IS 1893 ( Part 1 ): 2002

7.4.4 EARTHQUAKES
Vibrations of earths surface caused by
waves coming from a source of disturbance inside the
earth are described as earthquakes. Elastic rebound
theory it explain that the strain energy that
accumulates due to deformations in earth mass, gets
released through rupture when it exceeds the
resilience of the storing material. The energy thus
released is propagated in the form of waves which
impart energy to the media through which they pass
and vibrate the structures standing on the earth s
surface. Show the phenomenon of rupture as is
attributed to the elastic rebound theory. Section
originally straight in its unstrained state, deforms
through strain accumulation as shown in fig b and on
rupture it breaks as shown in fig c. resulting in a
relative shifts on the fault line. A major tectonic
earthquake is generally preceded by small foreshocks
caused either by small ruptures or plastic
deformations and is followed by aftershocks due to
fresh ruptures or the re adjustments of the fractured
mass. A major shock may result from a rupture of
rock over a length of 100 to 400 km and several
kilometers wide and thick. The energy released in
damaging earthquakes is of the order of 10
20
to 10
25

ergs. The bigger is the mass that ruptures at one time.
The bigger is the earthquake. The small earthquakes
may also be caused by volcanic eruptions, subsidence
in mines, blasts, impounding of reservoirs, pumping
of oil, etc.
7.4.5 MEASUREMENTS OF GROUND
MOTION
Basically two types of instruments are used to record
earthquake motions. The instruments used by
seismologists are generally very sensitive and record
even the weakest motion of the earth. These records
called seismograms are useful in interpreting
earthquakes occurrences and help in determination of
epicenter, focal depth and other parameters of the
event. These are hower, not suitable for strong
motion instruments called accelerographs are
employed. Both types are complementary o each
other and provide useful data in earthquake
engineering. These instruments make use of the
simple electromagnetic principle that when a coil
moves in a magnetic field, a voltage is generated as n
output which is proportional to the relative velocity
between the magnet and coil. By a suitable
mechanical design of the coil magnet mounting, the
relative velocity in such case the unit is termed as a
velocity pickup.yht velocity pickup may be
connected to a galvanometer, whose mirror would
rotate in proportion to the voltage input. The
mechanically properties the natural frequency and
damping of the seismometer and galvanometer would
diced which frequency range would be magnified by
a particular set of equipment and they are sometimes
classified as short period or long period
seismographs. These instruments record continuously
and require an accurate time base in order to identify
arrival times of various phases of ground motion.
7.4.6 CONSEQUECES OF EARTHQUAKES
The earthquake causes vibratory motion to the mass
of earth through which the energy waves pass and
this motion is transmitted to the engineering to the
eng struc standing on the earth surface. They get
impulsive jolts in both the horizontal directions and
also tp some extent in the vertical directions. The
vibratory jolts cause additional shear and moments in
the strand it may fail if they have not been adequately
designed. The loss of life and property occurs directly
from the failure of structures and may also take place
due to indirect causes such as failures of water
supply. Fire caused by short circuiting of electric
wires or kitchen fires, flooding through failures of
dams and embankments or due to sea waves.
7.4.7 SEISMIC ZONING
The earthquakes activity in different parts of a
country or region is not necessarily of the same
severity. Thus it is necessary to classify it into zones
so that the forces for which structures are designed at
any site are varied according to the severity of
earthquakes expected there. The seismicity at a site is
assessed partly by its distance from the faulted rock
formations and partly from the frequency and size of
socks that have occurred in the past. The zoning of a
country depends primarily on the know seismic
history of a region unless there is specific evidence of
tectonic features.
7.5 TYPES OF VIBRATIONS
Whatever may be the cause of vibrations, a structure
vibrates in one of the following four ways of
deformation or a combination: a) Extensional b)
bending c) shearing and d) torisional. An example
of extensional vibrations in structures would be that
of vertical vibrations of rigid block resting on soil;
that of bending would be the vibrations of a chimneys
stack; that of shear would be the horizontal vibrations
of a multistoried building having columns stiffened
by rigid floor beams at different levels; that of
torsional would be the twisting of a building having
its supporting parts of different stiffness. Generally
one type of deformations of two types of deformation
though quite often combination of two types of
deformation can be important like that of bending
IS 1893 ( Part 1 ): 2002
and shear deformations in vibrations of chimneys in
higher modes and horizontal and rocking mode
vibrations in machine foundations. The vibration
behavior would depend on mass and stiffness
distribution and constraints on the system.
7.5.1 DEGREE OF FREEDOM
When a mass is vibrating its position in space with
respect to its equilibrium position can be described
by six coordinates three translational, say, along the.
Orthogonal axes x, y, z and three rotational about the
same axes. The mass may have freedom to move
only in certain directions and may be considered in
other directions. The number of independent
coordinates required to describe the positions of
vibrating mass are termed as degree of freedom of
that mass. The total degree of freedom would be the
sum of degrees of freedom of individual masses.
7.6 EARTHQUAKES RESISTANT
CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS
A majority of small buildings are constructed in
brick, stone, mud or a combination there of. These
structures have fared poorly during earthquakes and
have suffered extensive damage, the main cause
being their heavy mass and very small or negligible
tensile strength of the materials used in construction.
The typical damage caused to such construction in
some of the past earthquakes. The horizontal
earthquake force causes diagonal tensile cracks. a lot
of research work has been on the strengthening of
masonry buildings and the relevant finding have been
incorporated in the Indian code . the
recommendations involve provision of horizontal
bands at lintel level, roof level, vertical steel corners,
junctions of walls, and at jambs of openings, bracing
in plan at tie level for pitched roofs: use of cement
mortar at least of 1:6 proportions or equivalent
cement lime mortar .
7.6.1 EARTHQUAKE EXCITATION
For engineering purpose the time variation of ground
acceleration is the most useful way of defining the
shaking of the ground during an earthquake. The
ground acceleration appears on the right side of the
differential governing the response of structures to
earthquakes excitation.
7.6.2 RESPONSE SPECTRUM CONCEPT:
The concept of the earthquake response spectrum
introduced by M.A.Biot in 1932.as a practical means
of characterizing ground motion and their effects on
structures. Now a central concept in earthquake
engineering the response spectrum provides a
convenient means to summarize the peak response of
all possible linear sdf systems to a particular
component of ground motion. It also provides a
practical approach to apply the knowledge of
structural dynamics to the design of structures and
development of lateral force requirements in building
codes. A plot of the peak value of a response
quantity as a function of the natural vibration period
T
n
of the system. or a related parameter such as
circular frequency w
n
or cyclic frequency f
n
is called
the response spectrum for that quantity. A variety of
response spectra can be defined depending on the
response quantity that is plotted. Consider following
peak response
u
0
(T
n,
) =max {u (t, T
n,
)} similarly u
`
, u
``
7.6.3 CONSTRUCTION OF RESPONSE
SPECTRUM
1. Numerically define the ground motion acceleration
u
g
``
(t); typically, the ground motion ordinates are
defined every 0.02 sec. 2) select the natural
vibrations period and damping ratio of an SDF
system.
3) Compute the deformation response u(t) of this
SDF system due to the ground motion by any
numerical methods.
4) Determine the u
o
, the peak value of u(t).
5) The spectral ordinates are d= u
o
, v= (2/t
n
) d and
A= (2/t
n
)
2
d 6) repeat steps 2 to 5
7.6.4 DISTINCTION BETWEEN DESIGN AND
RESPONSE SPECTRA
A design spectrum differs conceptually from a
response spectrum in two important ways. First the
jagged response spectrum is a plot of the peak
response of all possible sdf systems and hence is a
description of a particular ground motion. The
smooth design specification of the level of seismic
design force or deformation.as a function of natural
vibrartion period and damping ratio. This conceptual
difference between the spectra should be recognized
although in some situations their shapes may be
similar .such is the case when the design spectrum is
determined by statistical analysis of several
comparable response spectra.. Second the design
spectrum for this site is defined as the envelope of the
design spectra for the two different types of
earthquakes. Note that the short period of the design
spectrum is governed by the nearby earthquake.
While the long period portion of the design spectrum
is controlled by the distant earthquake.