it has
not received favor. Rather, Miller's
description of appoggio takes into
account both the breathing muscles and
their balance, and the
laryngeal /pharyngeal factors from
which they cannot be divorced. Doscher
(1988) also supports this concept in
advocating the term breath energy.
One who teaches nppoggio would be
equipped to deal with students who
have been taught from varied
perspectives, whether
empirical / laryngeal balance or
control/ support. More than automatic
control, appoggio is an understanding of
processes, but one which brings them
into total relationship, increasing
efficiency, and realizing that a positive
change in breath management can
positively affect position of the
larynx/ pharynx, as supported by
Swank 1984). Appoggio offers
moderation between those who
advocate total empiricism and those
who train students in more localized
concepts. Further, appoggio is in
agreement with Hisey (1970), who
advocated the use of both scientific and
empirical approaches. Finally, one can
teach using concepts of air speed of the
breath without disturbing the balance of
appoggio (Miller, 1986).
Learning Style Inventory
Teachers might consider
administering a learning style inventory
If the student is more receptive to a
concrete learning approach, it might be
necessary to demonstrate specific
breathing muscles and sensations, but
care should be taken to integrate these
sensations with laryngeal/ pharyngeal
function as soon as possible. Stated
another way: To achieve appoggio, it
might be necessary to teach either from
a control/ support or non-control
perspective, depending upon whether
an aspect of management appears to be
underbalanced or overbalanced, so that
the out-of-balance area may gradually
come into balance. One might teach the
speed of the breath, both inhaling and
exhaling, which can be managed
without disturbing total balance.
Studio Inventory
The teacher should learn the
terminology to which the student has
been exposed. Some predetermined
open-ended questions might be used:
1. Describe how you breathe for
singing.
2. Do you feel the breath as you sing?
If so, where do you feel it?
3. Are you uncomfortable at any time
during breathing for singing? During
inhalation? During exhalation?
During long phrases? When you start
or end a phrase?
4. Do you think about the breath
during singing, or does it seem to
come to you naturally? Explain what
you might be thinking or sensing.
Teachers may add questions based
upon their own needs. Such questions
might be crucial for beginning or
transfer students, in order to determine
approaches to breathing problems.
Positive change might be easier to effect
if one incorporates some of the student's
terminology rather than one which has
been imposed by the teacher.
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