Chapter 1 Homework:

Metric and Normed Spaces

Exercise 1.1 A set A is countably innite if there is a one-to-one, onto map from A to
N. A set is countable if it is nite or countabl innite, otherwise it is uncountable.
(a) Prove that the set Q of rational numbers is countably innite.
Proof: Dene
A
n
= {
p
q
|n = p + q}.
Notice, each A
n
is nite. To prove A
n
is one-to-one, we notice that every ra-
tional number appears in exactly one A
m
. Additionally, every rational number
exists in some A
n
, hence, the correspondence is onto.
(b) Prove that the set R of real numbers is uncountable.
Proof: Assume f : N R. Then R = {x
1
, x
2
, ...}. Consider the interval, I
1
,
a closed set that does not contain x
1
. Next, let I
2
I
1
that does not contain
x
2
. Continuing this pattern, choose I
n
, a closed interval, such that I
n+1
I
n
and x
n
/ I
n
. Now, consider x
m
R, it follows that x
m
/ I
m
hence,
x
m
/

n=1
I
n
.
Continuing this logic, it is deduced that

n=1
I
n
= .
However, the innite intersection of closed sets is nonempty hence, a con-
tradiction. Furthermore, x
0

n=1
I
n
which implies x
0
/ R thus, R is
uncountable.
Exercise 1.2 Give an proof that

n=0
x
n
=
1
1 x
,
when |x| < 1.
Proof: Consider,
S
n
=
n

i=0
x
i
= 1 + x + x
2
+ x
3
+ ... + x
n
,
the sequence of partial sums.
xS
n
= x(1 + x + x
2
+ x
3
+ ... + x
n
) = x + x
2
+ x
3
+ ... + x
n
+ x
n+1
1
S
n
xS
n
= (1 + x + x
2
+ x
3
+ ... + x
n
) (x + x
2
+ x
3
+ ... + x
n
+ x
n+1
)
S
n
(1 x) = 1 + x
n+1
S
n
=
1 + x
n+1
1 x
We want to show lim
n
S
n
=
1
1x
, ie. |S
n

1
1x
| < for some n N.
Since |x| < 1, we know (1 x) < M = 1 thus, lim
n
x
n+1
= 0, hence, N

N
|x
n+1
| < (1 x) < M whenever n N

. Hence,

1 x
n+1
1 x

1
1 x

1 x
n+1
1
1 x

x
n+1
1 x

=
x
n+1
1 x

x
N+1
1 x
<
M
1 x

M
M
=
Thus, the desired result is achieved.
Exercise 1.3 If x, y, z are points in a metric space (X, d), show that
d(x, y) |d(x, z) d(y, z)|.
Solution:
Case d(x, z) > d(y, z) :
d(x, y) d(x, z) d(y, z)
d(x, y) + d(y, z) d(x, z),
the Triangle inequality for metric spaces.
Case d(x, z) < d(y, z) :
d(x, y) d(y, z) d(x, z)
d(x, y) + d(x, z) d(y, z)
d(y, x) + d(x, z) d(y, z),
the Triangle inequality for metric spaces.
Exercise 1.4 Suppose that (X, d
X
) and (Y, d
Y
) are metric spaces. Prove that the Carte-
sian product Z = X Y is a metric space with metric d dened by
d(z
1
, z
2
) = d
X
(x
1
, x
2
) + d
Y
(y
1
, y
2
),
where z
1
= (x
1
, y
1
) and z
2
= (x
2
, y
2
).
Proof: By denition, to prove Z is a metric space, it must satisfy the four axioms:
d(z
1
, z
2
) = d
X
(x
1
, x
2
) + d
Y
(y
1
, y
2
) 0 x
1
, x
2
, y
1
, y
2
Z
d(z
1
, z
2
) = d
X
(x
1
, x
2
) + d
Y
(y
1
, y
2
) = 0iffx = y Z
d(z
1
, z
2
) = d
X
(x
1
, x
2
) + d
Y
(y
1
, y
2
) = d
X
(x
2
, x
1
) + d
Y
(y
2
, y
1
) = d(z
2
, z
1
)x
1
, x
2
, y
1
, y
2
Z
d(z
1
, z
2
) = d
X
(x
1
, x
2
) + d
Y
(y
1
, y
2
)
d
X
(x
1
, x
3
) + d
X
(x
3
, x
2
) + d
Y
(y
1
, y
3
) + d
Y
(y
3
, y
2
)
= d
X
(x
1
, x
3
) + d
Y
(y
1
, y
3
) + d
X
(x
3
, x
2
) + d
Y
(y
3
, y
2
)
= d(z
1
, z
3
) + d(z
3
, z
2
)
2
Exercise 1.5 Suppose that (X, || ||)is a normed linear space. Prove that (1.2) and (1.4)
dene metrics on X.
Proof: (1.2) d(x, x) = ||x y||
1. d(x, y) 0x, y X
2. d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y
3. d(x, y) = ||x y|| = ||y x|| = d(y, x)x, y X
4. d(x, y) = ||xy|| = ||xz+zy|| ||xz||+||zy|| = d(x, z)+d(z, y)x, y, z X
(1.4) d(x, x) =
||xy||
1+||xy||
1. d(x, y) 0x, y X
2. d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y
3. d(x, y) =
||xy||
1+||xy||
=
||yx||
1+||yx||
= d(y, x)x, y X
4. d(x, y) =
||xy||
1+||xy||
=
1+||xy||1
1+||xy||
= 1
1
1+||xy||
= 1
1
1+||xz+zy||
1
1
1+||xz||+||zy||
=
1+||xz||+||zy||1
1+||xz||+||zy||
=
||xz||+||zy||
1+||xz||+||zy||
=
||xz||
1+||xz||+||zy||
+
||zy||
1+||xz||+||zy||

||xz||
1+||xz||
+
||zy||
1+||xz||
=
d(x, z) + d(z, y)x, y, z X
Exercise 1.7 Show that the series

n=1
(1)
n
n
is not absolutely convergent. Show that by permuting the terms of this series one can
obtain series with dierent limits.
Solution:We want to show that

n=1

(1)
n
n

n=1
1
n
converges. The harmonic series,

n=1
1
n
= 1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+
1
4
+
1
5
+
1
6
+
1
7
+ ...
Let
S
m
=
m

n=1
1
n
Then,
S
1
= 1
S
2
= 1 +
1
2
S
4
= 1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+
1
4
> 1 +
1
2
+
1
4
+
1
4
= 2
3
S
8
= 1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+
1
4
+
1
5
+
1
6
+
1
7
+
1
8
> 1 +
1
2
+

1
4
+
1
4

1
8
+
1
8
+
1
8
+
1
8

= 2.5
.
.
.
S
2
k > 1 +
k
2
, k = 0, 1, ..., m
Since lim
k
S
2
k > lim
k
> 1 +
k
2
= , the series

n=1
(1)
n
n
is not absolutely
convergent.
To demonstrate how a permutation of terms results in series with dierent limits,
S =

n=1
(1)
n
n
= 1 +
1
2

1
3
+
1
4

1
5
+
1
6

1
7
+
1
8
...
Consider
S
2
=
1
2
+
1
4

1
6
+
1
8
...
Now,
S
2
+ S =
3S
2
= 1
1
3
+
1
2

1
5

1
7
+
1
4

1
9

1
11
+
1
6
...
Rearranging these terms yields
3S
2
= 1 +
1
2

1
3
+
1
4

1
5
+
1
6

1
7
+
1
8
... = S
But
3S
2
= S
Exercise 1.8 Let (x
n
) be a sequence of real numbers. A point c R {} is called
a cluster point of (x
n
) if there is a convergent subsequence of (x
n
) with limit c. Let C
denote the set of cluster points of (x
n
). Prove that C is closed and
limsup x
n
= max C and liminf x
n
= min C
Proof:
Closed: To prove that C is closed, we must show that C contains all of its limit points.
Suppose c C is a limit point. Then by denition, x
n
C such that x
n
c hence,
> 0, N
1
N such that |x
n
c| <

2
n N
1
. However, since x
n
C, x
n
is a cluster
point hence, x
n
k
such that x
n
k
x
n
. Thus, > 0N
2
N such that |x
n
k
x
k
| <

2
k N
2
. Let N = max{N
1
, N
2
}. Then
|x
n
k
c| |x
n
k
x
k
| +|x
k
c| <

2
+

2
= .
Therefore, since C contains all of the cluster points of x
n
, it contains all of its limit points
hence, by denition, C is closed.
limsup x
n
= max C: Let x
n
be a sequence in C. If C is unbounded, it follows that
limsup
n
x
n
= max C = .
Suppose C is bounded. Since we know C is closed it must contain all of its limit points,
namely, its maximum. Let = max C. By the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, every
4
sequence, x
n
C has a convergent subsequence, x
n
k
. Choose x
n
k
such that lim
k
x
n
k
=
. It follows that limsup
n
x
n
= hence,
max C = = lim
k
x
n
k
= limsup
n
x
n
.
Exercise 1.9 Let (x
n
) be a bounded sequence of real numbers.
(a) Prove that for every > 0 and every N N there are n
1
, n
2
N, such that
limsup
n
x
n
x
n
1
+ , x
n
2
liminf
n
x
n
.
Proof:
(x
n
) is a bounded sequence. Let limsup
n
x
n
= M. By denition,
> 0(x
n
k
) (x
n
) (x
n
k
) M when n
k
N. Hence, n
k
N
|M x
n
k
| < M < x
n
k
+ limsup
n
x
n
< x
n
k
+
The proof for x
n
2
liminf
n
x
n
is analogous.
(b) Prove that for every > 0 there is an N N such that
x
m
limsup
n
x
n
+ , x
m
liminf
n
x
n

for all m N.
Proof:
By denition, > 0N N
| sup
mN
x
m
limsup
n
x
n
|
hence,
sup
mN
x
m
limsup
n
x
n
+ x
m
limsup
n
x
n
+
The proof for x
m
liminf
n
x
n
is analogous.
(The key to understanding this problem lies in the fact that m N in the
term sup
mN
x
m
, namely, although x
m
may contain terms very far from the
limsup
n
x
n
, the tail of the sequence x
m
will become closer to the limsup
and ultimately an N N can be chosen to satisfy the inequality.)
(c) Prove that (x
n
) converges if and only if
liminf
n
x
n
= limsup
n
x
n
Proof:
() Let M = limsup
n
x
n
and m = liminf
n
x
n
. We want to show
if x
n
x then M = m = x. Since x
n
is bounded, we know there exists
subsequences x
n
k
and x
n
j
of x
n
such that
x
n
k
M and x
n
j
m.
5
Since we know x
n
x, then it follows that any subsequence of x
n
must also
converge to x hence,
x
n
k
x = M and x
n
j
x = m.
Thus, M = m = x and limsup x
n
= liminf x
n
.
() By part (b), we proved that x
m
limsup
n
x
n
+ and x
m
liminf
n
x
n

for all m N hence,

liminf
n
x
n
x
m
limsup
n
x
n
+ .
Let x = limsup x
n
= liminf x
n
. It follows that
x = liminf
n
x
n
x
m
limsup
n
x
n
+ = x + .
Hence,
|x
m
x|
for all m N. Thus, (x
n
) x.
Exercise 1.10 Consider a family x
n,
of real numbers indexed by n N and A.
Prove the following relations:
limsup
n

inf

x
n,

inf

limsup
n
x
n,

and
sup

liminf
n
x
n,

liminf
n

sup

x
n,

Proof: Let n N be constant. By denition of inmum, it follows that

inf

x
n,
x
n,
, A.
Hence,
limsup
n

inf

x
n,

limsup
n
x
n,
, A.
Furthermore,
limsup
n

inf

x
n,

inf

limsup
n
x
n,

.
Let n N be constant. By denition of supremum, it follows that
x
n,
sup

x
n,
, A.
Hence
liminf
n
x
n,
liminf
n

sup

x
n,

, A.
6
Furthermore,
sup

liminf
n
x
n,

liminf
n

sup

x
n,

The largest of the small is less than or equal to the smallest of the large.
Exercise 1.11 If (x
n
) is a sequence of real numbers such that
lim
n
x
n
= x,
and a
n
x
n
b
n
, prove that
limsup
n
a
n
x liminf
n
b
n
.
Proof: Since {x
n
} x, it follows that
lim
n
x
n
= limsup
n
x
n
= x = liminf
n
x
n
Consider a
n
x
n
,
limsup
n
a
n
limsup
n
x
n
= x,
hence,
limsup
n
a
n
x.
Similarly,
x = liminf
n
x
n
liminf
n
b
n
,
hence,
x liminf
n
b
n
.
Furthermore,
limsup
n
a
n
x liminf
n
b
n

Exercise 1.12 Let (X, d

X
), (Y, d
Y
), and (Z, d
Z
) be metric spaces and let f : X Y and
g : Y Z be continuous functions. Show that the composition
h = g f : X Z,
dened by h(x) = g(f(x)), is also continuous.
Solution: By the continuity of f, we can deduce that for every open set H Y
f
1
(H) X is open. Similarly, by the continuity of g, every open set G Z
g
1
(G) Y is open. Therefore, for every open set G Z f
1
(g
1
(G)) X is open.
Furthermore, open sets in Z have an open preimage in X, thus, h = g f : X Z is
continuous.
Exercise 1.13 A function f : R R is said to be dierentiable at x if the following
limit exists and is nite:
f

(x) = lim
h0
f(x + h) f(x)
h
.
7
(a) Prove that if f is dierentiable at x, then f is continuous at x.
We want to show that > 0 > 0 |x c| < implies |f(x) f(c)| < .
However, this is the same as computing the limit f

(x) = lim
h0
f(x+h)f(x),
hence, if the limit exists and is nite at x, then f is continuous at x.
(b) Show that the function
f(x) =

x
2
sin(1/x
2
) x = 0
0 x = 0
is dierentiable at x=0 but the derivative is not continuous at x = 0.
By the denition of dierentiable, we must show that f

(0) = lim
h0
f(h)f(x)
h
exists and is nite. For x = 0
f

(0) = lim
h0
h
2
sin(1/h
2
)
h
= lim
h0
hsin(1/h
2
) = 0.
For x = 0
f

(x) =
2
x
cos(1/x
2
) + 2xsin(1/x
2
).
For continuity of f

(0), we must have lim

x0
f

(x) exist and be equal to 0,

lim
x0
f

(x) = lim
x0

2
x
cos(1/x
2
) + 2xsin(1/x
2
) = DNE
Hence, f

(x) is not continuous at x = 0.

(c) Prove that if f is dierentiable at x and has a local maximum or minimum at
x, then f

(x) = 0.
Suppose f(x) attains a local max at x. This implies f(x) > f(x + h)h
B
h
(x). It follows that
f

(x) = lim
h0
+
f(x + h) f(x)
h
0
and
f

(x) = lim
h0

f(x + h) f(x)
h
0.
Since f is dierentiable at x, we know these limits exist and are nite, hence
f

(x) = lim
h0
+
f(x + h) f(x)
h
= lim
h0

f(x + h) f(x)
h
= 0.

Exercise 1.14 If f : [a, b] R is continuous on [a,b] and dierentiable in (a, b), then
prove that there is a a < < b such that
f(b) f(a) = f

()(b a).
8
Deduce that if f

(x) = 0 for all a < x < b the f is a constant function.

Proof: The equation of the line through (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)) is given by

f(b) f(a)
b a

(x a) + f(a).
Consider the distance between the line and the function f(x).
d(x) = f(x)

f(b) f(a)
b a

(x a) + f(a) = f(x)

f(b) f(a)
b a

(x a) f(a)
Since f is continuous on [a, b] and dierentiable on (a, b), by Rolles Theorem, There
exists (a, b) such that d

() = 0.
d

() = 0 = f

()
f(b) f(a)
b a
f

() =
f(b) f(a)
b a
f(b) f(a) = f

()(b a).
Now, using this result, we can show that if f

(x) = 0 for all a < x < b the f is a

constant function. Choose x, y (a, b). By the statement of the problem, f

(x) = f

(y) =
0 hence,
f

(x) = f

(y) = 0 =
f(b) f(a)
b a
f(b) = f(a) = k,
where k is a constant. Since this is true for all x, y (a, b), f(x) = f(y) = kx, y (a, b),
hence f is the constant function.
Exercise 1.15 Prove that every compact subset of a metric space is closed and bounded.
Prove that a closed subset of a compact space is compact.
Proof: Let X be a metric space. Let K X be a compact subset of X.
Suppose K X is bounded but not closed and assume K is compact. Since K is com-
pact, K must be complete, ie. every Cauchy sequence x
n
K must converge to a limit
in K. However, since K is not closed, x
n
x such that x / K which contraducts with
the completeness of K.
Suppose K X is closed but unbounded and assume K is compact. Since K is un-
bounded, nite -net > 0, hence it is not totally bounded. However, since K is
compact, K must be totally bounded which contradicts with the above deduction.
From these arguments, it is deduced that a compact set K X must be closed and
bounded.
We know a compact subset K of a metric space X is complete and totally bounded hence,
any subset A of this compact subset is also bounded. By similar arguments to above, A
must be closed to ensure the completeness of K.
9
Exercise 1.16 Suppose that F and G are closed and open subsets of R
n
, respectively,
such that F G. Show that there is a continuous function f : R
n
R such that:
(a) 0 f(x) 1
(b) f(x) = 1 if x F
(c) f(x) = 0 if x G
c
Solution: Consider the function
f(x) =
d(x, G
c
)
d(x, G
c
) + d(x, F)
.
Since F and G
c
are closed, disjoint sets in R
n
, f is well-dened for all x R
n
. (de-
nominator can never be zero since d(x, G
c
) + d(x, F) = 0 implies that x F G
c
= )
Additionally, d(x, G
c
) and d(x, F) are continuous functions for all x R
n
, hence, f(x) =
d(x,G
c
)
d(x,G
c
)+d(x,F)
is continuous for all x R
n
.
(a) By the denition of metric, d(x, y) 0x, y S. It follows that d(x, G
c
)
d(x, G
c
) + d(x, F)x R
n
hence,
0
d(x, G
c
)
d(x, G
c
) + d(x, F)
1.
(b) The distance d(x, A) of a point x X from the set A is dened by
d(x, A) = inf{d(x, y)|y A}.
Now, consider x F. Then d(x, F) = inf{d(x, y)|y F} = 0 hence,
f(x) =
d(x, G
c
)
d(x, G
c
) + 0
=
d(x, G
c
)
d(x, G
c
)
= 1
if x F.
(c) Consider x G
c
. Then, d(x, G
c
) = inf{d(x, y)|y G
c
} = 0 hence,
f(x) =
0
0 + d(x, F)
= 0
if x G
c
.
Exercise 1.20 Let X be a normed linear space. A series

x
n
in X is absolutely con-
vergent if

||x
n
|| converges to a nite value in R. Prove that X is a Banach space if
and only if every absolutely convergent series converges.
Proof:
() Assume X is a Banach Space. We want to show that every absolutely conver-
gent series converges. Since X is Banach, we know X is a normed linear space that is
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complete with respect to the metric d(x, y) = |x y|. Let

x
n
be an arbitrary ab-
solutely convergent series. This implies that

i=N
|x
i
| 0. If S
n
=

n
i=1
x
i
Then,
|S
n+m
S
m
| = |

n+m
i=m+1
x
i
|

n+m
i=m+1
|x
i
|

i=N
|x
i
| < hence, S
n
is a Cauchy se-
quence in X. Suppose S
n
S, since X is complete, S X.
() Assume every absolutely convergent series converges. We want to show that X
is a Banach space. Let

x
i
be an arbitrary absolutely convergent series. It follows
that the sequence of partial sums, S
n
=

n
i=1
x
i
is a convergent sequence hence, S
n
is a Cauchy sequence. Then there exists a monotonically increasing sequence n
k
such
that |S
n
S
m
| <
1
2
k
whenver n, m n
k
. Let S
n
1
= x
1
and S
n
k
S
n
k1
= x
k
. Then
S
n
k
=

k
i=1
x
i
, which we know converges hence, |x
i
| = |S
n
k
S
n
k1
| <
1
2
k1
. Since

x
i
was an arbitrarily chosen absolutely convergent series, the sequence of partial sums, S
n
, is
consequently an arbitrary Cauchy sequence that converges to a limit in X which implies
that X is complete. Therefore, X is a Banach space.
Exercise 1.23 Suppose that f : X R is lower semicontinuous and M is a real number.
Dene f
M
: X R by
f
M
(x) = min(f(x), M).
Prove that f
M
is lower semicontinuous.
Proof: Let x
n
x with x X. f
M
(x
n
) = min(f(x
n
), M).
Case 1: f(x
n
) > M
liminf
n
f(x
n
) > liminf
n
M = M f(x)
hence, f
M
(x
n
) is lower semicontinuous by denition.
Case 2: f(x
n
) < M
liminf
n
f
M
(x
n
) = liminf
n
f(x
n
) f(x)
hence, f
M
(x
n
) is lower semicontinuous by denition.
Exercise 1.27 Suppose that (x
n
) is a sequence in a compact metric space with the prop-
erty that every convergent subsequence has the same limit x. Prove that x
n
x as
n .
Proof: Suppose x
n
y with y = x. Then by denition of compact metric space,
for some > 0x
n
k
, a convergent subsequence of x
n
, such that lim
n
k

d(x
n
k
, x) .
However, in the problem statement, we are given that x
n
k
, lim
n
k

d(x
n
k
, x) < , which
contradicts with d(x
n
k
, x) , thus x
n
x.
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