UNIVERSITATEA GHEORGHE ASACHI DIN IASI

FACULTATEA DE ARHITECTURA
G.M.CANTACUZINO
CONTRADICTII INTRE
SOCIOLOGIA LUI H.L.SULLIVAN
SI
NONSALANSA LUI D. BURNHAM
STUDENT : st.arh.Eman!"#C.I$r%m


CUPRINS:
PARTILE:
- HENRI LOUIS SULLIVAN
reprezentat prin avocat .Emanue-C.I!rim
-"ANIEL #URNHA$
reprezentat prin avocat Ae%an&ru #u&aca
'ON": Pan(ere )!orma urmeaz* !unc ia)
INTRODUCERE&B%'(ra$%!)************* ****... *..+
,.A-%t'r%m B%"-%n(.........................................................................................
/.S'0%'"'(%a s% arh%t!0tra "% S""%1an..............................................................2
3.CONCLUZII ................................................................................................... ,4
#i+io(ra!ie
INTRO"UCERE
,+io(ra!ia-
Loui. Henri Suivan/ a&e.ea &oar Loui. Suivan ,0 .eptem+rie 1234 5
16 apriie 1786- /a !o.t un ar9itect american/&enumit )p*rintee
ar9itecturii mo&erni.te). Suivan/ care e.te con.i&erat &e mu i
.peciai ti i ar9itec i ca !iin& creatoru z(:rie-norior mo&erni/ a !o.t un
ar9itect care a e%ercitat o puternic* in!uen * a.upra ar9itecturii i
ar9itec ior/ critic a ) coii &in C9ica(o ) i mentor a ui 'ran; Lo<&
=ri(9t.
Loui. Suivan .-a n*.cut >n #o.ton/ $a..ac9u.ett. !iu a unui iran&ez
i a unei eve iene/ care au emi(rat >n Statee Unite a .!ar.itu anuui
126?. Cre.cut >ntr-o !amiie muti-etnic* i muti-cutura*/ t:n*ru Loui.
Suivan a >nv* at numeroa.e i &iver.e ucruri +azate pe cait* ie .ae
native/ a a cum .unt &e.enu/ (ra!ica/ c:ntatu a mai mute in.trumente
muzicae/ &an.uri ca.ice i popuare/ .upravie uirea >n con&i iie vie ii
&e a ar* i a ceei ur+ane. Era proi!ic i !uent >n en(ez*/ !rancez*/
(erman*/ iran&ez* i ate im+i (aice. Toate ace.tea/ mani!e.tate pe un
!on& puternic orientat arti.tic/ -au !*cut .* !ie e%trem &e in&epen&ent/
tiin& >nc* &e a v:r.ta &e 11 ani c* va urma .* &evin* ar9itect.
@n timpu c:t a !o.t >n iceu/ Suivan a !o.t un eev a pro!e.oruui $o.e.
=oo.on/ a c*rui in!uen * e&ucativ* .-a e%ercitat &e-a un(u >ntre(ii
.ae vie i. "up* a+.ovirea iceuui >naintea (enera iei .ae/ a v:r.ta &e
14 ani/ i &up* ce trecu.e nenum*rate e%amene .evere &e capacitate .i &e
te.te/ a intrat a coaa &e ar9itectur* &in $a..ac9u.ett. In.titute o!
Tec9noo(</ .in(ura in.titu ie &e >nv* *m:nt .uperior &in Statee Unite
care o!erea atunci a.t!e &e .peciaizare. "up* numai un an/ &ezam*(it a
con.tatat c* !acutatea &e ar9itectur* $IT/ copia pro(rama &e >nv* *m:nt
&e a cole des beaux-arts &in Pari./ care .e a%a pe .tu&iu e%cu.iv a
ar9itecturii anticior/ Rena terii / +arocuui/ ca.ici.muui i
aca&emi.muui.P*ra.e te .tu&iie/ .e mut* a P9ia&ep9ia/ Penn.<vania
i > i (*.e te .in(ur .erviciu a !irma ar9itectuui 'ran; 'urne...
"epre.iunea economic* &in 12A0 prin care a trecut Stateor Unite/ -a
!*cut pe 'urne.. .* renun e a Suivan/ >n ciu&a aprecierii &eo.e+ite a
cait* ior .ae te9nice i arti.tice. @n ace.t punct &e cotitur* a carierei
.ae/ Suivan .-a mutat a C9ica(o/ >n acea i an 12A0/ pentru a !i parte a
e%poziei &ezvot*rii ora uui care a urmat &eza.truui provocat &e
Marele incendiu din Chicago &in 12A1. @n acea.t* perioa&*/ Suivan a
ucrat pentru =iiam Le#aron Benne</ ar9itectu a&e.eori cre&itat cu
>n* area primei c*&iri mo&erne cu .c9eet &e o e .
"up* mai pu in &e un an &e ucru a !irma ui Le#aron/ Suivan .-a
mutat a Pari. i a .tu&iat pentru un an a renumita Ccoe nationae
.upDrieure &e. +eau%-art.. "e i pro(ramu ace.teia/ copiat &e $IT/
!u.e.e cu &oar &oi ani >n urm* o &ezam*(ire pentru Suivan/ &e &ata
acea.ta arta Rena terii i .piritu !ecun& i puternic in.pirant a ui
$ic9ean(eo > captiveaz* i >i .timueaz* intere.u i creativitatea
arti.tic*.
Intor. a C9ica(o a inceput .a ucreze pentru !irma &e Bo.ep9 S. Bo9n.ton
i Bo9n E&eman ca &e.enator . Bo9n.ton E E&eman prime.c proiectarea
&e.i(n-uui &e interior pentru Ta+ernace $oo&</ &ecorative )!re.co
.ecco) a+oane ,te9nic* &e .tenci apicat pe tencuia* u.cat*-/ proiectat
&e Suivan.
In 12A7 "an;mar A&er i an(aFeaza pe Suivan .i un an mai t:rziu/ e a
&evenit partener >n !irma. Acea.ta a marcat >nceputu ceor mai
pro&uctivi ani ai ui Suivan. Aici a in!uen at pro!un& tinerii &e.i(neri/
cum ar !i 'ran; Lo<& =ri(9t care a venit .* >m+r* i eze &e.ene i
principiie ui Suivan ca .ur.* &e in.pira ie pentru munca .a.
A&er i Suivan .i au marit !aima ca .i ar9itecti a inceput/ prin
numeroa.e proiecte &e teatru in Coora&o /Seatte/ =a.9in(ton/proiectu
cuminant a ace.tei !aze &in i.toria !irmei a !o.t in anu 1227 #ui&in(
Au&itorium ,1224-127? &e.c9i. >n etape-/ in C9ica(o/ o c*&ire cu
utiizare mi%ta e%traor&inar care a incu. nu numai un teatru &e 6.8?? &e
ocuri/ &ar/ &e a.emenea/ un 9ote-Au&itorium 9ote i o c*&ire &e
+irouri cu un turn &e 1A etaFe/ cu vitrine comerciae a parteru c*&irii
Au&itorium #ui&in( cu teatru .*u ma(ni!ic i un 9ote/ a pu.
iteramente C9ica(o pe 9arta cutura* i a ri&icat pro!iu ora uui/ a
&e.c9i&e caea pentru ca ora u .* poata .a (*z&uia.c* Coum+ian
E%po.ition- &in 1270. Aici A&er i Suivan .i-au rezervat etaFee
.uperioare ae turnuui pentru propriie +irouri . "up* anu 1227 !irma a
&evenit cuno.cuta pentru c*&irie &e +irouri/ >n .pecia >n 1271 #ui&in(
=ainGri(9t >n St Loui. C*&ire i teatru ,127?-/ >n C9ica(o #ur.a &e
Vaori ,1276-/ Huarant< &in 1273-1274 /#u!!ao/ NeG Ior; i 1277-
17?6. Loui. Suivan e.te con.i&erat &e mu i a !i primu ar9itect care .i-
a ima(inat i a reaizat un voca+uar +o(at ar9itectura pentru un nou tip
revou ionar &e con.tructii &in o e &e mare inatime/ cu verticaitate
&i.tincte i e%pre.ive. In anu 1222/ec9ipei i .e aatura .i 'ran; Lo<&
=ri(9t
Hran& Opera Hou.e/ C9ica(o. 122?. "emoata in178A.
Pue+o Opera Hou.e/ Pue+o/ Coora&o. 127?. "i.tru.a &e !oc
1788.
NeG Orean. Union Station/ 1278. "emoata 1736.
"oo< #oc;/ Sat La;e Cit</ Uta9. 1271. "emoata 1743.
C9ica(o Stoc; E%c9an(e #ui&in(. A&er E Suivan. 1270.
"emoata 17A8.

Jion Tempe/ C9ica(o. 1226. "emoat1736.

Troe.c9er #ui&in(/ C9ica(o. 1226 "emoat 17A2.

Tran.portation #ui&in(/ =or&K. Coum+ian E%po.ition/ C9ica(o.

A&er E Suivan. 1270576. An e%po.ition +ui&in(/ it Ga. on<
+uit to a.t a <ear.

Loui. Suivan an& C9arne< Cotta(e./ Ocean Sprin(./ $i..i..ippi

&e.tro<e& in Hurricane Latrina. 'ran; Lo<& =ri(9t a.o caime&
cre&it !or t9e &e.i(n.

Sc9ier #ui&in( ,ater Harric; T9eater-/ C9ica(o. A&er E

Suivan. 1271. "emoata 1741.
M01N

T9ir& $cVic;er. T9eater/ C9ica(o. A&er E Suivan. 1220O

"emoata 1788.

T9irt<-Nint9 Street Pa..en(er Station/ C9ica(o. A&er E Suivan.

1224. "emoi.9e& 1706.

Stan&ar& Cu+/ C9ica(o. A&er E Suivan. 122A522. "emoi.9e&

1701.

Pi(rim #apti.t C9urc9. A&er E Suivan. 1271. "e.tro<e& +< !ire

Banuar< 4/ 8??4.

=irt "e%ter #ui&in(. A&er E Suivan. 122A. "e.tro<e& +< !ire

Octo+er 86/ 8??4.

Heor(e Harve< Hou.e. A&er E Suivan. 1222. "e.tro<e& +< !ire

Novem+er 6/ 8??4.
A-%t'r%m B%"-%n(/ C9ica(o 5 cea mai .emni!icativa opera &e inceput
a ui L. Suivan. Ocupa/ &in pucnt &e ve&ere ur+ani.tic intrea(a in.ua/
cu o a&ancime !oarte mare/ tema &e proiectare !iin& &eo.e+it &e
compe%a. In miFoc/ pie.a cea mai importanta/ era cea mai mare .aa &e
.pectacoe/ in pricipiu opera/ cu o capacitate &e A??? &e ocuri/ o ci!ra
a+.out impre.ionanta. Ca&irea e.te mar(inita &e ca&iri &e 2 niveuri/
9ote .i +irouriP - panu .aii principae &e o inovatie te9nica
remarca+ia/ .ucce.u ace.tei ec9ipe .e &atoreaza .i !aptuui ca aveau
competente &i!erite/ Suivan a avut rou ce mai mare in &epa.irea
e.teticii ric9ar&.onieine &e inceput a ca&irior inate .coii &in C9ica(o/
intr-o e.tetica proprie.
Au&itoriumu/ &upa cum .e o+.erva/ &in punct &e ve&ere e.tetic ii
e.te in&atorat ui Ricar&.on/ pentru ca eementee &e +aza/ ma.ivitatea
pietrei aproape nepreucrata !oo.ita a primee niveuri/ toata ro+u.tetea
.i .o+rietatea pe care -au &eranFat a un moment &at pe A&er/ i .e
&atorau ui Ricar&.on. Si(ur ca a.a .e intampa cu toate per.onaitatie
ar9itecturii &e care ne ocupam/ in perioa&a &e inceput/ in perioa&a
uceniciei/ .i(ur ca in!uenta mae.truui e.te covar.itoare/ iar Ricar&.on a
in!uentat pe toti ar9itectii epocii/ nu numai pe Suivan/ &ar e mai
tarziu .e ei+ereaza &upa cum vom ve&ea prin capo&operee .ae: T9e
=ainGr(9t #ui&in( .i Huarant<.
Lui Suivan i .e &atoreaza .i cateva ucrari teoretice/ prin care e .i-a
con.tituit para&i(ma proprie ar9itecturaa. A.t!e con.tituin& in acea.i
timp inceputu/ c9iar &aca nu !oarte +ine precizat/ a ar9itecturii
or(anice/ pe care a preuat-o .i a continuat-o/ urmarin& principiie cee
mai importante/ ar9itectu american '.L.=ri(9t. Apoi .-a con.tituit intr-
un curent/ care poate !i urmarit &e-a un(u epocior. Incu.iv in
ar9itectura contemporana e%i.ta o ramura a ar9itecturii or(anice care a
capatat .i ea &i!erite !orme. E%i.ta un or(anic apropiat .au impetit cu
ar9itectura 9i(9-tec9/ &e !apt cea mai intere.anta com+inatie po.i+ia/ .i
cumva putem .u.tine ca cee mai .pectacuoa.e rever+eratii ae
ar9itecturii contemporane/ nu ar !i !o.t po.i+ie !ara preceptee teorii
or(anicuui ae ui Suivan.Ace.te principii univer.a vaa+ie/ precepte
&e urmat con&en.ate in cateva a!ori.me re(ui &e compozitie/ care
con.tituie &e !apt o e%e&ra a teoriei ar9itecturae/ toate !acute pentru a !i
urmate. Citatu e.entia/ care iu.treaza inceputu ar9itecturii ui Suivan/
e.te con&en.at intr-un a!ori.m )'orm !ooG. !unction) &in care a !o.t
intee. e%act contrariu. Tot Suivan con.i&era nece.ara in!ranarea &in
!oo.irea ornamentuui a.t!e atentia .a .e concentreze pe ce e.te mai
important. "ar cu toate ace.tea/ e !ace o com+inatie &e &ecoratie/ &e
in!uenta orientaa/ pe care o apica in toata ar9itectura .a. Le(ea
!un&amentaa/ !orma urmeaza !unctiei/ a !o.t un .o(an a&aptat ime&iat
&e tot mo&erni.mu practic/ care .e reven&ica &in opera ar9itecturaa a ui
Suivan. Opera .a .e con.tituie in cateva repere e.entiae/ cuminan& cu
Car.on Pirie care .e con.tituie intr-un e%empu &e ar9itectura pur
mo&erna. "eci &e ar9itectura care .-a practicat pana a Fumatatea
.ecouui 8?/ aproape c9iar tot .ecou 8?/ aproape !ara niciun !e &e
mo&i!icare. Pentru ca aici/ in cazu ca&iri Car.on Pirie/ rezovarea &e
cot pe care a !oo.it-o Suivan .i in!ore.centa +o(ata a niveu
mezaninuui/ a niveu trotuaruui/ a pietonuui/ at!e e.te o .tructura
pura e%primata ca atare/ a !e cum e.te in Letter #ui&in( 1 .i 8. E a
retinut &in or(anic ca mani!e.tarea ar9itecturii e.te &in .ine in.pre a!ara/
aici e(atura cu Spencer/ =it9man/ pentru ca e ca toti ar9itectii
practicieni .i apoi teoreticieni/ nu !ac &ecat .a i.i creeze propria !io.o!ie
ar9itecturaa +azata pe ce con.i&era ei mai .emni!icativ in teoriie .i in
e.tetica &in perioa&a !iecaruia &e !ormare. "e aceea in!uenta atat &e
puternica ui Vioet Le "uc/ Entretien. .ur Karc9itecture/ !iin& e%empu
pentru toata ar9itectura .ecouui 17 .i 8?. A.t!e perceptee ace.tea ae
ar9itecturii or(anice/ e%trem &e practice/ pe care e-a !oo.it Suivan.
In toata ar9itectura ui/ in .pecia a ca&irie inate cu care .e
i&enti!ica/ vom putea intani cee trei componente e.entiae ae or&inuui
ca.ic/ +aza/ trunc9i .i coronament. In preceptee ar9itecturii or(anice/ pe
care o anticipeaza/ i&ea acea.ta &e cre.tere/ &ezvotare &upa mo&eu
umii vii/ a unui em+rion/ a unei .eminte/ &in care apare ar9itectura/ e.te
principiu !un&amenta a unei ar9itecturi vii/ a unei ar9itecturi or(anice.
Acea.ta repartitie/ in .pecia in ca&irie inate/ ne va !rapa/ mai ae.
e%u+eranta coronamentuui/ pentru ca Suivan recunoa.te rou
coronamentuui in ar9itecutra in .en.u ace.tei cre.teri !ire.ti .i a
impinirii cre.terii pantei cu o in!ore.centa &eo.e+it &e +o(at
ornamentata .i careia ii acor&a toata atentia. $ai &eparte vom ve&ea un
e%empu ca.ic/ cum e.te ar9itectura ui $ie. van "er Ro9e &upa a &oua
Fumatate a .ecouui 8?/ ace.t ucru &i.pare/ .i z(arie-norii .unt &oar cu
trunc9i/ au e%act aceea.i e%pre.ivitate.
$o&uarea !ata&ei/ a eementeor .tructurae iar apoi .u+impartirea/ &e
o+icei in trei/ a eementeor &e !ene.trare/ eemente evi&ent neportanteP
!oo.irea in cee mai mute cazuri/ &ar nu in parter / pacarea cu carami&a
!ireproo! a .tructurii &e rezi.tenta .i mo&uarea .i pre!a+ricarea
eementeor &e parapet &in teracota/ care poate !i e%trem &e puternic
&ecorata.
SOCIOLOHIA LUI SULLIVAN
Suivan a con.i&erat .ocioo(ia/ a !i cea mai ur(ent* &intre &i.cipine a.a
cum America a >ncercat .* reaizeze promi.iune &emocratic*. Animat &e
anumite >n ee(eri &e.pre .ine i comunitate/ care vor &e!ini mai t:rziu/
coaa &e a C9ica(o &e Socioo(ie/ Suivan .e ve&ea pe .ine ca un !e
&e in(iner &e .ocioo(ie/a c*rui ar9itectur* ar (enera .pa iu &emocratic i
ar >ncuraFa interac iunea autentic*. C9ica(o a !o.t a+oratoru ui/ un&e e
uptat cu !ervoare pentru ie irea &in c*tu ee &e tra&i ie/pentru a &a !orm*
unui prezent &emocratic. @n timp ce mi carea a aFutat in.pira remo&eat
pei.aFu >n care oamenii au ucrat .i au trait/ pu ini a.t*zi ar con!un&a
.pa iu ar9itectura a unui z(:rie-nori/ .au mo&erni.mu ar9itectura/ >n
(enera/ cu cutivarea &e autenticitate/ c9iar i mai pu ini .-ar con!un&a
mo&erni.m i z(:rie-nori cu >n&epinirea &emocra iei. Ne>n!r:nat
Suivan .per* pentru viitor au !o.t >n*+u it &e critici po.tmo&erne ae
&inamica .pa ia* a >m+r* i at. Se .u. ine c* acea.t* .c9im+are &ramatic*
a !o.t o !unc ie &e un viciu !un&amenta >n teoria .ocia* Suivan. @n
urma Leo Strau../ .e .u. ine c* impicit/ >n cee+ru ui Suivan &icton
)!orma urmeaz* !unc ia) a !o.t pr*+u irea/&i.tinc ia >ntre rea i i&ea.
Acea.ta a .u+minat vocea ui Suivan >nca&rarea >n timp ce .entimentu
&e &emocra ie &in punct &e ve&ere .trict &e proce.iune. @n cee &in urm*/
Suivan a c*utat o ar9itectur* prin care controu a.upra circum.tan ei nu
.ervit nici unui .cop mai mare &ecat ce &e .avare/ o ar9itectur* a c*rui
eva&are &in trecut a.cun. &e a ve&ea un !e &e &irec ie/ care ar putea &a
.en. ui Suivan. Se .u(ereaz* c* .ocioo(ii nu .unt/ .pre &eo.e+ire &e
Suivan/ i c* apeurie or &e autonomie i re.pon.a+iizare vor+i a
proce. i mi care/ mai &e(ra+* &ec:t .e termin* .au &e.tina ii.

) .piritu &emocra iei e.te o !unc ie care caut* e%pre.ie >n or(anizare/
!orma .ociaa ... Prin urmare/ aranFa ar9itectura pentru &emocra ie/ nu
pentru !eu&ai.m. @ncin(e inima taQ )
Ca un miFoc principa &e or(anizare a .pa iuui .ocia i coor&onarea a
interac iunii .ociae/ .-ar pre.upune ca ar9itectura a !i &e intere. principa
pentru .ocioo(i. "ar pu ini au e%aminat rou ar9itecturii in crearea &e
&inamica .pa ia* a reait* ii .ociae i tipuri &e rouri cuturae a
vaorior ace.tor &inamici &e e%pre.ie. O mare parte &in acea.ta
ne(iFare poate !i e%picat prin !aptu c* .ocioo(ii i.torici/ au .u+iniat
&imen.iunie temporae ae vie ii .ociae. Ca "avi& Harve< a pu./ timp i
i.torie/ mai &e(ra+* &ec:t .pa iu i (eo(ra!ia. "ar/ a a cum Hi&&en. ne
aminte te/ .* .e concentreze pe tempora* a e%cu&erea teritoriuui e.te
&e a tr*&a reaitatea .ocia* >n .ine. Spa iu i timpu .unt varia+ie
inte(rae/ >mpreun* compun >ntrea(a numim via * .ocia* ,1721-. Cum
ne or(aniz*m tempora/ atunci/ nu poate !i >n eea.* .eparat &e &inamica
&e .pa iu. i nici un eement a vie ii noa.tre .pa iae nu e.te mut mai
&eci.iv &ec:t pei.aFu ar9itectura >n care ucr*m i ocuim. //arc9itecture
e.te eminamente caracter pu+ic/) a .cri. $a(ai Sar!atti-Lar.on/ )&a ,e-
o importan * .ocioo(ic* em+ematic*) ,1770:14-.
@n cazu >n care .ocioo(ii au i(norat >n mare parte .emni!ica ia .ocia* a
ar9itecturii/ nu acea i ucru .e poate .pune &e ar9itec i/ &intre care mu i
au >n ee. am+arca iunie or/ centraa i .ocia* . @ntr-a&ev*r/ nu ar !i o
e%a(erare .* .punem c*/ prin &ecenii/ ei .-au v*zut ca in(inerii .ociae/
&e&icate pentru rezovarea pro+emeor .ociae. $ai mut &e un .eco >n
urm*/ &e e%empu/ un num*r mic &e ar9itecti cu .e&iu >n C9ica(o/ nu au
!o.t .i(uri &e capacitatea or &e a vin&eca +oie .ociae/ &ar .-au v*zut a
con&uce .ocietatea .pre un viitor &emocratic (orio.. "intre ace.te
ar9itec i niciuna nu a !o.t mai >ncrez*tor &ec:t Loui. Suivan ,1234-
1786-. Suivan e.te >n (enera con.i&erat* ca pro!et a mo&erni.muui
ar9itectura i in.pira ia &e a C9ica(o-.ti Star; z(:rie-nori. ,1- E a !o.t
convin. c* mo&erni.mu .pa ia* creatiie .ae pre!i(urat*/ &e care z(:rie-
nori a !o.t o e%pre.ie centra*/ ar putea aFuta a a&ucerea a >n&epinire a
&emocra iei/ o promi.iune pe care Suivan a >n eea. o >n termeni
e(aitari.ti/ participativi. "e.i a !o.t !oarte conte.tata a inceput pozitia .i
!iozo!ia ui /un e%empu ar !i/Bane Baco+./ via a i moartea &in marie
ora e americane ,1741-/ a.t*zi/ utima ima(ine pe care o a.ociem
mo&erni.muui ar9itectura/ >n (enera/ i z(:rie-nori/ >n .pecia/ e.te
>mpinirea &emocra iei. Nu e.te .urprinzator >ncre&erea >n capacitatea
ar9itectuui &e a a&uce .c9im+*ri .ociae pozitive/ &e.i a.tazi a .cazut
con.i&era+i acea.ta incre&ere.Unu &intre cei mai importanti critic &e
ar9itectur*/ A&a Loui.e Hu%ta+e/ &e e%empu/ a .cri. >ntr-o carte/
!avora+i ui Suivan/a.t!e )Am trecut &e mut timp >n punctu >n care
cineva con.i&er* c* ar9itectu poate rezova reee &in .ocietate .au
re!acerea me&iuui/ .au c9iar c* e ar tre+ui .* >ncerce ),1728:1?-.
CONCLUJIE
@ncre&erea ui Suivan i a (enera iei .ae contra.teaz* puternic cu
am+ivaen a/ &ac* nu cu pe.imi.mu pur &in ziua &e azi. Acea.t*
.c9im+are &ramatic* &e evauare e.te convin(*toare/ i ar tre+ui .* !ie &e
intere. .pecia pentru .ocioo(i .Ima(ina ia ar9itectura Suivan a !o.t
aimentata &e anumite >n ee(eri teoretice &e .ine i comunitar*/ >n
concor&an * cu ceea ce .-ar &e!ini mai t:rziu coaa &e a C9ica(o. Pe
.curt/ ar9itectura/.au nu Suivan nu poate !i .eparat &e .ocioo(ie/
viziunea .a a.upra umii/ o viziune a.upra umii nu e.te cu totu .tr*in &e
ceea ce anim* mu i .ocioo(i a.t*zi.
@n con.ecin */ ace.t artico anaizeaz* critic &imen.iunie .ocioo(ice ae
teoriei ar9itecturae /ar9itecturii ui Suivan.Cateva (re.ei care e%pica
cum i &e ce a.t!e &e .peran e &e ne>n!r:nt/ au !o.t .pu+erate a .!:r itu
.ecouui a pro(re.uui. #az:n&u- ne pe a!imrmatiie ui Leo Strau../ eu
.u. in c* impicita .i cee+ra a!irmatie : )!orma urmeaz* !unc ia) a !o.t
pr*+u irea/&i.tinc ia >ntre rea/ .au ceea ce e.te/ i i&eau/ .au ceea ce ar
tre+ui .* !ie. Ca rezutat/ Suivan a .u+minat propria voce.
Socioo(ii par mai pu in i mai pu in >ncina i .* a!irme autonomia &e
i&ei >n crearea .pa iuui .ocia i materia/ i .unt mai pu in >ncina i .*
Fu&ece ca importante i&eie unui in&ivi& >n proce.u &e tran.!ormare a
unei umi .i &e ce nu ar9itecturae.
"ac* Suivan a !o.t revou ionar /muti i.torici .u. in/ &ac* e a !o.t
ar9itectu care a anticipat .tiu interna iona acum &i.cre&itat/
e%aminarea critic* a teoriei ui ar9itecturae e.te o .trate(ie a&ecvat*
pentru a aFun(e a un acor& cu .c*&erea &ramatic* a mi c*rii mo&erne.
@n timp/ ar9itectura american* a !o.t >n c9inurie unei //rena teriR care va
continua i >n .ecou 8?/ o rena tere/ care a +:ntuit pe Suivan >ntrea(a
ui via *. "e.ene pu+ice/ comerciae/ i interne au !o.t in.pirate &e
perioa&e (otice/ romanic/ rena.centi.t-. Ar9itec i/care >n e.en * au
recreat trecutu .i nu au &orit .a &ea !orm* a un (en &e ar9itectura care
ar putea apea propria or teorie. Unu &intre ace.ti ar9itecti a !o.t "anie
#ur9am. 'irma #eau% Art. &in $cLim/ $ea& i ate !irme/ au !o.t
reprezentante ae ace.tui an(aFament i.toric/ proiectarea >n utimee
&ecenii ae .ecouui a 17-ea i primu &eceniu a .ecouui 8? o .erie &e
mari ca.e >n .ti rena.centi.t i c*&iri pu+ice. 'irme/ cum ar !i $cLim/
$ea&/au !o.t/ &e.i(ur/ patronat &e c*tre in&u.tria i na iunii pentru care
&e.i(nu i.toric a >n.emnat patina &e re.pecta+iitate/ un !e &e pe&i(ree
in.tant &e.tinate .* impre.ioneze ca.eor popuare.
B%5"%'(ra$%!
-9ttp:SSro.Gi;ipe&ia.or(SGi;iSLoui.TSuivan
-Loui. Suivan/ Arc9itectura $o&erni.m/ an& t9e Creation o! "emocratic
Space,U-.GGG.acce..m<i+rar<.com
-Walt Whitman and Louis Sullivan: The Aesthetics of Egalitarianism
Kevin Murphy, http:ir!uio"a!edu""#r

In-!6 '$ art%0"!s V C"tr! an- S'0%!t7 V S'0%'"'(7 an- S'0%a" 8'r9 :5"%0at%'ns V
Am!r%0an S'0%'"'(%st art%0"!s V Mar0h /444 art%0"!s
L'%s S""%1an; Ar0h%t!0tra" M'-!rn%sm;
an- th! Cr!at%'n '$ D!m'0rat%0 S:a0!&<).
American Sociologist
W $arc9 88/ 8??? W A##OTT/ BA$ES R. W Cop<ri(9t
T9i. artice e%amine. t9e arc9itectura t9ou(9t o! Loui. Suivan/ common< re(ar&e& a. t9e
prop9et o! arc9itectura mo&erni.m an&. t9e in.piration !or t9e .tar; C9ica(o-.t<e .;<.craper.
Suivan re(ar&e& .ocioo(< to +e t9e mo.t ur(ent o! t9e &i.cipine. a. America .ou(9t to reaize
it. &emocratic promi.e. Animate& +< certain un&er.tan&in(. o! .e! an& communit< t9at Gou&
ater &e!ine t9e C9ica(o Sc9oo o! Socioo(</ Suivan .aG 9im.e! a. a ;in& o! .ocia en(ineer
G9o.e arc9itecture Gou& (enerate &emocratic .pace an& encoura(e aut9entic interaction.
C9ica(o Ga. 9i. a+orator< G9ere 9e !ervent< cae& !or t9e e.cape !rom t9e !etter. o! tra&ition
in or&er to (ive !orm to a &emocratic pre.ent. =9ie t9e movement 9e 9epe& in.pire re.9ape& t9e
an&.cape. G9ere 9uman. a+ore& an& ive&/ !eG to&a< Gou& con!u.e t9e arc9itectura .pace o! a
.;<.craper/ or arc9itectura mo&erni.m in (enera/ Git9 t9e cutivation o! aut9enticit<P even !eGer
Gou& con!u.e mo&erni.m an& t9e .;<.craper Git9 t9e !u!iment o! &emocrac<. SuivanK.
un+ri&e& 9ope. !or t9e !uture 9ave +een Xuee& +< po.tmo&ern critici.m. o! t9e .patia
&<namic. 9e e.pou.e&. It i. ar(ue& t9at t9i. &ramatic .ea c9an(e Ga. a !unction o! a !un&amenta
!aG in SuivanK. .ocia t9eor<. 'ooGin( Leo Strau../ it i. ar(ue& t9at impicit in SuivanK.
!amou. &ictum )!orm !ooG. !unction) Ga. t9e coap.e o! t9e &i.tinction +etGeen t9e rea an&
t9e i&ea. T9i. un&ermine& SuivanK. voice G9ie !ramin( 9i. .en.e o! &emocrac< in .trict<
proce..iona term.. In t9e en&/ Suivan .ou(9t an arc9itecture accor&in( to G9ic9 contro over
circum.tance .erve& no 9i(9er purpo.e .ave contro/ an arc9itecture G9o.e e.cape !rom t9e pa.t
conceae& !rom vieG t9e ;in& o! &irection t9at cou& en& meanin( to t9e contro Suivan Ga.
&e.perate to .ecure. It i. .u((e.te& t9at .ocioo(i.t. are not uni;e Suivan/ an& t9at t9eir ca. !or
autonom< an& empoGerment .pea; to proce.. an& movement rat9er t9an en&. or &e.tination..
Intro&uction

"[T]he spirit of democracy is a function seeking expression in organized
social form ... Therefore, arrange your architecture for democracy, not for
feudalism. Gird up your heart!"
--Loui. Suivan
A. a principa mean. o! or(anizin( .ocia .pace an& coor&inatin( .ocia interaction/ one Gou&
a..ume arc9itecture to +e o! principa intere.t to .ocioo(i.t.. T9i./ 9oGever/ i. not t9e ca.e. To
+e .ure/ .ocioo(i.t. 9ave on( ac;noGe&(e& arc9itectureK. .i(ni!icance. Heor(e Her+ert $ea&/
!or e%ampe/ once remar;e& on t9e .<m+oic importance o! materia +ui&in(. ,1706-. #ut !eG
9ave e%amine& .<.tematica< arc9itectureK. roe in creatin( t9e .patia &<namic. o! .ocia reait<
an& t9e ;in&. o! cutura roe. an& vaue. t9e.e &<namic. e%pre../ encoura(e/ or impo.e. $uc9 o!
t9i. ne(ect can +e e%paine& +< t9e !act t9at .ocioo(i.t. 9i.torica< 9ave emp9a.ize& t9e
tempora &imen.ion. o! .ocia i!e. A. "avi& Harve< put it/ time an& 9i.tor</ rat9er t9an .pace
an& (eo(rap9</ 9ave capture& our ima(ination. ,1723-. #ut a. Hi&&en. remin&. u./ to !ocu. on
t9e tempora to t9e e%cu.ion o! t9e .patia i. to +etra< .ocia reait< it.e!. Space an& time are
inte(ra varia+e.P to(et9er t9e< compo.e t9e G9oe Ge ca .ocia i!e ,1721-. HoG Ge or(anize
our.eve. tempora</ t9en/ cannot +e un&er.too& apart !rom t9e &<namic. o! .pace. An& no
eement o! our .patia ive. i. more &eci.ive t9an t9e arc9itectura an&.cape in G9ic9 Ge Gor;
an& re.i&e. )MANrc9itectureK. eminent< pu+ic c9aracter/) Grote $a(ai Sar!atti-Lar.on/ )(ive,.- it
em+ematic .ocioo(ica .i(ni!icance) ,1770:14-.
I! .ocioo(i.t. 9ave ar(e< i(nore& t9e .ocia .i(ni!icance o! arc9itecture/ t9e .ame cannot +e
.ai& o! arc9itect./ man< o! G9om 9ave un&er.too& t9eir cra!t a. centra to .ocieta Ge +ein(.
In&ee&/ it Gou& not +e too muc9 o! an e%a((eration to .a< t9at t9rou(9 t9e &eca&e. t9e< 9ave
.een t9em.eve. a. .ocia en(ineer./ &e&icate& to .ovin( pro+em. an& upi!tin( .ociet< at ar(e.
Over a centur< a(o/ !or e%ampe/ a .ma num+er o! arc9itect. +a.e& in C9ica(o Gere not on<
certain o! t9eir a+iit< to cure .ocia i. +ut .aG t9em.eve. ea&in( .ociet< toGar& a (oriou.
&emocratic !uture. O! t9e.e arc9itect. none Ga. more con!i&ent t9an Loui. Suivan ,1234-1786-.
Suivan i. common< re(ar&e& a. t9e prop9et o! arc9itectura mo&erni.m an& t9e in.piration o!
t9e .tar; C9ica(o-.t<e .;<.craper.,1- He Ga. convince& t9at t9e .patia mo&erni.m 9i. &e.i(n.
!ore.9a&oGe&/ o! G9ic9 t9e .;<.craper Ga. a centra e%pre..ion/ Gou& 9ep +rin( to !ruition
&emocrac<K. promi.e/ a promi.e Suivan un&er.too& in e(aitarian/ participator< term.. HoG
naive ,or mi.(ui&e&- SuivanK. optimi.m appear. to&a<. It 9a. +een amo.t !ort< <ear. .ince t9e
pu+ication o! Bane Baco+.K. popuar an& in!uentia Gor;/ T9e Li!e an& "eat9 o! Hreat American
Citie. ,1741-. Baco+. anticipate& t9e po.tmo&ern reaction a(ain.t t9e ver< .patia &<namic.
Suivan e.pou.e&P t9i. reaction continue. in our time an& tran.cen&. i&eoo(ica +oun&arie. ,See
Ha+erma./ 1723-. To&a</ .ome .event<-!ive <ear. a!ter SuivanK. &eat9/ t9e a.t ima(e Ge
a..ociate arc9itectura mo&erni.m Git9/ in (enera/ an& t9e .;<.craper/ in particuar/ i. t9e
!u!iment o! &emocrac<. Not .urpri.in(</ con!i&ence in t9e arc9itectK. a+iit< to +rin( a+out
po.itive .ocia c9an(e 9a. Gane& con.i&era+<. T9e ea&in( arc9itectura critic/ A&a Loui.e
Hu%ta+e/ !or e%ampe/ in a +oo; ot9erGi.e !avora+e to Suivan/ cou& Grite Git9out .a& iron</
)=e 9ave on( pa..e& t9e point G9ere an<one +eieve. t9at t9e arc9itect can .ove t9e i. o!
.ociet< or rema;e t9e environment/ or even t9at 9e .9ou& tr<) ,1728:1?-.
T9e con!i&ence o! Suivan an& 9i. (eneration contra.t. .9arp< Git9 t9e am+ivaence/ i! not
outri(9t pe..imi.m/ o! t9e pre.ent &a<. T9i. &ramatic evauative .9i!t i. compein(/ an& .9ou&
+e o! particuar intere.t to .ocioo(i.t.. Suivan re(ar&e& .ocioo(< to 9ave +een t9e mo.t ur(ent
o! t9e &i.cipine. an& 9e .aG 9im.e! a. a ;in& o! .ocioo(ica practitioner. A. Hu(9 "azie
"uncan ,M1743N 1727- 9a. .9oGn in 9i. ca..ic .tu&< o! t9e .u+Fect/ SuivanK. arc9itectura
ima(ination Ga. poGere& +< certain t9eoretica un&er.tan&in(. o! .e! an& communit< con.i.tent
Git9 G9at Gou& ater &e!ine t9e C9ica(o Sc9oo o! Socioo(<.,8- An& true to t9e activi.m o! t9e
C9ica(o Sc9oo/ an& to American Socioo(< in (enera/ Suivan .aG 9i. art a. a ve9ice !or
.ocia meioration. In .9ort/ SuivanK. noG !aie& arc9itecture cannot +e &ivorce& !rom 9i.
.ocioo(ica Gor&vieG/ a Gor&vieG not ato(et9er !orei(n to G9at animate. man< .ocioo(i.t.
to&a<. Revi.itin( SuivanK. orientation cou& +ene!it not on< t9o.e intere.te& in t9e !a o!
mo&erni.m +ut t9o.e concerne& a+out pro+ematic. intrin.ic to .ocioo(< a. Ge.
Accor&in(</ t9i. artice e%amine. critica< t9e .ocioo(ica &imen.ion. o! SuivanK.
arc9itectura t9eor<. In G9at !ooG./ I (ean !rom 9i. t9ou(9t certain !aG. t9at 9ep e%pain 9oG
an& G9< .uc9 un+ri&e& 9ope. 9ave +een &a.9e& at t9e co.e o! t9e centur< o! pro(re... "raGin(
on t9e Gor; o! Leo Strau../ I ar(ue t9at impicit to SuivanK. !amou. &octrine )!orm !ooG.
!unction) Ga. t9e coap.e o! t9e &i.tinction +etGeen t9e rea/ or G9at i./ an& t9e i&ea/ or G9at
ou(9t to +e. A. a re.ut/ Suivan un&ermine& 9i. oGn voice. $ore important</ 9e cou&
un&er.tan& &emocrac< on< in proce..iona Ga<. accor&in( to G9ic9 contro over con&ition. Ga.
vaue& !or no 9i(9er purpo.e .ave contro. In t9e en&/ t9e .;<.craper it.e! +ecame a ;in& o!
.pace over G9ic9 9uman. 9ave no contro. I concu&e +< comparin( SuivanK. &iemma to
contemporar< .ocioo(ica a..umption. re(ar&in( t9e &<namic. an& u.e. o! .pace/ caimin( t9at
t9e Xue.tion. o! vaue t9at un&ermine& SuivanK. a(en&a remain pre..in( to&a<.
Rationae
Socioo(i.t. appear e.. an& e.. incine& to po.it t9e autonom< o! i&ea. in t9e creation o! .ocia
an& materia .paceP an& Ge are .ti e.. incine& to Fu&(e a. .aient t9e i&ea. o! an in&ivi&ua
actor in t9e tran.!ormation o! an arc9itectura Gor& ta;en-!or-(rante&. Structura e%panation. o!
mo&erni.mK. ri.e an& !a 9ave !oun& !avor over t9e cutura/ an& ar(ument. a. to t9e .u+.tantive
contri+ution. o! in&ivi&ua actor. 9ave +een .ummari< &i.mi..e&/ an& on occa.ion +eitte&.
Sar!atti-Lar.on/ !or e%ampe/ !et it nece..ar< to apoo(ize to 9er rea&er. +e!ore pre.entin( a +rie!
revieG o! t9e arc9itect. G9o e& t9e mo&ern movement in Europe. S9e .tate& &eri.ive< t9at an
emp9a.i. on in&ivi&ua actor. Ga. t9e ;in& o! t9in( )t<pica o! art 9i.tor< +oo;.) an& +<
impication not t9e proper !ocu. o! .eriou. .c9oar. ,1770:06-. Sar!atti-Lar.on Gou& 9ave u.
+eieve in t9e impotenc< o! i&ea./ t9at in&ivi&ua arc9itect./ .peci!ica< t9eir t9eoretica
orientation./ pa< no in&epen&ent roe in t9e or(anization o! .pace. So too Caro =ii./ G9o
pre!ace& 9er +oo; on .;<.craper. an& .;<ine. o! C9ica(o an& NeG Ior; +< announcin( .9e
Gou& )&oGnpa< t9e roe o! arc9itect. a. &e.i(ner.) a. 9er &e.ire Ga. not to )privie(e) t9eir
po.ition. in t9e +ui&in( proce.. ,1773:1?/ 16-. =ii. c9o.e in.tea& to )privie(e) t9e ;in&. o!
macro-.tructura p9enomena over G9ic9 9uman./ incu&in( arc9itect./ 9ave itte contro:
poitica .tructure./ &<namic. o! ur+an capitai.m/ an& oca zonin( re(uation. ,amon( ot9er.-.
,0- =ii.K. commitment to .tructurai.t a..umption. (oe. +e<on& t9e empirica/ an& it !unction.
to ren&er invi.i+e t9e arc9itect. G9o.e &e.i(n. Ge Gou& ot9erGi.e a..ume 9epe& .9ape 9uman
an&.cape..
Bur(en Ha+erma. ,1723- e..entia< concurre& Git9 Sar!atti-Lar.on an& =ii.. He &i&
ac;noGe&(e/ 9oGever/ t9e .aienc< o! t9e i&ea. &rivin( t9e ear< mo&ern.. A. 9e note&/
mo&erni.m Ga. )t9e on< arc9itectura movement to ori(inate !rom t9e avant-(ar&e .pirit: it i.
eXuivaent to t9e avant-(ar&e paintin(/ mu.ic/ an& iterature o! our centur<) ,1723:017-. #ut t9i.
avant-(ar&e .pirit Ga. .u+verte& +< mar;et capitai.m an& it. !unctionarie.. Arc9itectura
mo&erni.m/ Ha+erma. Grote/ )reacte& 9epe..< to t9e pre..ure. o! t9e mar;et an& t9e pannin(
+ureaucracie.) ,1723:086-. Ha+erma. amente& t9e .u+ver.ion o! mo&erni.m +< macro mar;et
!orce./ a. 9e i. cear< .<mpat9etic Git9 t9e avant-(ar&e .pirit animatin( ear< mo&ern arc9itect..
He t9ere!ore a..ume& t9at t9e mo&erni.t an&.cape. uni!orm< con&emne& to&a< are
mi.repre.entation. o! mo&erni.mK. true .pirit ,1723:017-/ t9at Gere it not !or mar;et !orce. t9e
an&.cape. envi.ione& +< t9e ear< avant-(ar&e Gou& to&a< .tan& triump9ant. T9e .u+ver.ion o!
t9e avant-(ar&e/ Ha+erma. Gou& 9ave u. +eieve/ Ga. pro!oun&< &etrimenta to t9e +o&< .ocia.
$< approac9 to arc9itect. an& arc9itectura mo&erni.m &i!!er. ra&ica< !rom t9e .tructurai.t
account. I 9ave note& earier/ an& it &epart. .i(ni!icant< !rom Ha+erma.K. .entimenta attac9ment
to t9e avant-(ar&e. Uni;e =ii. an& Sar!atti-Lar.on/ I am committe& to t9e notion t9at G9at
.ocia actor. t9in; an& &o i. .i(ni!icant. I am !urt9ermore convince& t9at G9atever t9e in!inite<
compe% reation.9ip +etGeen a(enc< an& .tructure mi(9t +e/ t9e t9ou(9t o! ea&in( arc9itect.
9a. +een in!uentia/ t9at in&ivi&ua. .uc9 a. Suivan/ t9rou(9 t9e poGer o! t9eir i&ea./ c9an(e&
t9e cour.e o! arc9itectura &e.i(n an& t9ere+< atere& t9e .ocia environment. Si% &eca&e. o!
.c9oar.9ip +< arc9itectura 9i.torian. Gou& appear to .upport t9i. notion.,6- Suivan certain<
a+ore& Git9in an& a(ain.t t9e .tructura reaitie. o! ate 17t9 an& ear< 8?t9 centur< ur+an
in&u.tria capitai.m/ t9e ;in& o! )9eteronomou. con&ition.) G9ic9 Gere t9e !ocu. o! Sar!atti-
Lar.on. An& t9ere i. no &en<in( t9at Suivan Ga. part o! a (eneration o! arc9itect. &e.perate to
.ecure pro!e..iona privie(e. T9ere i. no &en<in(/ 9oGever/ t9e reac9 o! SuivanK. arc9itectura
t9eor< an& t9e increa.in( in!uence 9e 9a& on .u+.eXuent (eneration. o! arc9itect. in America
an& Europe/ no more poGer!u mani!e.tation o! G9ic9 Ga. 9i. principa pupi/ 'ran; Lo<&
=ri(9t.
To a..ume t9e .aienc< o! SuivanK. i&ea. .9ou& not encoura(e t9e uncritica em+race o! an< one
o! t9em. #ut t9i. i. preci.e< G9at Ha+erma. 9a. &one Git9 t9e avant-(ar&e .pirit/ a .pirit G9o.e
e..entia nature 9a& +een e%pre..e& +< Suivan Ge +e!ore it attaine& a certain cac9et in Europe.
Ha+erma.K. ent9u.ia.m !or t9i. et9o. i. +in&P 9e a&opt. it a. a matter o! cour.e. So &i& Suivan.
T9e ar(ument I a&vance ater ta;e. t9i. et9o. to ta.;. I !rame mo&erni.m a. intrin.ica<
pro+ematic/ &riven +< a Gor&vieG re.pon.i+e !or it. oGn unravein(/ irre.pective o! t9e
.tructura con&ition. in G9ic9 it emer(e& an& a(ain.t G9ic9 it .tru((e&. I! Suivan Ga. t9e
revoutionar< .o man< arc9itectura 9i.torian. caim/ i! 9e Ga. t9e arc9itect G9o anticipate& t9e
noG &i.cre&ite& Internationa St<e/ critica e%amination o! 9i. arc9itectura t9eor< i. an
appropriate .trate(< !or comin( to term. Git9 t9e &ramatic !a o! t9e mo&ern movement.
C9ica(o a. a =or& o! Po..i+iit<
In 12A1 t9e cit< o! C9ica(o Ga. con.ume& +< !ire. Over a perio& o! t9ree &a<. t9e con!a(ration
&e.tro<e& .ome 8/??? acre./ raze& 12/??? +ui&in(./ cau.e& Y8?? miion in propert< &ama(e/
eavin( co.e to 1??/??? peope 9omee.. ,$a<er an& =a&e/ 1747:11A-. Ot9er citie. 9a& an&
Gou& .u!!er .imiar &i.a.ter./ an& one +< one t9e< re+uit t9em.eve.. #ut t9e ima(er<
.urroun&in( C9ica(oK. reFuvenation +ecame em+ematic o! t9e &i.tinctive< American ,an&
pra(mati.t- conviction t9at 9uman +ein(. can .9ape circum.tance in accor&ance Git9 a.piration
,$ier/ 177?-. $uc9 o! t9i. ima(er< re.ute& !rom t9e cit<K. arc9itect. an& en(ineer./ man< o!
G9om .en.e& t9em.eve. a. 9avin( an unprece&ente& opportunit< to +ui& a cit< aneG. T9eir.
Ga. a verita+e ta+ua ra.a/ a va.t an& .tar; canva. Grou(9t +< a !ire G9ic9 9a&/ .<m+oica< an&
itera</ up.et manK. or(anic reation to t9e pa.t. In t9eir e<e./ t9e !ire 9a& +een a ;in& o!
reveation/ an apoca<ptic event t9at !oreto& o! a (oriou. !uture.,3- In re&ucin( t9e cit< to a.9e.
t9e !ire !ree& t9eir ima(ination. !rom t9e !etter t9at i. 9i.tor< an& t9u. aoGe& !or t9e ret9in;in(
o! 9uman environment. in a Ga< 9ereto!ore inacce..i+e. T9e< noG con!ronte& an in!inite pre.ent
a..ume& to e%ten& to a imite.. !uture. T9e !uture t9e< envi.ione& Ga. not9in( .9ort o! a
&emocrac< triump9ant. C9ica(oK. po.t-!ire arc9itect. an& en(ineer. .aG t9em.eve. po.itione& to
&e.i(n an ur+an environment con.i.tent Git9 an& encoura(in( o! &emocratic .ociet<. Po.t-!ire
C9ica(o Ga. t9eir Gor& o! po..i+iit<.
'eG o! C9ica(oK. vi.ionarie. Gere a. animate& +< t9e po..i+iit< o! &emocratic pro(re.. a. Loui.
Suivan/ +orn in #o.ton in 1234 to immi(rant parent.. ,'or an in-&ept9 ana<.i. o! SuivanK.
+io(rap9</ .ee TGom+</ 1724.- Hi. !at9er ma&e a ivin( a. a &ance in.tructor/ G9o in t9e
compan< o! Loui.K. mot9er/ travee& a+out t9e nort9ea.t in .earc9 o! Gor;. Ioun( Loui. Ga.
rai.e& primari< +< (ran&parent.. #< t9e a(e o! .i%teen Suivan Ga. reco(nize& a. a pro&i(</ an&
9e Ga. a&mitte& a. a .pecia .tu&ent to t9e #ui&in( an& Arc9itecture "epartment o! $.I.T.
In Bune o! 12A0 Suivan move& to P9ia&ep9ia G9ere 9e Foine& t9e arc9itectura !irm o! 'urne..
an& HeGitt. ,Amon( t9e proFect. Suivan Gor;e& on Ga. t9e !amou. Penn.<vania Aca&em< o!
'ine Art..- At t9e time/ American arc9itecture Ga. in t9e t9roe. o! a revivai.m t9at Gou&
continue Ge into t9e 8?t9 centur</ a revivai.m t9at Gou& 9aunt Suivan 9i. entire i!e. Pu+ic/
commercia/ an& &ome.tic &e.i(n. Gere in.pire& +< t9e Hot9ic/ Romane.Xue/ an& Renai..ance
perio&. ,Con&it/ 17A0:0-. Arc9itect. e..entia< recreate& t9e pa.t/ unGiin( or una+e to (ive
.9ape to an arc9itectura (enre t9e< cou& ca t9eir oGn. T9e +eau% art. !irm o! $cLim/ $ea&
an& =9ite Ga. repre.entative o! t9i. 9i.torica commitment/ &e.i(nin( in t9e a.t &eca&e. o! t9e
17t9 centur< an& t9e !ir.t &eca&e o! t9e 8?t9 centur< a .erie. o! (ran& Renai..ance-.t<e 9ome.
an& pu+ic +ui&in(.. 'irm. .uc9 a. $cLim/ $ea& an& =9ite Gere o! cour.e patronize& +< t9e
nationK. in&u.triai.t. !or G9om 9i.torica &e.i(n meant t9e patina o! re.pecta+iit</ a ;in& o!
in.tant pe&i(ree inten&e& to impre.. t9e popuar ca..e.. T9u./ +an;. Gere 9ou.e& in ma..ive
Hree; tempe./ +ro;era(e !irm. in over.ize& paazzo./ an& G9at particuar< incen.e& Suivan/
in.titution. o! 9i(9er earnin( in !a;e Hot9ic .tone. Li;e 9i. contemporar< Ve+en ,1712/ 1706-/
Suivan Fu&(e& !eG t9in(. more a+.ur& an& 9<pocritica t9an pacin( t9e Univer.it< o! C9ica(o
+u.ine.. .c9oo/ !or e%ampe/ in a Hot9ic .t<e .tructure ,.ee a.o "uncan/ M1743N/ 1727:8?7-
812-. A. Ge .9a .ee ater/ Suivan &e&icate& 9im.e! to en&in( t9i. &epen&ence on t9e pa.t an&
to e%po.in( t9e capitai.t 9<pocri.< t9at 9e +eieve& Ga. it. !oun&ation.
In Novem+er o! 12A0/ Suivan mi(rate& to C9ica(o/ at G9ic9 time muc9 o! t9e cit< remaine& in
a.9e.. He Ga. imme&iate< ta;en Git9 t9e )into%icatin( raGne..) o! t9e cit< a. it .ou(9t to
re!a.9ion it.e!. He .en.e& )+i( t9in(. MGereN to +e &one) t9ere +< )am+itiou. &reamer.) &riven
+< a )prima poGer a..umin( .e!-e%pre..ion ami& natureK. impein( ur(e.) C9ica(oan. Gere
!on& o! +oa.tin(/ Suivan conce&e&/ +ut t9e< Gere not .e!-!atterer.. Nor Gere t9eir
procamation. o! (reatne.. mere +rava&o. C9ica(o Ga. an environment in G9ic9 (reat am+ition.
Gere !u!ie& t9rou(9 action/ t9rou(9 9uman a(enc< t9at 9a& on( +een .uppre..e&. Suivan Ga.
convince& t9at C9ica(oan. )9a& vi.ion.) T9e< Gere o! )9i(9 coura(e ... MGN9at t9e< .aG Ga. rea/
t9e< .aG it a. &e.tin<) ,M1786N/ 1734:8??-8?1-. )T9ere can +e no neG NeG Ior;/) Suivan
rea.one&/ )+ut t9ere ma< +e a neG C9ica(o) ,M1712N/ 17A7:111-. Sen.in( 9im.e! in t9e mi&.t o!
an entire< nove 9uman e%periment/ an& +eievin( 9im.e! capa+e o! &irectin( t9e &eveopment
o! t9i. .ocia or&er on t9e 9orizon/ Suivan Ga. compee& to ca C9ica(o 9i. 9ome.
Suivan Ga. convince& t9at t9i. nove 9uman e%periment Ga. a tru< &emocratic one G9erein
9uman. Gere &e.tine& to contro t9e rea circum.tance. o! t9eir ive.. 'ore.9a&oGin( +ot9 t9e
pra(matic. an& t9e C9ica(o Sc9oo o! Socioo(</ Suivan un&er.too& &emocrac< to +e
contin(ent in part on manK. capacit< to +rin( circum.tance. into ai(nment Git9 9uman
a.piration. ,"uncan/ M1743N/ 1727-. I! &emocrac< Gere to +e !u!ie&/ eac9 citizen mu.t +e
po.itione& to tran.!orm ever-!re.9 .ituation. in accor&ance Git9 oneK. am+ition./ a. on( a. t9e.e
are con.i.tent Git9 t9e &i(nit< an& autonom< o! .e!. Suivan re(ar&e& t9i. capacit< a. .omet9in(
Ge Gere mora< o+i(ate& to cutivate/ an& 9e +eieve& t9i. mora +ur&en to !a mo.t 9eavi< on
t9e .9ou&er. o! t9e )arti.t/) in G9ic9 roe 9e .aG 9im.e!. Arti.t. o! t9e pa.t/ Suivan +eieve&/
!or(e& environment. t9at &enie& 9uman. t9eir 9umanit<. Ur+an pannin( an& arc9itectura &e.i(n
t9rou(9out =e.tern 9i.tor<--!rom ancient At9en. to t9e citie. o! t9e American ea.tern .ea+oar&--
Gere ripe Git9 G9at 9e cae& )m<.ti!ication..) T9e.e m<.ti!ication. impo.e& t9e Gi o! t9e !eG
over t9e man</ creatin( in t9e proce.. circum.tance. over G9ic9 peope 9a& no contro/ G9ic9
.9ape& 9uman. in&epen&ent o! t9eir Gi. Suivan &i.mi..e& 9i.torica arti.t. an& a t9o.e
in&e+te& to t9em a. )!eu&a): t9eir in!atuation Git9 a poGer Suivan Fu&(e& ato(et9er !a.e
ren&ere& t9em .9eep-i;e/ a. m<.ti!ie& +< t9eir oGn &e.i(n. a. t9e common !o; G9o ive&
amon( t9em. #ut G9at an arti.t 9a. con.tructe&/ ot9er more eni(9tene& one. ma< &econ.truct
an& +ui& aneG. Suivan .aG 9i. oGn roe in preci.e< t9e.e term.. He Ga. to u.e C9ica(o to
!or(e an arc9itectura environment to aGa;en t9e &emocratic po..i+iitie. t9at 9a& on(
.um+ere& un&er t9e Gei(9t o! !eu&a m<.ti!ication.
In man< Ga<. SuivanK. un&er.tan&in( o! 9i.tor< an& 9i. appreciation o! t9e tran.!ormative
potentia o! art anticipate& t9e e..entia c9aracteri.tic. o! European mo&erni.m a. it evove& a!ter
t9e 'ir.t =or& =ar. Here t9e recent Gor; o! Sar!atti-Lar.on ,1770- i. (ermane. =9ie 9er
treatment o! mo&erni.m virtua< i(nore. Suivan/ t9e manner in G9ic9 .9e !rame. t9e
mo&erni.t. in Europe i. ver< muc9 con.i.tent Git9 t9e Gor& vieG o! t9e C9ica(o arc9itect.
Accor&in( to Sar!atti-Lar.on/ t9e European mo&erni.t./ 9oGever &iver.e t9e< ma< 9ave +een/
9e& tGo t9in(. in common ,1770:08-00-. 'ir.t/ t9e< a..ume& t9at pro(re.. &eman&e& an e.cape
!rom t9e pa.t. T9e 9orror. o! =or& =ar I !rame& 9i.tor< a. a (rave error. To re.ume i!e .tatu.
Xuo ante Gou& t9ere!ore mean reivin( 9i.tor<K. mi.ta;e./ or at t9e ver< ea.t returnin( to a
.ocia or&er reveae& a. !un&amenta< !aGe&. T9u. &i& t9e< !ee an ur(enc< to reFect a t9at 9a&
+een/ muc9 a. Suivan Ga. preac9in( .ome &eca&e. +e!ore in t9e Ga;e o! t9e C9ica(o !ire.
Secon&/ t9e European. a..ume&/ a(ain a. Suivan 9a& &eca&e. +e!ore/ t9at art Ga. a ve9ice o!
po.itive tran.!ormation/ t9at t9rou(9 arc9itecture/ in particuar/ +rave an& +etter Gor&. cou& +e
manu!acture&. #< no coinci&ence/ t9en/ 9a. Suivan +een Fu&(e& t9e proto-mo&erni.t/ t9e
in&ivi&ua G9o (ave !ir.t e%pre..ion to a (enre o! arc9itecture t9at Ga. inten&e& to aGa;en
9uman po..i+iit< aroun& t9e (o+e. An& +< no coinci&ence &i& t9e European emi(re $ie. van
&er Ro9e .ette in SuivanK. a&opte& cit<. )T9e revot Suivan e&/) Grote Hu(9 "azie "uncan/
)!ame& into (reatne.. in t9e .pirit o! 9i. pupi/ 'ran; Lo<& =ri(9t/ an& in t9e Gor; o! $ie. van
&er Ro9e o! t9e #au9au./ G9o !oun& a 9ome !or 9i. .pirit in C9ica(o) ,M1743N/ 1727:373-.
SuivanK. !ait9 in &emocratic po..i+iit< !oun& it. mo.t ent9u.ia.tic e%pre..ion in t9e .tar;
C9ica(o-.t<e .;<.craper/ AmericaK. &i.tinctive contri+ution to arc9itecture. ,A. Ge .9a .ee
ater/ t9e 9ei(9t o! a +ui&in( Ga. not .u!!icient to earn SuivanK. a&miration--9e &ete.te& NeG
Ior; .;<.craper. G9o.e 9i.torica em+ei.9ment. contra.te& .9arp< Git9 t9e C9ica(o t<pe.-
=9ie aut9or. ma< &i!!er a. to t9e .;<.craperK. preci.e provenance/ it i. (enera< a(ree& t9at t9i.
arc9itectura !orm Ga. !ir.t e%pre..e& t9rou(9 =iiam Le#aron Benne<K. Home In.urance
#ui&in(/ compete& in 1226. ,It Ga. Benne< G9o (ave Suivan 9i. !ir.t Fo+ in C9ica(o.- T9i.
.tructure Ga. pre&icate& on a num+er o! materia invention./ amon( t9em .tee !rame
con.truction/ t9e !oatin( !oun&ation/ improve& !ire proo!in( met9o&. an& communication.
tec9noo(</ an& not ea.t/ t9e eevator. O! particuar importance Gere t9e !oatin( !oun&ation an&
.tee !rame con.truction. C9ica(o Ga. +uit on .o((< mar.9an&.. So .Gamp< Ga. t9e terrain t9at
in 1236 en(ineer. rai.e& t9e cit</ Fac;in( it up a. one Gou& a car/ to !ree citizen. !rom t9e muc;.
Some t9irt< <ear. ater t9i. pro+em .ur!ace& a(ain in &i!!erent (ui.e Git9 t9e con.truction/ or
propo.e& con.truction/ o! immen.e ma.onr< e&i!ice./ not ea.t o! G9ic9 Ga. SuivanK. oGn
Au&itorium #ui&in(. T9e .pace reXuire& !or t9e !oun&ation. o! t9e.e .tructure. an& t9e Gi&t9 o!
t9e Ga. nece..ar< to .u.tain t9eir Gei(9t prove& impractica. T9eir ver< Gei(9t Ga. o! concern
a. Ge. 'or e%ampe/ SuivanK. contemporar</ "anie #urn9am/ &i& not procee& Git9 9i.
$ona&noc; +ui&in( unti 9e Ga. .ati.!ie& t9at SuivanK. Au&itorium toGer/ G9ic9 .too& .ome
tGent< .torie./ Gou& not .in; ,Suivan/ M1786N/ 1734:0?7-. #ut in .9i!tin( Gei(9t !rom it. Ga.
to it. noG .tee !rame/ an& in &i.tri+utin( !oun&ationa Gei(9t t9rou(9 concrete-!ie& piin(./
t9e.e pro+em. Gere .ove& an& t9e .tructure. t9em.eve. Gere !ree to .oar. T9e .i%teen-.tor<
ma.onr< $ona&noc; +ui&in(/ compete& in 1271/ Ga. t9e a.t o! it. ;in&.
$an< American. Gere ta;en Git9 t9e tec9noo(ica virtuo.it< o! C9ica(oK. arc9itect.. Not .o
Suivan/ 9oGever. T9rou(9 9i. e<e./ t9e .;<.craper Ga. not .o muc9 a !unction o! en(ineerin(
a. it Ga. a cutura e%pre..ion/ one t9at +ore te.timon< to &emocrac<K. !u!iment. In&ee&/ ari.in(
!rom t9e .o((< mar.9an&./ .oarin( to t9e 9eaven. a+ove/ &enu&e& o! 9i.tor<K. m<.ti!<in(
ornamentation/ an& e%atin( in a !orm t9at !ooGe& it. !unction/ Suivan interprete& t9e
.;<.craper a. t9e Xuinte..entia mani!e.tation o! &emocrac</ t9e neG Gor& on t9e 9orizon. T9e
ta +ui&in( atte.te& to t9e victor< o! t9e &emo.. It &emon.trate& manK. !ree&om !rom 9i.tor<
eventuatin( in 9i. contro over circum.tance in communion Git9 9i. peer.. A. Suivan put it in
9i. !amou. e..a< )T9e Ta O!!ice #ui&in( Arti.tica< Con.i&ere&):

What is the chief characteristic of the tall office uilding! "nd at once
#e ans#er, it is lofty. This loftiness is to the artist$nature its
thrilling aspect. %t is the &ery organ$tone of its appeal. %t must e in
turn the dominant chord in his expression of it, the true excitement of his
imagination. %t must e tall, e&ery inch of it tall. The force and po#er of
altitude must e in it, the glory and pride of exaltation must e in it. %t
must e e&ery inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exhalation
that from ottom to top is a unit #ithout a single dissenting line$$that it
is the ne#, the unexpected, the elo'uent peroration of most ald, most
sinister, most foridding conditions.... The man #ho designs in this spirit
and #ith a sense of responsiility to the generation he li&es in ... must
realize at once and #ith the grasp of inspiration, that( the prolem of the
tall uilding is one of the most stupendous, one of the most magnificent
opportunities that the )ord of *ature in +is eneficence has e&er offered
to the proud spirit of man.
Suivan concu&e& 9i. e..a</ )=e are on t9e 9i(9-roa& to a natura an& .ati.!<in( art/ an
arc9itecture t9at Gi .oon +ecome a !ine art in t9e true/ +e.t .en.e o! t9e Gor&/ an art t9at Gi
ive +ecau.e it Gi +e o! t9e peope/ !or t9e peope/ an& +< t9e peope) ,M1274N/ 17A7:8?4/ 810-.
Suivan Ga. not aone in 9i. a&oration o! t9e .;<.craper. C9ica(o arc9itect. a. a G9oe/ Git9 t9e
po..i+e e%ception o! "anie #urn9am/ Gere mora< inve.te& in t9i. arc9itectura !orm. T9i. i.
not to .a< t9at critici.m o! t9e ta +ui&in( &i& not e%i.t. T9e critic./ 9oGever/ ten&e& to +e
con.ervative i&eoo(ica< or t9e< Gere .imp< reactionar<. In contra.t/ i+era pro(re..ive./ not
ea.t o! G9om Ga. Bo9n "eGe</ Gere ver< muc9 enamore& o! t9e ta +ui&in( ,Sc9eier/ 1720:3-
1A-. Even t9e poet Car San&+ur( .aG in t9e ta +ui&in( t9e materia e%pre..ion o! &emocratic
po..i+iit</ t9at in it. ma.. o! .tee an& (a.. Ga. a .ou animate& +< commoner. G9o toie&
Git9in it.,4- T9i. ent9u.ia.m/ it .9ou& +e note&/ Ga. not !eetin(. =it9 t9e pa..in( o! SuivanK.
(eneration/ ot9er arc9itect. came center .ta(e to pro!e.. t9e i+eratin( potentia o! t9e .;<.craper.
One o! t9e.e arc9itect. Ga. Le Cor+u.ier/ G9o.e pan to re&e.i(n NeG Ior; Cit</ a pan t9at
Gou& 9ave eiminate& .treet. in !avor o! e%pre..Ga<. an& toGn 9ome. !or immen.e 9i(9 ri.e./
reveae& a pa..ion +e<on& even SuivanK.. Anot9er arc9itect Ga. $ie. van &er Ro9e/ G9o Ga.
traine& in t9e .ame o!!ice a. Le Cor+u.ier an& G9o mi(rate& to C9ica(o in 1702 to a..ume t9e
mante Suivan 9a& e!t.O An& no e.. a !i(ure t9an SuivanK. pupi/ 'ran; Lo<& =ri(9t/ !oun&er
o! t9e prairie .c9oo o! arc9itecture/ propo.e& Git9 (reat ent9u.ia.m t9e con.truction o! a
.;<.craper one-mie in 9ei(9t.
T9e Inver.ion o! Pro(re..
In t9e pa.t !eG &eca&e./ 9oGever/ evauation o! t9e ta +ui&in( 9a. ta;en a &i!!erent &irection/ to
.a< t9e ea.t. A virtua con.en.u. e%i.t. to&a< in c9aracterizin( SuivanK. )prou& an& .oarin()
toGer. a. antit9etica to &emocratic principe. an& a.piration. ,.ee Ha+erma./ 1723-. A.
Ha+erma. 9a. note&/ rare< 9a. a !acet o! our materia cuture +een .o .ummari< &i.mi..e& +<
.uc9 a Gi&e variet< o! i&eoo(ica camp.. )MAN Mi&eoo(icaN partie. a(ree/) Ha+erma. Grote/ )in
t9e critiXue o! t9e .oue.. ZcontainerK arc9itecture/ o! t9e a+.ence o! a reation.9ip Git9 t9e
environment an& t9e .oitar< arro(ance o! t9e unarticuate& o!!ice +oc; ... So man< Mcritici.m.N
Git9 no &i.a(reement G9at.oeverQ) ,1723:012-
Repre.entative o! t9i. critiXue/ an& mo.t reevant to t9e i..ue. at 9an&/ i. t9e Gor; o!
p9oto(rap9er #erenice A++ott an& t9e 9i.torian Sam #a.. =arner. ,A++ott i. t9e ;in& o! arti.t
Suivan &eeme& important/ an& t9e .u+Fect. o! =arnerK. critiXue are arti.t..- T9e ta o!!ice
+ui&in( capture& t9rou(9 A++ottK. en. (ave !ore+o&in( e%pre..ion to a Gor& over G9ic9
9uman. 9a& o.t contro. T9e .;<.craper 9a& .trippe& 9uman. o! t9eir a(enc< t9rou(9 it.
&ominance o! t9e an&.cape. In&ivi&ua. Gere no on(er or(anica< reate& to t9eir p9<.ica
environment an& Gere t9u. incapa+e o! communin( Git9 it. T9e< Gere no on(er reate& to eac9
ot9er a. t9e .oarin( toGer. atomize& t9o.e G9o ive& an& a+ore& amon( t9em. In t9e en&/ A++ott
!rame. a Gor& in G9ic9 t9e .;<.craper encoura(e. t9e &iminution o! .eve./ eac9 .tan&in( a. an
i.an&/ overG9eme& +< a ;in& o! m<.ti!ication t9at Gou& 9ave &um+!oun&e& Suivan an& 9i.
peer..
Centra to t9i. m<.ti!ication Ga. t9e increa.in( +ut veie& mi(9t o! corporate America. =arner
too; e%ception Git9 ot9er p9oto(rap9er. G9o .aG in .;<.craper. an& t9eir Fu%tapo.ition. a
).;<ine) ,1726:121-173-. In t9i. tran.!ormation/ .<m+o. o! corporate poGer Gere ren&ere& a.
a+.tract art/ creatin( an ima(er< in G9ic9 ur+an &Geer. errin(< too; pri&e an& one t9at t9e<
mi.ta;en< +eieve& o!!ere& 9ope !or t9e !uture. T9i. iu.ion !urt9er re&uce& t9e 9uman. G9o
.too& in t9e .9a&oG. o! t9e ta +ui&in(.. Accor&in( to =arner/ +< turnin( .<m+o. o! corporate
poGer into o+Fect. o! art/ arti.t. &e!ecte& attention !rom t9e .ource o! ur+an pro+em. an&
paci!ie& t9o.e victimize& +< t9em. In t9e .9a&oG. o! .;<.craper./ .ocia pro+em. evove& t9at
.;<.craper. t9em.eve. 9a& create&--povert< an& unempo<ment/ .ocia an& ca.. ceava(e./ t9e
&e.pair t9e.e en(en&er/ in .9ort/ t9e .um/ G9o.e ima(er< 9a. +een tran.!orme& to paci!< t9e
victimize&. #ut in.o!ar a. t9e toGer. Gere vieGe& a. art/ t9e.e pro+em. Gere pu.9e& !urt9er into
t9e .9a&oG./ 9i&&en/ a. it Gere/ +eneat9 art!u <et &eceptive ima(e. t9at 9ave in.pire& pri&e in
G9at in !act i. t9e .ource o! &e.pair.
T9u./ in t9e .pace o! a !eG .9ort &eca&e. t9ere Ga. an evauative inver.ion o! AmericaK.
&i.tinctive arc9itectura !orm. Once .<m+oic o! &emocrac<K. triump9/ t9e .;<.craper noG
ren&er. .ma an& poGere.. t9e common man !or G9om &emocrac< ae(e&< .tan&.P once
.<m+oic o! +ot9 in&ivi&ua !ree&om an& &emocratic communit</ t9e .;<.craper noG impri.on.
9uman. Git9in corporate +ureaucracie./ pro&ucin( in t9e proce.. t9e muc9 mai(ne&
)or(anization man) or )neG in&ivi&uai.t/) neit9er o! G9om i. !ree nor communa. Once t9ou(9t
to &emon.trate &emocratic manK. &ominance over circum.tance/ t9e corporate toGer 9a. +ecome
t9e !orce over G9ic9 no one/ incu&in( t9o.e G9o comman& it/ 9a. an< contro. T9e neG Gor&
Suivan envi.ione& never materiaize&/ ae(e&< t9Garte& +< t9e ver< .tructure 9e a..ume& Ga.
it. !u!iment.
It i. temptin( to !rame t9e ent9u.ia.m. o! Suivan an& 9i. coea(ue. Git9in t9e ever-!a.9iona+e
critica .trate(ie. o! po.t-mo&erni.m. "econ.tructin( t9eir vi.ion o! pro(re.. a. Ge a. t9eir
un&er.tan&in( o! &emocrac< it.e! cou& revea t9e u.ua .u.pect.--ca../ race/ an& (en&er
intere.t. a. centra to t9eir Gi to poGer. T9i. ana<tica .trate(</ 9oGever/ &oe. not &o !u
Fu.tice to t9e i..ue. at 9an&. T9e &uait< t9at i. .;<.craper ima(er< .pea;. to a pro!oun& rever.a
o! intention. =e .tan& to (ain more +< con!rontin( t9i. rever.a &irect</ rat9er t9an &i.mi..in( it
t9rou(9 evein( inteectua .trate(ie. t9at a..ume Ge are in a privie(e& po.ition to un&er.tan&
9i.torica t9in;er. +etter t9an t9e< un&er.too& t9em.eve./ or t9at compre9en.ion o! 9i.torica
t9ou(9t i. unnece..ar< !or t9e purpo.e o! it. &econ.truction. Suivan an& 9i. coea(ue. Gere
neit9er unGittin( &upe. o! capitai.t propa(an&a ,t9eir e!ti.t poitica i&eoo(ie. an& t9eir &i.&ain
!or capitai.t. a. .uc9 mi(9t .u((e.t ot9erGi.e- nor Gere t9e< un;noGin( or ;noGin( pa<er. in
t9e (ame o! poGer. Rat9er/ t9e inver.ion o! .;<.craper ima(er< point. to G9at I con.i&er a ar(er
i..ue/ name</ pro+em. intrin.ic to mo&ern i+erai.m it.e!.
Suivan a. T9eori.t
Suivan t9e man Ga. a. para&o%ica a. t9e 9i.torica evauation. o! 9i. +eove& .;<.craper 9ave
prove& to +e. He 9e& +oo; earnin( an& t9e inteect (enera< in contempt/ +ut t9i. &i& not &eter
9im !rom Gritin( .core. o! artice. an& t9ree accaime& +oo;. on arc9itectura t9eor<. He Ga.
&i.&ain!u o! en(ineerin( an& en(ineer./ <et 9e Ga. &epen&ent on t9em !or t9e !u!iment o! 9i.
&e.i(n.. He revere& nature an& our or(anic reation to it. He a.o Fu&(e& t9e ur+an environment to
+e corruptin( o! t9e 9uman .pirit. #ut 9i. vi.ion. o! .oarin( toGer./ eac9 cim+in( toGar&. t9e
9eaven./ .eeme& to &e!< natureP moreover/ t9e .;<.craper 9e .o cee+rate& 9a& +ut one 9ome/ t9e
cit<. A ra&ica &emocrat an& .e!-procaime& ea&er o! &emocrac</ Suivan e%pen&e& itte time
an& ener(< &irectin( t9e !o;/ an& toGar&. t9e en& o! 9i. i!e e%pre..e& itte +ut contempt !or
t9em. ,On< one o! 9i. e..a<. Ga. pu+i.9e& !or a (enera au&ience/ an au&ience G9o.e em+race
o! t9e Coum+ian E%9i+ition at once +a!!e& an& &i.(u.te& 9im.-,2- 'ina</ Suivan +eieve&
arc9itecture to +e epip9enomena/ unti/ t9at i./ 9i. oGn &e.i(n. came un&er .crutin</ at G9ic9
time 9e &ecare& immunit< !rom 9i. oGn ver&ict. HoGever impau.i+e an& contra&ictor< Ga. t9e
)a+.oute moment/) Suivan +eieve& 9i. oGn voice to 9ave +een tran.cen&ent/ univer.a/
tran.9i.torica.
SuivanK. .en.e o! arc9itectura trut9 ma< +e c9aracterize& a. !ooG.. A arc9itectura !orm.
Gere &ramatic .ta(e. on G9ic9 in&ivi&ua. enacte& t9eir roe.. T9u./ an< one .ta(e mu.t +e
&e.i(ne& to encoura(e an& !aciitate t9e proper actin( out o! reevant roe.. It mu.t (ive !orm to
G9atever !unction .ocia roe. are to !u!i. In ot9er Gor&./ t9e a..umption o! roe. an& t9e ta;in(
o! t9e roe. o! ot9er. are contin(ent on proper .pacin(/ t9at i./ on t9e .ta(e. arc9itecture create..
Utiit</ 9oGever/ Ga. not 9i. principa concern. #ein( )9uman/) in SuivanK. vieG/ Ga.
contin(ent on .ocia proce..e.--t9e &<namic. o! interaction--in term. o! G9ic9 t9e .e! evove&
an& .eve. &irect< con!ronte& t9e pro+em. o! t9eir time Git9in ever-!re.9 .ituation.. 'or
Suivan t9ere i. no .e! out.i&e o! .ocia e%perience an& no .ociet< in&epen&ent o! t9e .<m+oic
communication +etGeen .ocia actor.. T9i. e..entia< $ea&ian i&ea +e!ore $ea&/ !rame&
arc9itecture an& t9e an&.cape. it create& a. inte(ra varia+e. in t9e .ocia con.truction o!
i&entit< an& in&ee& !or .ocia pro(re.. it.e!. In t9i. .en.e/ Suivan can +e .een a. a proponent o!
t9e C9ica(o Sc9oo o! Socioo(< +e!ore t9e Univer.it< o! C9ica(o Ga. !oun&e&/ an ar(ument t9at
"uncan 9a. !orce!u< ma&e ,M1743N/ 1727:8A4-0?1-. In "uncanK. vieG/ t9e movement Suivan
in.pire& Gent +e<on& arc9itecture proper an& !oun& e%pre..ion in )t9e .pirit o! Ve+en/ "eGe</
$ea&/ Cooe< an& Par;) ,M1743N/ 1727:373-. In particuar/ t9e arc9itectK. &ramati.tic !rameGor;/
9i. a..umption t9at .e! an& .ociet< Gere emer(ent/ 9i. conviction t9at .ocia actor. create
reaitie. t9rou(9 interaction an& t9e .<m+oization in9erent in roe pa<in(/ t9at 9e un&er.too&
interaction it.e! a. .9ape& +< a .erie. o! or(anica< reate& .pace./ a ;in& o! ecoo(ica approac9
to .ocia reait</ an& not ea.t/ 9i. commitment to art a. an e..entia ve9ice !or &emocrac</
e.ta+i.9e& SuivanK. t9eoretica a!!init< Git9 t9e C9ica(o .c9oo t9at Gou& &eveop .ome tGo
&eca&e. ater. =9at Suivan emp9a.ize&/ an& G9at t9e C9ica(o .ocia .cienti.t. ten&e& eit9er to
i(nore or ta;e !or (rante&/ Ga. t9at .ocia interaction an& t9e &eveopment o! .ocia .eve. Gere
!aciitate& +< t9e arc9itectura .ta(e. Git9in G9ic9 t9e< occur. T9e arc9itectura .ta(e/ in ot9er
Gor&./ Ga. t9e !orm (ivin( !unction to t9e &emocratic .eve. an& t9e &emocratic .ociet< Suivan
Ga. &e.perate to a!!ect.
In SuivanK. min&/ not a arc9itectura .ta(e. Gere eXua. Not a !unction. encoura(e& +< !orm.
Gere con&ucive to t9e .ocia !ormation o! .e!. A. Ge 9ave .een/ Suivan Ga. o! t9e conviction
t9at t9e 9i.tor< o! arc9itecture &enie& t9e 9umanit< o! 9uman +ein(.. T9e arc9itecture o! t9e pa.t
Ga./ in 9i. term./ )!eu&a.) T9e arc9itectura .t<e. o! Ancient Hreece an& Hot9ic Europe Gere
one-.i&e&. T9e !ormer Ga. pure inteect G9ie t9e atter Ga. e%cu.ive< an e%pre..ion o! t9e
emotion.. To(et9er t9e< con!oun&e& popuation. an& evee& 9uman a(enc<. A+ove a/ t9e one-
.i&e&ne.. o! eac9 !orm vioate& t9e mo+ie eXuii+rium/ t9e )pa.ticit</) G9ic9 i. at root tru<
9uman. Suivan +eieve& t9at on< )&ramatic rea.on) cou& +rin( t9e.e .i&e. into 9armon<. HoG
9e un&er.too& &ramatic rea.on i. uncear/ +ut t9i./ 9e ae(e&/ Ga. t9e mean. Git9 G9ic9
arc9itect. cou& create ).ta(e.) .en.itive to t9e pa.ticit< o! e(aitarian man in communion Git9
9i. peer.. Suc9 a .ta(e--an& on< .uc9 a .ta(e--cou& provi&e t9e parameter. Git9in G9ic9 mo+ie
eXuii+rium cou& !ouri.9. 'rom t9e.e a..umption. came 9i. revoutionar< &ictum t9at !orm
.9ou& !ooG !unction. T9i. Ga. 9i. Fu.ti!ication !or e.capin( 9i.tor< an& a it. m<.ti!<in(
moti!.. T9i. provi&e& t9e impetu. to &e.i(n ever aneG accor&in( to t9e maea+iit< o! 9uman.
an& t9e ever-!re.9 .ituation. t9e< con!ront/ a. .eve.-in-t9e-ma;in( Git9in an emer(ent
communit<.
To &e.i(n ever aneG &eman&e& o! Suivan t9at 9e .trip !rom 9i. arc9itectura ima(ination a
remnant. o! t9e pa.t. A. 9e put it/ )no arc9itectura &ictum or tra&ition/ or .uper.tition/ or 9a+it
.9ou& .tan& in t9e Ga<) o! 9uman po..i+iit< ,M1786N/ 1734:83A-. It i. &i!!icut to e%a((erate
SuivanK. 9o.tiit< toGar&. 9i.tor< an& 9i. &e&ication to ma;e a cean +rea; !rom it. An<
arc9itectura !orm-&ome.tic/ commercia/ or aca&emic--t9at Ga. in an< Ga< in&e+te& to 9i.torica
prece&ent Ga. Fu&(e& +< 9im to vioate &emocrac<. To +e .ure/ 9e !et it nece..ar< to turn to t9e
pa.t in or&er to act more e!!ective< in t9e pre.ent/ +ut 9i.tor< Ga. .imp< a ne(ative re!erent/ a
coection o! mi.ta;e. to +e avoi&e&. He con&emne& in no uncertain term. t9e parvenu. o! 9i. a(e
G9o +uit 'renc9.t<e c9ateau. or p.eu&o-Hot9ic man.ion./ caimin( t9at no one cou& ive
)mora</ menta</ or .piritua<) in .uc9 .tructure. a. t9e< &enie& per.on. o! a(enc< or pa.ticit<
+a.ic to &emocratic .eve. ,M1712N/ 17A7:1?2-. He &i.mi..e& NeG Ior; .;<.craper./ em+ei.9e&
a. t9e< Gere Git9 9i.torica moti!./ a. t9e )ne(ation o! &emocrac<) ,M1712N/ 17A7:AA-. Suivan
Gon&ere& G9et9er to au(9 or Geep at t9e .i(9t o! a NeG Ior; toGer t9at cuminate& in a Roman
tempe or ot9er .uc9 mon.tro.itie. o! t9e pa.t. Ec9oin( Ve+en ,1712/ 1706-/ Suivan con&emne&
a. &eceit!u t9e arc9itecture o! t9e Univer.it< o! C9ica(o. Hou.in( +u.ine.. .c9oo. in Hot9ic
.tructure. Ga. +a& enou(9P t9at an in.titution o.ten.i+< &e&icate& to t9e .earc9 !or trut9 Gou&
a&orn it.e! in 9i.tor<K. m<.ti!ication. Gent +e<on& t9e pae. Suivan Fu&(e& .uc9 .tructure. a.
)pro!oun&< anti-.ocia ... Mma;in(N t9e cit< poorer an& emptier ... un&erminin( American i!e)
,M1712N/ 17A7:AA- ,emp9a.i. ori(ina-. An& 9i. !ore+o&in( critiXue o! C9ica(oK. ca..ica<
in.pire& )=9ite Cit<) 9a. +ecome e(en&ar<. So &epre..e& Ga. Suivan over t9e ca..ica
&e.i(n. o! 9i. coea(ue./ "anie #urn9am an& t9e ea.tern arc9itect./ to +e .peci!ic/ t9at 9e
+eieve& arc9itecture Gou& not recover )!or 9a! a centur< ... i! not on(er. It ,t9e =9ite Cit<- 9a.
penetrate& &eep into t9e con.titution o! t9e American min&/ e!!ectin( t9ere e.ion. .i(ni!icant o!
&ementia) ,M1734N/ 1786:083-. In .um/ Suivan .aG an< &e+t to 9i.tor< to 9ave +een a conce..ion
to circum.tance/ a .urren&er o! 9uman a(enc<: to re< on t9e pa.t Ga. tantamount to .in;in( into
con&ition.. )T9e Roman tempe/) Suivan a..erte&/ )can no more e%i.t in !act on $onroe Street/
C9ica(o/ U.S.A./ t9an can Roman civiization e%i.t t9ere. Suc9 a .tructure mu.t o! nece..it< +e a
.imuacrum/ a (9o.t) ,M1712N/ 17A7:07-.
Suivan Ga. particuar< contemptuou. o! .c9oo. o! arc9itecture/ in&e+te& a. t9e< Gere to
9i.torica .tan&ar&. an& a+ove a to t9e inteectuaization o! t9eir cra!t/ G9ic9 Suivan +eieve&
enervate& t9e ima(ination/ ma;in( t9e.e .c9oo. .o man< cemeterie. G9ere i&ea. Gent to &ie.
One earne& !ar more communin( Git9 tree./ Suivan t9ou(9t/ t9an Git9 +oo;.. )Un&er.tan&in(
an& Gor&./) 9e caime&/ )are o!ten !ar apart/ t9e< 9ave +ut itte in common. Un&er.tan&in( i. o!
t9e 9eart ...) ,M1712N/ 17A7:34-. 'or Suivan/ t9in;in( a+out arc9itecture Ga. co&/ ana<tic/ an&
o+!u.catin(. Ima(inin( arc9itecture Ga. roote& in )rea.one& pa..ion.) T9o.e Git9 coura(e to
ima(ine mu.t return to t9e .tate o! c9i&9oo& in G9ic9 t9e purit< o! e%pre..ion Ga. po..i+e. )Let
u. remain c9i&ren a. Ge (roG o&/) Suivan e%caime&/ )M!or I te <ou i! <ou ;i t9e c9i& in
man <ou ;i t9e man in man) ,M1712N/ 17A7:34-. In Rou..eauean !a.9ion/ Suivan ar(ue& t9at
t9e mi.ta;e. o! 9i.tor< +e(an Git9 inteectuaization a. t9i. create& &i.tance +etGeen man an&
t9e Gi&e-e<e& .en.e o! aGe an& Gon&erment t9at Ga. 9i. a&oe.cence. AGe an& Gon&erment
Gere t9e mean. Git9 G9ic9 certaint< o! perception Ga. o+taine&. To eave t9i. .tate o! purit< Ga.
to enveop our.eve. in a !o( o! our oGn creation. )ITN9e $e..ia9 o! our art/) Suivan Grote/ Gi
+e t9e c9i& MG9oN )9a. in 9i. +rea.t t9e true arc9itectura a!!atu.....) ,"uncan/ M1743N/
1727:866-.
SuivanK. arc9itectura t9eor< Ga. !uee& a. Ge +< a poGer!u e(aitariani.m a..imiate& in
ar(e part t9rou(9 9i. i!e-on( in!atuation Git9 =at =9itman. T9e =9itmane.Xue .pirit o!
eXuait< an& in&ivi&uai.m mar;e& C9ica(o arc9itect. a. a G9oe/ &e.pite t9eir reuctance to
em+race &irect< t9e peope t9e< .aG t9em.eve. ea&in( to a +etter tomorroG. An& it Ga. a .pirit
t9at a&mitte& o! no &i.tinction. an& cee+rate& t9e &emo. in virtua< rei(iou. term.. Suivan/ a.
&i& 9i. peer Bo9n =e+orn Root/ reFecte& ato(et9er t9e cate(or< o! )!ine art) on t9e premi.e t9at
on< art !or a peope cou& +e con.i&ere& !ine. "i.tinction. +etGeen u.e!u an& +eauti!u/
commercia an& !ine arc9itecture Gere i;eGi.e Fetti.one& in !avor o! 9orizonta criteria o!
evauation ,"uncan/ M1743N/ 1727:062-067-. =9at 9e& !or .tructure. t9em.eve. appie& a. Ge
to t9eir (eo(rap9ica .pacin(. Accor&in( to t9e arc9itectura 9i.torian Heinric9 Lotz/ C9ica(oK.
po.t-!ire cit< panner. a+an&one& t9e 9i.torica practice o! &i!!erentiatin( Xuaitative< .uperior
.tructure. !rom t9e Xuantitative< u.ua. Rat9er t9an a%ia vi.ta. G9ic9 ent .i(ni!icance an&
importance to a (iven +ui&in(/ one !in&. in po.t-!ire C9ica(o )t9e (ri&/ G9ic9 &ecare& ever< ot
o! an& eXua.) In )SuivanK. C9ica(o .../) Lotz ar(ue&/ )t9e emp9a.i. i. not on an< panne&
preeminence/ +ut on t9e (reate.t po..i+e utiization o! an& on ot. G9ic9 are/ in principe/ o!
eXua .tatu.) ,172A:37-48-.
Not .urpri.in(</ t9en/ Suivan +eieve& t9at on< t9rou(9 communion Git9 t9e peope cou& t9e
arti.t !in& in.piration !or a tru< &emocratic art. )T9e arti.t/) 9e once Grote/ )mu.t turn 9i. !ace to
t9e peope/ a. .erene< a. t9e p9io.op9er. an& prie.t. o! t9e pa.t turne& t9eir +ac;.) ,"uncan/
M1743N/ 1727:60A-. To commune Git9 t9e !o; Ga. to (ra.p t9e )vita .impicit<) o! t9eir poGer in
i(9t o! G9ic9 an arti.t cou& !or(e environment. t9at aoGe& !or t9eir proper actin( out an&
e%pre..ion o! roe.. On t9i. .core/ Root Ga. in per!ect a(reement/ !or 9e too +eieve& t9at
9i.torica arti.t. Gere aoo! t9e< mi.ta;en< a..ume& t9at creativit< pre.uppo.e& &i.tance !rom
t9e ever<&a< Gor&. True arti.t. un&er.too& t9e< .9ou& )come &oGn) to t9e peope an& )open
t9eir e<e. to t9e +eaut</K a+out t9em ,$onroe/ 1274:811-818-. T9i. +eaut</ a. Suivan envi.ione&
it/ Ga. not9in( .9ort o! an e(aitarian &emocrac< t9at e%pre..e& t9e i!e o! man 9ere an& noG )in
a communit< o! t9e eart9/ not ... in a .upernatura ream +e<on& t9e rea.one& ima(ination o!
man) ,"uncan/ M1743N/ 1727:60A-.
It .carce< nee&. to +e .ai& t9at Suivan cou& not 9ave anticipate& contemporar< critici.m.
evee& a(ain.t t9e arc9itectura !orm. 9e 9epe& in.pire. He Ga. too certain o! 9i. vi.ion an& o!
t9e roe 9i. arc9itectura .ta(e. Gou& pa< in +rin(in( t9i. vi.ion to !ruition. One ma< .pecuate/
9oGever/ t9at SuivanK. premi.e. Gere !aGe&/ .o &eep< !aGe& t9at 9i. Xue.t !or a triump9ant
&emocrac< ne(ate& t9e virtue. 9e .o pa..ionate< e.pou.e&. Ta;e/ !or e%ampe/ SuivanK.
conviction t9at &emocratic art pre.uppo.e& t9e e.cape !rom 9i.tor< an& a it. tra&ition.. T9i.
a9i.torica et9o. Ga. 9ar&< e%ceptiona. No e.. a !i(ure t9an TocXuevie Ga. .truc; +< t9e
a9i.torica +ent o! &emocratic peope. +e!ore C9ica(o Ga. !oun&e&/ an& 9e attri+ute& it.
prevaence in part to an i&ea o! pro(re.. Suivan 9im.e! em+race& ,TocXuevie/ 1763:1?0-1?4P
166-16A-. An& to t9e e%tent t9at an 9i.torica con.ciou.ne.. meant a .urren&er to circum.tance/
t9e ater pra(mati.t. Gere i;eGi.e incine& to evauate 9i.tor< a. .o man< !etter./ !ree&om !rom
G9ic9 Ga. nece..ar< i! 9uman. Gere to contro ever-!re.9 .ituation.. #< .o conceptuaizin( t9e
pa.t/ 9oGever/ Suivan unGittin(< e.ta+i.9e& t9e (roun&. to ren&er 9i. oGn art o+.oete. I!
arc9itectura tra&ition a. .uc9 &enie. our pa.ticit< or mo+ie eXuii+rium/ t9en G9at o! SuivanK.
Gor; a. it attain. tra&itiona .tatu.O It too mu.t +e a+an&one&/ i!/ t9at i./ Ge are to maintain
!i&eit< to 9i. vi.ion/ G9ic9 i. preci.e< G9at SuivanK. !ooGer. an& t9e cit< o! C9ica(o 9ave
&one. $an< o! SuivanK. .tructure. 9ave +een raze& !or t9e purpo.e o! +ui&in( neGer an&
+i((er/ G9ic9 9a. (enera< +een con.true& a. meanin( +etter. T9e.e in turn 9ave +een raze& .o
t9at .omet9in( even neGer an& ever +i((er cou& +e +uit. In C9ica(o/ at ea.t/ pro(re.. never
en&.. T9e cit<K. tra&ition 9a. on( +een a )tra&ition o! t9e neG.)Z- To +e .ure/ prominent !i(ure.
9ave pu+ic< con&emne& t9e razin( o! t9e cit<K. 9i.torica .tructure./ not ea.t o! G9om Ga. Car
Con&it/ t9e &i.tin(ui.9e& arc9itectura 9i.torian. #ut Con&it .eem. to 9ave overoo;e& t9at t9e
tra&ition 9e Gi.9e& to pre.erve Ga. mar;e& +< an interna o(ic t9at &eman&e& it. unravein(. To
cee+rate/ a. Con&it &i&/ t9e !u reac9 o! t9e Suivan tra&ition Ga. to +etra< Suivan 9im.e!
,NeGman/ 1728-/ In .um/ SuivanK. )tra&ition o! t9e neG) prove& contra&ictor< a. t9e ater
avant-(ar&e Gou& come to un&er.tan&.
Au(mentin( t9i. &etermination to con.truct neGer an& +i((er .tructure. 9a. +een/ ironica<
enou(9/ t9e ver< e(aitariani.m t9at animate& t9e cit<K. po.t-!ire arc9itect.. In e.ta+i.9in(
t9rou(9 t9e (ri& t9e eXuait< o! a ot./ an& t9ere+< evein( t9e Xuaitative 9ierarc9ie. o! t9e
pa.t/ C9ica(oK. cit< panner. unGittin(< encoura(e& Xuantitative e%pan.ion--9orizonta or
vertica--a. t9e +a.i. o! &i!!erentiation. A. no .tructure cou& caim .u+Fective .uperiorit</
arc9itect. .ou(9t uniXuene.. in o+Fective Ga<.. T9u. it i. t9at C9ica(o 9a. +een t9e .eXuentia
9ome to t9e ar(e.t ,T9e $erc9an&i.e $art- an& tae.t ,unti recent</ T9e Sear. ToGer-
.tructure. ever +uit. ,In recent mont9. C9ica(oan. 9ave ta;e& o! con.tructin( a 1/33? !eet toGer
G9ic9 Gou& recaim t9e cit<K. 9onor o! +ein( 9ome to t9e Gor&K. tae.t +ui&in(.- Hence t9e
Ga((i.9 vieG t9at C9ica(oan. +ui& on< !or t9e purpo.e o! tearin( &oGn. One Gou& e%pect no
e.. !rom a cit< G9o.e e.cape !rom t9e pa.t Ga. at t9e .ame time an a..ertion o! t9e e(aitarian
.pirit.
In t9i. i(9t/ SuivanK. arc9itectura .ta(e. are !rame& a. movement. &evoi& o! &e.tination. No
.ta(e i. ever )&one) an& certain< no .ta(e cou& +e 9e& a. an )en&.) A .ta(e. +ecome act. in a
never-en&in( &rama/ an& Git9 t9e pa..in( o! one .cene Ge natura< Gitne.. t9e &i.mantin( o! it.
.et an& t9e con.truction o! .omet9in( neGP .o/ too/ t9e &emocratic .eve. t9at t9e.e .ta(e. Gere to
cutivate. In 9o&in( t9at t9e .e! 9a& no ontoo(ica .tatu. apart !rom .ociet</ in a..umin( t9e
.e!K. pa.ticit< or mo+ie eXuii+rium/ Suivan .aG i&entit< a. contin(ent on .ocia proce..e./
t9at i./ on t9e roe. an in&ivi&ua a..ume. in communion Git9 ot9er roe./ apart !rom G9ic9 t9e
.e! &oe. not e%i.t. T9e .e! i. t9e e%perience o! )+ecomin(/ a&aptin( an& !a.9ionin(/ .omet9in(
in t9e ma;in(/ or to +e more preci.e/ .omet9in( continuou.< rema&e) ,"i((in./ 1776:04?-023-.
An& .o it Ga. !or t9e communitie. t9at t9e.e .eve. (enerate& an& t9e trut9. or meanin(. un&er
G9ic9 t9e.e communitie. operate&. In .um/ Suivan !rame& a o! i!e a. provi.iona--t9e .e!/ t9e
roe. t9e in&ivi&ua a..ume./ t9e communitie. t9at .eve. (enerate t9rou(9 interaction/ an& t9e
arc9itectura .pace. in G9ic9 t9e &rama un!o&.. A. e%i.tence i. mar;e& +< movement/ neit9er
t9e .e!/ communit</ nor trut9 ma< +e Fu&(e& &e!initive. To a..ert ot9erGi.e Gou& vioate t9e
9uman pa.ticit< Suivan 9e& &ear.
In a..umin( a. a matter o! cour.e t9e provi.iona nature o! e%i.tence/ Suivan Ga. o+iviou. to
t9e e%i.tentia am+i(uitie. t9i. po.ition mi(9t en(en&er. =9at Ga. o! (rave concern to t9e i;e.
o! $a% =e+er an& a 9o.t o! ot9er .ocia t9in;er. o! t9e time Ga. apparent< o! no concern to t9e
arc9itect. One ma< .a< t9e .ame !or man< C9ica(o Sc9oo .ocioo(i.t.. NoG9ere in SuivanK.
Gritin(. &o Ge Gitne.. .en.itivit< to t9e &iemma. o! a i!e reveae& a. &e&icate& to a pro(re.. !or
no ot9er purpo.e t9an pro(re.. it.e!. T9e en&e.. re!a.9ionin( o! .e!/ communit</ an& meanin(
Ga. .e!-Fu.ti!<in(/ intrin.ica< meanin(!u/ or .o Suivan .eeme& to a..ume. Simiar</ noG9ere
&o Ge Gitne.. .en.itivit< to t9e tenuou.ne.. o! reaitie. reveae& a. ep9emera. He .imp< too; it
!or (rante& t9at commitment to an< one reait<--t9e co9erence o! .e! an& coective--Gou& +e
.u.taine& even t9ou(9 reait< a. .uc9 9a& +een &e!ine& out o! e%i.tence. Nor Ga. Suivan
concerne& t9at .eve.-in-t9e-ma;in( cou& encoura(e a uni!ormit< in G9ic9 ot9er-&irecte&ne..
Ga. mi.ta;en !or in&ivi&uait<. "eveopin( an& .u.tainin( in&epen&ence G9ie a aon(
&epen&ent on t9e evauation. o! ot9er. !or .e!-i&entit< Ga. a para&o% t9e ater pra(mati.t. Gou&
con!ront an& never Xuite reconcie/ at ea.t in t9e e<e. o! .ome critic.--in particuar Lione
Triin( ,.ee "i((in./ 1776-. #ut Suivan .eeme& to Gecome t9e immer.ion o! .e! in t9e ma..
o! 9i. !eoG.. In one .tri;in( pa..a(e 9e e%picit< <earne& !or it:

%n plain #ords #e find each human eing uni'ue. When #e say uni'ue, #e mean
the only one. Thus each one is the only one. %f #e ha&e mused long enough
upon the immense fecundity and industry of )ife, the paradox &anishes( The
only one and the all coalesce. The %ndi&idual and the mass ecome one, in a
ne# phase of po#er #hose stupendous potency of creati&e art in ci&ilization
stuns the sense of possiility. Thus opens to our &ie# the ,emocratic
-ista! .[/012], /034(156$15/7 .emphasis in original7
T9e notion o! a romanticize& !o; arme& Git9 a poGer o! .tupen&ou. potenc</ pre.uma+<
marc9in( toGar&. (oriou. victor</ conFure. up ima(e. Git9 G9ic9 man< o! u. to&a< are
uncom!orta+e. T9e impication. o! t9i. pa..a(e are (rave/ particuar< amon( t9o.e G9o ive&
t9rou(9 t9e ma.. movement. o! t9i. centur<. It Gou& +e un!air to 9o& Suivan re.pon.i+e !or
t9e.e ima(e. a. Ge can +e rea.ona+< certain t9at i! 9e Gere aive to&a</ Git9 !u +ene!it o! our
9i.torica per.pective/ 9i. ent9u.ia.m. Gou& +e tempere&. =9at remain. to +e .een/ 9oGever/ i.
9oG Suivan .u+.tantiate& 9i. .en.e o! t9e )"emocratic Vi.ta) an& on G9at rea.one& +a.i. cou&
9e temper 9i. ent9u.ia.m. In ot9er Gor&./ 9oG &i& Suivan account !or 9i. oGn voice an& on
G9at +a.i. &i& 9e Fu.ti!< 9i. procamation. o! vaueO Preci.e< 9ere &i& 9e trea& precariou.<. To
.tate t9e matter +a&</ Suivan Ga. not con.i.tent Git9 t9e ver&ict. 9e ren&ere&.,1?- 'or
e%ampe/ i! .e!/ communit</ an& meanin( Gere .ocia< con.tructe&/ i! trut9 Ga. .imp< t9at
G9ic9 emer(e& !rom t9e &<namic. o! interaction/ on G9at +a.i. cou& Suivan privie(e 9i. oGnO
'or t9at matter/ on G9at +a.i. cou& 9e privie(e an< trut9O =9< .9ou& &emocratic .eve. +e
con.true& a. aut9entic i! t9e .e! a. .uc9 &oe. not e%i.tO =9< are &emocratic .ta(e. pre!era+e to
9i.torica one. i! eac9 i. a .ocia con.truction an& t9u. +< &e!inition )trut9)O In i(9t o! G9at
.tan&ar& over an& a+ove G9at i. &i& 9e !ormuate an& a..ert 9i. Fu&(ment. o! vaueO In&ee&/ are
.uc9 evauation. po..i+e i! one 9o&. t9at )G9at i.)--t9e .ocia proce..e. o! i!e--con.titute. t9e
G9oe o! e%i.tenceO
Suivan Ga. not Ge po.itione& to a&&re.. t9e.e Xue.tion.. Hi. ver< premi.e. un&ermine& 9i.
oGn voice. To +e .ure/ t9rou(9out 9i. Gritin(. Suivan ma&e re!erence. to 9uman )i&ea./)
)a.piration./) )<earnin(./) an& ot9er .uc9 term. .u((e.tive o! a )(oo&.) At no time/ 9oGever/ &i&
9e .pea; &irect< to t9i. (oo& t9at 9i. arc9itecture Ga. &e.i(ne& to .erve. He ma< 9ave a..ume&
t9at a more &emocratic art reXuire& no Fu.ti!ication/ t9at it Ga. a .e!-evi&ent trut9. #ut t9i. i. to
an.Ger a Xue.tion Git9 a Xue.tion. Per9ap. Ge ma< &i.cern t9e .ee&. o! t9i. &iemma in 9i.
&ictum )!orm !ooG. !unction.) HoGever i+eratin( t9i. prove& to +e/ an& G9atever contro it
(ave peope over con&ition./ it e.ta+i.9e& arc9itecture a. a ;in& o! .ervant .ati.!<in( t9e
imme&iate nee&. o! .ocia actor.. A arc9itectura !orm. Gere conceive& on t9e +a.i. o! G9at
9uman. Gere actua< &oin(. On t9i. i..ue Suivan Ga. a&amant. )T9e true Function o! t9e
arc9itect/) 9e e%caime&/ )S. to initiate .uc9 +ui&in(. a. .9a corre.pon& to t9e rea nee&. o! t9e
peope) ,M1712N/ 17A7:107- ,emp9a.i. ori(ina-. HoG t9e.e rea nee&. are &etermine& an& G9o or
G9at (rant. certain nee&. e(itimac< are e!t un;noGn. $ore important/ Suivan 9a. e!t
une%amine& t9e 9i(9er (oo& in term. o! G9ic9 )nee&.) +ecome )rea) an& accor&in( to G9ic9
9uman. orient t9eir +e9avior. T9i. i. .o +ecau.e SuivanK. )9i(9er (oo&) i. not9in( more t9an
t9e.e rea an& imme&iate nee&./ .not9in( more t9an .ocia action it.e!. Hi. arc9itectura )ou(9t)
t9u. +ecame t9e interactiona )i./) t9e &i.tinction coap.e&/ a. it Gere/ .uc9 t9at Xue.tion. o!
vaue an& !unction +ecame one an& t9e .ame. In t9i. .en.e/ arc9itecture cannot .pea; to G9at
actor. ou(9t to &o/ an& certain< not to 9oG t9e< ou(9t to +e/ a. action it.e!--movement--&e!ine.
t9e (oo& o! e%i.tence.
A. Ge 9ave .een/ Suivan ar(ue& t9at in a &emocrac< arti.t. .9ou& come &oGn to t9e peope an&
create environment. G9ic9 e%pre.. t9e i!e o! in&ivi&ua. 9ere an& noG )in a communit< o! t9e
eart9/ not ... in a .upernatura ream) +e<on& t9eir rea.one& ima(ination. ,emp9a.i. a&&e&-. He
a..ume& t9at .uc9 environment. Gou& provi&e 9uman actor. t9e a+iit< to contro con&ition.. #<
.o ar(uin(/ Suivan unGittin(< a+an&one& t9e re!erent. over an& a+ove t9e 9ere an& noG G9ic9
in!u.e .ocia action Git9 meanin( an& permit it. evauation. In ot9er Gor&./ 9i. commitment to
t9e 9ere an& noG Ga. a commitment to mean. to t9e e%cu.ion o! en&./ to t9e !orm o! interaction
rat9er t9an it. .u+.tantive content. It .carce< nee&. to +e .ai& t9at t9e con.truction o! ever-taer
+ui&in(. &oe. not in it.e! en& meanin( to t9e ;in& o! contro over circum.tance .uc9
con.truction &emon.trate.. T9u. Ga. Suivan una+e to Fu.ti!< 9i. re.oute Xue.t !or t9e
rationaization o! i!e/ 9i. reente.. activi.m.,11- No Gon&er t9e ima(er< .urroun&in( t9e ta
+ui&in( 9a. .o ra&ica< c9an(e&. 'rom t9e +e(innin( Suivan Ga. &e.perate to empoGer
popuation. G9ic9 9a& .u!!ere& a. a re.ut o! )!eu&a) m<.ti!ication.. To t9i. en& 9e evee& a
t9at 9a& +een/ a..umin( t9i. Gou& .ecure t9e !ree&om 9uman. nee&e& to contro ever-!re.9
.ituation.. At no time &i& Suivan pon&er t9e .u+.tantive meanin( o! t9i. !ree&omP at no time &i&
9e e.ta+i.9 t9e utimate purpo.e. .uc9 contro Gou& .erve. At no time/ t9en/ cou& Suivan
conceive t9at t9e arc9itectura .pace o! t9e .;<.craper cou& +e &epo<e& +< t9e !eG !or t9e
purpo.e o! controin( an& e%poitin( t9e man<. In .um/ SuivanK. ar&ent e.cape !rom 9i.tor<
meant t9e 9i.torization o! 9i. oGn t9ou(9t/ a<in( +are a i!e mar;e& +< proce..e. &evoi& o!
&e.tination.
=e .9ou& not t9in; t9i. &iemma pecuiar to t9e .patia &<namic. o! t9e .;<.craper. Late in 9i.
career Suivan &e.i(ne& a num+er o! +an; +ui&in(. in .ma $i&Ge.tern toGn./ one o! G9ic9
Ga. t9e cee+rate& PeopeK. Savin(. #an; in Ce&ar Rapi&./ IoGa. T9e interior o! t9i. particuar
&e.i(n Ga. remar;a+e !or it. openne... In t9e intere.t. o! creatin( a more &emocratic .pace
Suivan trie& to oGer t9e +arrier. .eparatin( +an; empo<ee. an& cu.tomer. a. Ge a. t9e
+arrier. t9at &ivi&e& t9e empo<ee. t9em.eve.. To t9i. en& t9e o!!ice. o! +an; e%ecutive. Gere
ma&e a. vi.i+e an& acce..i+e a. t9e .pace. u.e& +< t9e +an; teer.. T9e o!!ice. an& teer .pace.
Gere or(anize& aroun& a centra area u.e& +< t9e pu+ic. ,T9i. ;in& o! &e.i(n anticipate& t9e
mo&erni.t &ome.tic interior/ mar;e& +< open .pace. in G9ic9 9uman. Gere !ree o! t9e re.triction.
+orn o! t9e &emarcate&/ compartmentaize& .patia arran(ement. o! t9e pa.t.- Suc9 an interior/ 9e
+eieve&/ Gou& (enerate (reater interaction amon( in&ivi&ua./ G9o/ G9ie not eXua in t9e
!unctiona .en.e/ are encoura(e& +< t9e p9<.ica .pace to a..ume an eXuait< o! &i(nit<.
At !ir.t (ance/ t9e manner in G9ic9 Suivan carrie& out 9i. o+Fective o! a more &emocratic .pace
.eem. rea.ona+eP .ome ma< !in& it a&mira+e. #< t9e .ame to;en/ t9ou(9/ t9e ;in& o! .pace
Fu&(e& &emocratic +< Suivan i. !rom anot9er per.pective t9e ;in& o! .pace t9at !aciitate.
.urveiance an& .ocia contro. #orroGin( a pa(e !rom 'oucaut/ t9e open .pace. Suivan
(enerate& ma< Fu.t a. Ge provi&e eite. t9e opportunit< to monitor +etter t9eir empo<ee.
,17A7-. =9at Ga. inten&e& a. a &emocratic .patia arran(ement/ t9en/ cou& +ecome in reait< an
arc9itecture t9at not on< con!irme& +ut .u.taine& t9e +arrier. +etGeen in&ivi&ua.. T9i. po..i+e
rever.a o! intention mani!e.t. it.e! a(ain +< virtue o! Suivan ca.tin( a +in& e<e to t9e 9i(9er
purpo.e. .erve& +< t9e interaction 9i. arc9itecture encoura(e&. To encoura(e 9uman intercour.e
&oe. not nece..ari< &irect 9uman actor. in meanin(!u Ga<.P nor &oe. it prevent 9uman actor.
!rom manipuatin( .uc9 intercour.e !or private (ain. Interaction !or t9e .a;e o! interaction/ !orm
rat9er t9an content/ movement rat9er t9an &irection/ an& G9at )i.) a. oppo.e& to G9at )ou(9t to
+e) Gere un!ortunate< t9e +e(innin( an& en& o! SuivanK. un&er.tan&in( o! arc9itectura .pace
an& t9e &emocratic cuture 9e a..ume& it Gou& create.
Leo Strau.. an& t9e =a<Gar& $ovement o! $o&ern Li+erai.m
T9e traFector< o! SuivanK. arc9itectura t9eor</ an& +< e%ten.ion t9e &eveopment o! 9i. +eove&
.;<.craper/ Gere t9ematica< con.i.tent Git9 t9e tenet. o! mo&ern p9io.op9<. To t9o.e !amiiar
Git9 t9e Gor; o! Leo Strau../ t9e Ga<Gar& movement o! arc9itectura mo&erni.m/ an& t9e
&i.cre&itation o! it. principa e%pre..ion/ t9e .;<.craper come. a. itte .urpri.e ,1730/ 1722:7-
33-. SuivanK. Fourne<--9i. e!!ort to ac9ieve pro(re.. +< coap.in( t9e &i.tinction +etGeen t9e
rea an& t9e i&ea--9a. +een centra to t9e mo&ern p9io.op9ic proFect a. it evove& !rom
$ac9iavei t9rou(9 Nietz.c9e. It Ga. $ac9iavei G9o !ir.t .u((e.te& t9at Ge ta;e 9uman. a.
t9e< are/ not a. t9e< .9ou& +e. He &i& .o !or t9e purpo.e o! e.ta+i.9in( a .cience t9at cou&
e!!ective< contro circum.tance/ or a. 9e put it/ )!ortuna.) T9e ancient./ in t9eir Xue.t !or t9e
i&ea/ in ta;in( t9eir +earin(. +< virtue/ e!t too muc9 to c9ance. #e.i&e./ o! G9at utiit< Ga. t9e
pur.uit o! an i&ea G9o.e reveation Ga. a&mitte&< impro+a+eO =9at can +e &one/ in
$ac9iaveiK. teac9in(/ i. .uperior in a re.pect. to G9at .9ou& +e &one. Ho++e. Gou& ater
+rin( t9i. vi.ion to !ruition/ re!a.9ionin( it a. a para&i(m o! po..i+iit< !or .ociet< a. a G9oe.
,$ac9iavei 9a& Gritten On t9e PrinceP Ho++e./ On t9e Citizen.- In Ho++e.K. teac9in(./
e.ta+i.9in( .ociet< on t9e +a.i. o! 9oG 9uman. are Gou& !ree .ocia Gor&. !rom t9e turmoi
an& con!ict/ an& contin(encie. an& uncertaintie. t9at pa(ue& t9e ancient. a. t9e< Xue.te& !or
virtue. Human +e(innin(. ,.e!-pre.ervation-/ not 9uman en&./ .9ou& +e t9e principe in term. o!
G9ic9 .ocia i!e i. or(anize&.,18- An& .o it Ga. a.o !or Loc;e !or G9om t9e (oo& .ociet< Ga.
eXuate& Git9 materia com!ort/ a ;in& o! mi&&e ca.. e%i.tence !or a/ G9ic9 i! not o!t< Ga.
Git9in t9e ream o! po..i+iit<. In eac9 in.tance/ Ge Gitne.. a para&o%: T9e e%pan.ion o! 9uman
po..i+iit< Ga. at t9e .ame time a oGerin( o! 9uman 9orizon..,10- To +e more preci.e/ e!!ort. to
contro con&ition./ to mana(e i!e proce..e. more e!!icient</ came at t9e e%pen.e o! t9e utimate
purpo.e. t9at .uc9 contro Gou& norma< .erve an& in term. o! G9ic9 .uc9 proce..e. Gere
evauate&.
Rou..eau Ga. not immune to t9i. para&o% 9oGever muc9 9e !a.9ione& 9im.e! in oppo.ition to
t9e Ho++e.ian tra&ition. A. Strau.. ar(ue./ Rou..eauK. ae(e& counter-movement un!o&e& in
Ga<. t<pica o! Ho++e./ at ea.t in re(ar& to t9e &i.tinction +etGeen t9e rea an& t9e i&ea. I! t9e
(oo& o! .ociet< i. e%pre..e& t9rou(9 t9e (enera Gi/ virtue +ecome. immanent/ rat9er t9an
tran.cen&ent/ .omet9in( Ge &o not Xue.t !or/ +ut .omet9in( o! G9ic9 Ge are area&< in
po..e..ion. T9e i&ea/ t9en/ i. &erive& in an& t9rou(9 t9e rea. Lo.t in t9e proce.. a(ain are t9e
9i(9er purpo.e. in term. o! G9ic9 (enera Gi. ma< +e evauate& an& accor&in( to G9ic9 t9e<
are &irecte&. T9u. &i& (enera Gi. +ecome .o man< 9i.torica arti!act. ,a. in t9e Gor; o! Emie
"ur;9eim-. T9u. too &i& mo&ern p9io.op9< cuminate in t9e 9i.torici.m o! a Nietz.c9e G9ere+<
a..ertion. o! trut9 are i&entica Git9 a..ertion. o! poGer an& Xue.tion. o! vaue are re!rame& a.
pre!erence. Git9out !oun&ation. In Strau..K. vieG/ .uc9 Ga. t9e !ate o! mo&ern. G9o.e &e.ire to
contro con&ition. &enie. t9em t9e +a.i. to Fu.ti!< t9eir reente.. activi.m/ an& a+ove a/ to (ive
&irection to t9e contro t9e< continue .o !ervent< to &e.ire.
Concu.ion
SuivanK. optimi.m .urroun&in( t9e ma.ter< o! con&ition. .temme& !rom a p9io.op9ica
!oun&ation a. precariou. a. t9e .o((< mar.9an&. !rom G9ic9 t9e C9ica(o-.t<e .;<.craper
.pran(. T9e arc9itectura movement 9e 9epe& in.pire/ !in&in( it. preeminent e%pre..ion in t9e
noG &i.cre&ite& ta +ui&in(/ Ga. a aon( !aGe&. It. triump9 Ga. nece..ari< it. oGn ne(ation.
A. Ge 9ave .een/ t9e .;<.craper iu.trate& manK. contro over t9e environment. #ut a. a
movement &evoi& o! &e.tination/ Ge noG !in& our.eve. una+e to (ive an accountin( o! our oGn
activi.m/ o! t9e proce..e. t9at 9ave come to &e!ine t9e (oo& o! e%i.tence. T9e con&ition. Suivan
Ga. .o &e.perate to contro 9ave +ecome con&ition. into G9ic9 9i. &emocratic .eve. 9ave +een
.u+mer(e&. Over a centur< a(o/ Henr< A&am. anticipate& t9i. a. 9e contempate& t9e neG
America on t9e 9orizon/ .<m+oize& +< C9ica(o it.e!.,16- So too Bo9n "eGe< G9o/ per9ap. in a
Gea; moment/ once re!ecte& on t9e &iemma. o! a pra(mati.m t9at emp9a.ize& mean. to t9e
e%cu.ion o! en&..,13- A&am. retreate& to t9e m<.tica Gor& o! me&ieva Cat9oici.m/ an& in
particuar t9e arc9itecture o! t9e Hot9ic cat9e&ra/ 9opin( to !in& t9ere t9e 9i(9er purpo.e. in
i(9t o! G9ic9 i!e 9a& meanin(. "eGe</ i;e Suivan +e!ore 9im/ pre..e& !orGar& una+e to !ree
9im.e! !rom a para&i(m 9e 9epe& con.truct/ +ut G9o.e !oun&ation 9a& +een ai& on( +e!ore.
A&am. mi(9t 9ave +een +etter .erve& +< returnin( to t9e ancient. an& t9e reaction a(ain.t t9em
t9at .et into motion t9e mo&erni.t &rama. T9e !ooGer. o! "eGe</ in particuar Ric9ar& Rort</
9ave a+an&one& ato(et9er Xue.tion. o! vaue an& 9ave em+race& e%picit< .ocia proce..e. a.
t9e mean. an& en& o! e%i.tence.,14- A. !or Suivan an& t9e roe 9e pa<e& in t9i. &rama/ one ma<
concu&e t9at 9i. arc9itectura vi.ion Ga. in!orme& +< a comman&in( !ait9. So committe& Ga. 9e
to mo&ern &emocratic virtue. 9e Ga. incapa+e o! critica re!ection. T9e tra(e&ian. un&er.too&
t9at virtue Ga. nece..ar<. =it9out it i!e it.e! i. inconceiva+e. #ut nece..it< i. +in& an& our
encounter Git9 it ro+. u. o! our e<e. ,Steiner/ 1740:3-.
$eanG9ie/ t9e conceptuaization o! a &emocratic arc9itecture !or(in( &emocratic .pace remain.
a pre..in( i..ue. Un!ortunate< muc9 o! G9at 9a. +een o!!ere& in reaction a(ain.t t9e mo&ern. are
an&.cape. G9ic9 continue to !rame &emocrac< in proce..iona Ga<.. Bane Baco+./ !or e%ampe/
a&vocate& a an&.cape t9at Gou& increa.e t9e inten.it< an& !reXuenc< o! interaction. So too
=iiam H. =9<te G9o oo;e& approvin(< on t9e interaction (enerate& +< t9e ver< &i!!erent
arc9itectura an& (eo(rap9ica an&.cape. o! European citie. ,1722-. In eac9 ca.e/ interaction !or
t9e .a;e o! interaction i. t9e point o! &eparture. T9e o+Fective &oe. not &i!!er !rom SuivanK./
on< t9e mean.. T9e .ame can +e .ai& o! Ha+erma.K. 9ope !or an incu.ive an& more or e..
e(aitarian pu+ic .p9ere t9at encoura(e. G9at 9e (enerica< ca. communicative action. =9ie
Ge ma< &ou+t t9e i;ei9oo& t9at .uc9 a .pace cou& +e create&/ an& G9ie Ge ma< +e concerne&
a+out t9e price pai& in manu!acturin( t9i. ;in& o! .p9ere. ,A!ter a/ in.urin( t9e ;in& o!
e(aitarian reation.9ip. Ha+erma. a&vocate. Git9out t9reatenin( !un&amenta !ree&om. Gou&
+e no mean !eatP +e.i&e./ an& a. Ha+erma. 9im.e! conce&e./ t9e more incu.ive t9e pu+ic
.p9ere 9a. +ecome t9e e.. eevate& i. our poitica &i.cour.e/ a !act t9at 9ar&< +ui&. con!i&ence
in Ha+erma.K. proFect M.ee Ca9oun/ 1778:0N.- T9e i..ue I rai.e 9ere i. t9at interaction it.e!/ no
matter 9oG e(aitarian/ &oe. not nece..ari< (ui&e 9uman actor. in meanin(!u Ga<.. In ot9er
Gor&./ +ui&in(./ .i&eGa;./ .treet./ an& paza. o! &i!!erent con!i(uration. Gi not (ive &irection
to t9e mora &en.it< t9e< (enerate. $o&erni.m remain. a movement &evoi& o! &e.tination. T9e
pro+em o! meanin(/ G9ic9 eventua< con.ume& Suivan an& t9e mo&ern. 9e in.pire&/
continue. to pa(ue. To con!ront t9i. pro+em i. to con!ront Xue.tion. a+out t9e (oo& or (oo&..
To pon&er G9at a &emocratic .pace mi(9t oo; i;e an& G9at ;in&. o! interaction t9i. .pace mi(9t
create &eman&. !ir.t an articuation o! i&ea./ o! 9i(9er purpo.e. an& en&. toGar&. G9ic9
&emocratic .eve. a.pire.
Per9ap. Suivan Ga. correct in a..umin( t9at Hree; an& Roman tempe./ Hot9ic cat9e&ra./ an&
ot9er .uc9 &e.i(n. o! t9e pa.t 9ave no meanin( in a &emocratic .ociet<. He mi(9t 9ave +een too
Xuic;/ 9oGever/ in &i.mi..in( 9i.torica arc9itecture a. m<.ti!ication./ pro&uce& +< an& !or t9e
poGer!u. T9e &e.i(n. Suivan !oun& o!!en.ive cannot +e &ivorce& !rom t9e &<namic. o! poGer.
#ut to re(ar& t9em a. not9in( more t9an e%pre..ion. o! poGer/ a. mani!e.tation. o! t9e &e.ire to
&ominate/ Ga. a mi.ta;e. T9e.e &e.i(n. .po;e to utimate meanin(./ to t9e 9i(9er purpo.e.
accor&in( to G9ic9 .ocia interaction Ga. oriente&. In t9i. re(ar&/ Suivan can +e compare& to
man< pre.ent &a< .ocioo(i.t. G9o e%pen& (reat ener(< in ana<zin( .ocia proce..e. !or t9e
purpo.e o! unma.;in( poGer. =e are increa.in(< e%pert in .eein( t9rou(9 t9e ;in&. o!
m<.ti!ication. Suivan trie& to &i.mante t9rou(9 9i. arc9itecture. #ut/ a. one critic put it/ to .ee
t9rou(9 a t9in(. on< to revea t9e c<nica or &e.perate .tru((e !or poGer +rin(. itte .oace
,Im+er/ 177?-.,1A- T9e ni9ii.m at t9e center o! .o muc9 recent .ocioo(ica Gor;/ e.pecia<
Gor; animate& +< t9e po.tmo&ern temperament/ i. no (roun&. !or 9ope. I Gou& i;e to t9in;/
9oGever/ t9at utimate< our ana<.e. are in.pire& an& &riven +< .ome notion o! a (oo&. Critici.m
o! an< .ocia reait< ,or G9at i.- i. &riven +< a vi.ion o! G9at ou(9t to +e. Our cen.oriou. voice./
even t9e po.tmo&ern/ are rai.e& in re.pon.e to vioation. o! certain i&ea.. Un!ortunate</ our
vaue commitment. are rare< en(a(e& an& are u.ua< 9i&&en in a Geat9 o! a..umption.. =9at
i. more/ .ocioo(i.t. G9o.e vaue commitment. revove aroun& empoGerment an& e(aitariani.m
Gou& appear to .pea; more to proce..e. an& movement. t9an to &irection. or &e.tination..
SuivanK. &iemma/ name< 9i. Xue.t !or autonom< an& eXuait< in&epen&ent o! a 9i(9er (oo&
.uc9 principe. Gou& .erve/ continue. to pa(ue. Our vaue commitment./ in ot9er Gor&./ ma<
ver< Ge re.t on !oun&ation. a. !ra(ie a. SuivanK.. I! .ocioo(i.t. Gi.9 to contri+ute to t9e
con.truction o! a &emocratic arc9itecture Ge mu.t return to t9e eementa an& a important
Xue.tion/ )=9at ou(9t Ge to &o an& 9oG ou(9t Ge to iveO)
,U- A ver.ion o! t9i. paper Ga. pre.ente& at t9e annua meetin( o! t9e American Socioo(ica
A..ociation/ Au(u.t 1772/ San 'ranci.co/ CA.
Note.
,1.- SuivanK. in!uence 9a. +een a .u+Fect o! &e+ate t9rou(9 t9e &eca&e.. Some critic./ voicin( a
minorit< opinion/ 9ave ar(ue& t9at 9e Ga. perip9era to t9e mo&ern movement/ t9at 9e Ga. too
muc9 o! an ornamentai.t an& a romantic to +e con.i&ere& mo&ern. ,See Roc9ee #er(er E.tein/
1724.- A maForit< vieG/ 9e& +< 9i. pupi 'ran; Lo<& =ri(9t/ i. t9at mo&erni.m cannot +e
un&er.too& apart !rom SuivanK. Gor;/ an& 9oGever ornamenta .ome o! 9i. .tructure. ma< 9ave
+een/ 9i. &ictum )!orm !ooG. !unction) containe& t9e .ee& !rom G9ic9 (reG )t9e mo&ern
re&uctive movement.) ,See $ario $anieri Eia/ 1774.- Or a. Hu(9 $orri.on put it/ SuivanK.
ac9ievement )Ga. in 9i. emancipation o! arc9itectura t9in;in( !rom t9e &ea& !orm. o! t9e pa.t
an& 9i. &emon.tration o! t9e po..i+iit< o! t9e &eveopment o! neG !orm. &irect< out o! t9e
nature o! t9e pro+em. at 9an& ... Suivan 9a. Mt9u.N +een vieGe& more an& more a. t9e (reat
!orerunner o! mo&ern arc9itecture.) ,See $orri.on/ 1703.- Sti ot9er. navi(ate a mi&&e (roun&
+< ar(uin( t9at Suivan Ga. +ot9 )mo&ern/) meanin( re&uctive an& re!ormi.t/ an& )mo&erni.tic/)
meanin( &ecorative an& 9e&oni.tic. E.tein point. to SuivanK. !amou. Car.on/ Pirie/ Scott
#ui&in( a. evi&ence in .upport o! t9i. vieG. T9i. &e+ate a. to SuivanK. pace in arc9itectura
9i.tor< ma< +e attri+ute& to t9e !act t9at G9at 9e e%pre..e& in 9i. Gritin(. Ga. not aGa<.
reaize& in 9i. &e.i(n.. Suivan t9e t9eori.t/ in ot9er Gor&./ Ga. more mo&erni.t t9an Suivan
t9e +ui&er/ an& t9e ten.ion +etGeen t9e tGo Ga. a .ource o! (reat !ru.tration !or 9im. A. Eia
point. out/ Suivan too; 9im.e! to ta.; over 9i. #a<ar& #ui&in( in NeG Ior;/ G9o.e avi.9
&e.i(n/ in&e+te& a. it Ga. to t9e pa.t/ vioate& t9e arti.tic principe. 9e 9e& .o &eep< ,See Ea/
p. 187-. 'urt9ermore/ a(ain a. Eia point. out/ .ome o! SuivanK. .tron(e.t critici.m. o!
arc9itectura 9i.tor< Gere pu+i.9e& toGar&. t9e en& o! 9i. career/ Ge a!ter 9i. mo.t active
perio& a. a +ui&er. At an< rate/ Suivan t9e t9eori.t i. t9e prime !ocu. o! t9i. e..a<.
,8.- See Hu(9 "azie "uncan ,1743-. "uncanK. ma.ter!u .tu&< o! arc9itecture an& cuture i. an
e%ception to t9e rue o! .ocioo(ica ne(ect o! t9e .u+Fect. On "uncanK. .tu&< I &epen& a (reat
&ea/ at9ou(9 m< evauation o! SuivanK. t9ou(9t &iver(e. .i(ni!icant< !rom 9i. more
cee+rator< interpretation. At an< rate/ "uncan ar(ue. convincin(< t9at Suivan Ga. a
pra(mati.t +e!ore t9i. C9ica(o .c9oo o! p9io.op9< Ga. +orn an& t9at 9e Ga. a C9ica(o-.c9oo
.ocioo(i.t +e!ore t9e Univer.it< o! C9ica(o Ga. !oun&e&. Important</ in Lin&er(arten C9at.
an& Ot9er =ritin(. Suivan caime& .ocioo(< to +e t9e )mo.t ur(ent o! a pre.ent 9uman
inXuirie.) ,C9ap. [[[I/ p. 1?8-.
,0.- I Gou& +e .o +o& a. to ar(ue t9at t9e po.ition. a&vance& +< =i. an& Sar!atti-Lar.on are a.
muc9 poitica a. ana<tica. T9e< 9o& in &i.&ain t9e ;in& o! )eiti.m) t9at un&er.core. ana<.e.
!ocu.in( on canonica !i(ure.. ,T9e term canonica o!ten appear. in Xuote. .o a. to Xue.tion it.
e(itimac<.- =9at t9e< o!!er in.tea& i. pre.uma+< a more &emocratic an& e(aitarian portrait/ +ut
one G9ic9 para&o%ica< impri.on. anon<mou. .ocia actor. in a compe% maze o! .tructura
proce..e.. =ii. i. particuar< iu.trative o! t9i. &<namic. S9e ta;e. evi&ent pea.ure in
&em<.ti!<in( t9e arc9itectura canon on< to eave u. Git9 a portrait o! ur+an arc9itecture
untouc9e& +< t9e 9uman 9an&/ a. t9e pro&uct o! imper.ona !orce. over G9ic9 9uman. 9a& itte
i! an< contro. Her more &emocratic portrait i. &evoi& o! t9e &emo. 9er more e(aitarian approac9
Ga. to .erve. In ot9er Gor&./ t9i. ;in& o! 9i.tor< !rom +eoG come. at t9e co.t o! 9uman a(enc<.
=9at i. more/ =ii.K. approac9/ a. Ge a. Lar.onK./ ren&er. moot t9e ;in&. o! i&ea. t9at are t9e
.u+Fect o! t9i. e..a<. Lea&in( arc9itect. i;e Suivan are a. muc9 t9e pro&uct. o! .tructura
proce..e. a. an< one e.e. T9eir t9ou(9t nee& not +e a&&re..e& &irect< +ut in&irect< t9rou(9
,t<pica<- t9e varia+e. ca../ (en&er/ race/ pro!e..ion. T9at =ii. an& Sar!atti-Lar.on pre.ume
to ;noG 9i.torica !i(ure. +etter t9an t9e< ;neG t9em.eve. +etra<. a ;in& o! eiti.m. At an< rate/
t9e conte%tuaization o! t9ou(9t G9ie important an& in man< ca.e. !ruit!u ten&. to reieve u. o!
t9at 9eav< +ur&en o! con!rontin( i&ea. a. i&ea..
,6.- 'rom $orri.onK. 1703 Gor; ,op. cit- announcin( Suivan a. t9e prop9et o! mo&erni.m to
EiaK. 1774 critica .tu&< o! t9e arc9itect ,op. cit-/ it i. cear t9at arc9itectura 9i.torian. 9ave
Fu&(e& SuivanK. in!uence to +e .u+.tantia an& t9at t9e .tructura !orce. Git9in G9ic9 9e a+ore&
neit9er compromi.e& nor prevente& t9e promu(ation o! 9i. i&ea.. Ur+an 9i.torian. 9ave i;eGi.e
.een Suivan a. a revoutionar< !i(ure. No e.. a !i(ure t9an LeGi. $um!or&/ !or e%ampe/
ar(ue& t9at Suivan c9an(e& t9e Ga< arc9itect. t9ou(9t a+out t9eir cra!t. In 9i. T9e #roGn
"eca&e. ,1700-/ $um!or& Grote/ )Suivan Ga. t9e !ir.t American acr9itect to t9in; con.ciou.<
o! 9i. reation. Git9 civiization.... T9e G9oe pro+em o! +ui&in(/ Suivan .aG/ mu.t +e t9ou(9t
out a!re.9/ an& t9e .oution mu.t +e o! a nature t9at it Gou& app< to ever< manner o! .tructure/
!rom t9e 9ome to t9e !actor</ !rom t9e o!!ice to. t9e tom+: no activit< Ga. too mean to e.cape t9e
mini.tration. o! t9e arc9itect ... MHeN 9a& a .pecia poGer to react upon 9i. environment ...
Suivan ma&e a rea +e(innin() ,148-143-.
,3.- See Ro.. $ier ,177?- !or an ana<.i. o! 9oG &eva.tation an& .u!!erin( a..ume& t9e tenor o!
optimi.m an& 9ope. $ier trie. to !rame t9e ent9u.ia.m. o! C9ica(oK. ea&er./ arc9itect.
incu&e&/ a. )m<t9ic) e!!ort. to vei t9e )actua) .u!!erin( o! t9e cit<K. citizen. an& t9e ca.. an&
et9nic con!ict. G9ic9 .o +e.et t9em. At t9e .ame time/ t9ou(9/ $ier unGittin(< !rame. t9e
re+ui&in( o! t9e cit< a. an<t9in( +ut m<t9ic.
,4.- See Car S. Smit9 ,1726: 18A-187- !or a reveain( &i.cu..ion o! San&+ur(K. evauation o! t9e
ta +ui&in(. )#< t9e &emocratic o(ic San&+ur( in9erite& !rom =9itman/) Smit9 Grote/ )t9e
in&ivi&ua Ga. mo.t creative< an& .piritua< aive G9en 9e Ga. !u< inte(rate& into t9e i!e o!
t9e .;<.craper.) T9u. &i& San&+ur( +eieve t9at t9e .;<.craper Ga. )potentia< one o! t9e mo.t
.tri;in( iu.tration. o! t9e ri(9t reation. +etGeen t9e in&ivi&ua an& t9e communit< in ur+an
.ociet<.)
,A.- It i. intere.tin( to note t9at t9e arc9itectura ima(ination o! $ie. van &er Ro9e in.pire& t9e
&e.i(n o! C9ica(oK. in!amou. Ca+rini-Hreen ,noG +ein( &emoi.9e&- an& ot9er 9i(9 ri.e pu+ic
9ou.in( proFect. aroun& t9e nation. T9e re.ort to 9i(9 ri.e &e.i(n 9a. +een un&er.too& a. a
!unction o! e%or+itant an& co.t.. T9i. Ga. not t9e ca.e !or Ca+rini-Hreen. T9e proFect Ga.
inten&e& to 9ou.e 1?/??? peope in a .pace e%ten&in( over A? acre. Fu.t Ge.t o! C9ica(oK. Ho&
Coa.t. Suc9 a .pace cou& 9ave 9ou.e& t9e 1?/??? t9rou(9 oG-ri.e .tructure. or tra&itiona toGn
9ome.. See =ito& R<+cz<n.;i ,1773: 146-143-. Le.. t9an t9ree &eca&e. a!ter Ca+rini-Hreen Ga.
+uit/ it. A? acre. Gere Fu&(e& t9e mo.t &an(erou. (eo(rap9ica .pace in t9e Gor&.
,2.- See Hu(9 "azie "uncan/ ,op cit./ p. 014 !n. 7P p. 083 !n 1P p. 6?AP p. 688-. "uncan
ac;noGe&(e./ o!ten unintentiona</ t9at Suivan Ga. not ato(et9er con.i.tent Git9 9i.
pro!e..e& &emocratic p9io.op9<. A. a &emocratic ea&er--one G9o per.ua&e. rat9er t9an
comman&.--Suivan Ga. aut9oritarian in 9i. oGn inter-per.ona reation.9ip. an& procamation.
o! &emocratic art. A. a over o! t9e peope/ animate& +< !ait9 in t9e Gi.&om o! t9e !o;/ Suivan
!oun& 9im.e! in t9e para&o%ica po.ition o! attri+utin( t9eir in!atuation Git9 t9e =9ite Cit< to
i(norance: Hi. +eove& peope Gere too .tupi& to reaize t9e .9am perpetrate& on t9em.
,7.- C9ica(o &oe. not &i.criminate in razin( it. 9i.torica .tructure.. =iiam Le+aron Benne<K.
Home In.urance #ui&in(/ !or e%ampe/ t9e Gor&K. !ir.t .;<.craper/ Ga. &emoi.9e& in 1701/
!ort< .i% <ear. a!ter it Ga. +uit.
,1?.- In t9i. in.tance Suivan mirror. .ocioo(i.t. G9o i;eGi.e ,an& routine<- caim immunit<
!rom t9eir ver&ict.. Leo Strau.. ,1730/ 1722- Ga. amon( t9e more !ormi&a+e critic. G9o too;
.ocioo(i.t. to ta.; !or a&vancin( ar(ument. an& !or ta;in( po.ition. &enie& or un&ermine& +<
t9eir 9i.torici.t premi.e.. $an< .ocioo(i.t./ !or e%ampe/ &en< t9e po..i+iit< o! rea.one&
evauation a. t9e< ma;e one vaue Fu&(ement a!ter anot9erP ot9er. &en< t9e e%i.tence o! univer.a
trut9. a. t9e< a..ert t9emP .ti ot9er. &ou+t t9e po..i+iit< o! o+Fectivit< a t9e G9ie certain t9at
t9e< .ee t9rou(9 t9e (a.. cear<. 'or an e%ceptiona &i..ection o! t9e.e epi.temoo(ica i..ue.
.ee a.o/ Step9en H. Sa;ever ,177?-.
,11.- Here I au&e to $a% =e+erK. !amou. pa..a(e in )Science a. a Vocation) in !rom $a%
=e+er. Suivan cou& not in t9e en& (ive an account o! t9e utimate meanin( o! 9i. oGn con&uct.
=e ma< i;en 9im to t9o.e &e.perate to +urn t9e a.t ton o! !o..iize& coa--t9eir rationa ma.ter<
o! con&ition./ i;e SuivanK./ .erve. no 9i(9er purpo.e. See =e+erK. prop9etic Gor&. in/ T9e
Prote.tant Et9ic an& t9e Spirit o! Capitai.m ,pp. 128-126-.
,18.- 'or a .imiar interpretation o! Ho++e./ .ee C. #. $acp9er.on/ T9e Poitica T9eor< o!
Po..e..ive In&ivi&uai.m: Ho++e. to Loc;e ,pp. A6-A2-. $acp9er.on un&er.too& t9at Ho++e.
too; a ra&ica< &i!!erent po.ition +< &erivin( )ri(9t) or vaue !rom )!act/) an& t9at t9e coap.in(
o! t9e.e cate(orie. meant t9e .urren&erin( o! e%terna .tan&ar&. +< G9ic9 )ri(9tK or vaue 9a&
+een previou.< e.ta+i.9e&.
,10.- TocXuevie Ga. .en.itive to t9i. para&o%/ a. 9e un&er.too& &emocrac< to 9ave e%pan&e&
9uman po..i+iitie.: )a. ca.te. &i.appear ... a. ancient opinion. are &i..ipate& ... t9e ima(e o! an
i&ea +ut aGa<. !u(itive per!ection pre.ent. it.e! to t9e 9uman min&.) Iet TocXuevie Fu&(e&
t9i. i&ea/ 9oGever !u(itive/ to 9ave +een e.. t9an o!t<. "emocratic peope. Gere am+itiou. +ut
ver< !eG entertaine& )9ope. o! (reat ma(nitu&e or to pur.ue ver</ o!t< aim..) T9e .ame 9e& !or
&emocratic art:

The painters of the 8enaissance generally sought far ao&e themsel&es, and
a#ay from their o#n time, for mighty su9ects #hich left to their
imagination an unounded range. :ur painters often employ their talents in
the exact imitation of the details of pri&ate life, #hich they ha&e al#ays
efore their eyes; and they are fore&er copying tri&ial o9ects, the
originals of #hich are only too aundant in nature ... They ha&e left us an
exact portraiture of man ... [8aphael] disclosed in his #orks a glimpse of
the ,i&inity.
,See "emocrac< in America/ op cit./ p. 03P p. 834P pp. 36-33P p. 36.-
,16.- See Henr< A&am. ,1741 M1712N: 001-063-. A&am. +eieve& t9at )C9ica(o Ga. t9e !ir.t
e%pre..ion o! American t9ou(9t a. a unit< ...) He t9u. venture& to t9e cit< in anticipation o!
.eein( t9e !uture/ arrivin( in 1270 a. t9e Coum+ian E%po.ition Ga. in !u .Gin(. A&am. e!t
C9ica(o Git9 a .en.e o! !ore+o&in( !or rea.on. .imiar to t9o.e .;etc9e& 9ere. In 9i. vieG/ t9e
cit<K. reente.. activi.m/ it. Xue.t to ma.ter a con&ition./ .ocia or natura/ .erve& no purpo.e
.ave active ma.ter<.
,13.- "eGe<K. am+ivaence Ga. reveae& ear< in 9i. career in an unpu+i.9e& e..a< 9e Grote on
To.to<:

<an=s command o&er the means of life, his industrial con'uest, seems only
to ha&e sharpened prior existing social ine'uities, to ha&e led to de&otion
to the means of life at the expense of its serious and significant ends$$a
nole free and happy life in #hich men participate on something like e'ual
terms. .>ited in ?ohn @atrick ,iggins, op cit., p. 3.7
It i. important to note t9at "eGe<K. e%pre..ion o! am+ivaence precu&e& reconciiation t9ereo!.
HoGever concerne& 9e Ga. over en&./ t9e )(oo&) .u((e.te& in t9i. pa..a(e Ga. articuate& in
proce..iona Ga<.. "eGe< <earne& !or a i!e in G9ic9 participation--interaction +etGeen eXua.--
&e!ine& t9e G9oe o! e%i.tence. =9at utimate purpo.e .uc9 interaction Ga. to .erve i. un;noGn.
"eGe<K. an.Ger to t9e pro+em o! en&. Ga. to create &i!!erent mean.. T9u. &i& "eGe< a&&re..
pro+em. intrin.ic to 9i. para&i(m in an& t9rou(9 t9at para&i(m it.e!.
,14.- Rort< ma;e. t9i. cear in 9i. e..a< )Pra(mati.m/ Reativi.m/ Irrationai.m) in
Con.eXuence. o! Pra(mati.m: E..a<. 17A8-172? ,p. 143-:

%f #e gi&e up hope #e shall lose #hat *ietzsche called "metaphysical
comfort," ut #e may gain a rene#ed sense of community$$our society, or
political tradition, our intellectual heritage$$is heightened #hen #e see
this community as ours rather than nature=s, shaped rather than found, one
among many #hich men ha&e made. %n the end, the pragmatists tell us, #hat
matters is loyalty to other human eings clinging together against the
dark, not our hope of getting things right. .emphasis in original7
,1A.- See Bonat9an #. Im+erK. )Intro&uction) in T9e 'eein( Inteect. Im+er conten&. t9at
.ocioo(i.t. 9ave a+an&one& con.tructivi.t mo&e. o! &i.cour.e in !avor o! t9e tran.!ormative. =e
are a(ain.t man< t9in(. +ut .upport ver< itteP Ge eve convention/ an& ta;e (reat rei.9 in &oin(
.o/ Git9out creatin( aneG. In e..ence/ Ge +rea; &oGn )G9oe.) into t9eir )part.) an& Ga; aGa</
eavin( +e9in& a ru++e.
Re!erence.
A&am./ Henr<. 1741 M1712N. T9e E&ucation o! Henr< A&am.. #o.ton: Hou(9ton/ $i!!in.
Ca9oun/ Crai( ,e&.- 1778. Ha+erma. an& t9e Pu+ic Sp9ere. Cam+ri&(e/ $A: $IT Pre...
"i((in./ Bo9n Patric;. 1776. T9e Promi.e o! Pra(mati.m. C9ica(o: Univer.it< o! C9ica(o Pre...
"uncan/ Hu(9 "azie/ 1727 M1743N. Cuture an& "emocrac<. NeG #run.Gic;/ NB: Tran.action
Pu+i.9er..
Eia/ $ario $anieri. 1774. Loui. Henr< Suivan. Princeton/ NB: Princeton Arc9itectura Pre...
E.tein/ Roc9ee #er(er. 1724. )Eni(ma o! $o&ern Arc9itecture: An Intro&uction to t9e Critic..)
In =im &e =it ,e&.-/ Loui. Suivan: T9e 'unction o! Ornament. NeG Ior;: =.=. Norton E Co.
'oucaut/ $ic9e. 17A7. "i.cipine an& Puni.9: T9e #irt9 o! t9e Pri.on. NeG Ior;: Ran&om
Hou.e.
Hi&&en./ Ant9on<. 1721. A Contemporar< CritiXue o! Hi.torica $ateriai.m. #er;ee<:
Univer.it< o! Cai!ornia Pre...
Ha+erma./ Bur(en. 1722. )$o&ern an& Po.tmo&ern Arc9itecture.) ,Pp. 01A-087- In Bo9n 'ore.ter
,e&.-/ Critica T9eor< an& Pu+ic Li!e. Cam+ri&(e: $IT Pre...
Harve</ "avi&. 1723. Con.ciou.ne.. an& t9e Ur+an E%perience. #atimore: Bo9n. Hop;in.
Univer.it< Pre...
Hu%ta+e/ A&a Loui.e. 1728. T9e Ta #ui&in( Arti.tica< Recon.i&ere&. NeG Ior;: Pant9eon
#oo;..
Im+er/ Bonat9an #. 177?. )Intro&uction/) in Bonat9an #. Im+er ,e&.-/ T9e 'eein( Inteect/ +<
P9iip Rie!!. C9ica(o: Univer.it< o! C9ica(o Pre...
Baco+./ Bane. 1741. T9e Li!e an& "eat9 o! Hreat American Citie.. NeG Ior;: Ran&om Hou.e.
Lotz/ Heinric9. 172A. )T9e C9ica(o $uti.tor< a. a "e.i(n Pro+em.) In Bo9n Ju;oG.;< ,e&.-/
C9ica(o Arc9itecture ... 12A8-1788. $unic9: Pre.te-Vera(.
$acp9er.on/ C.#. 1748. T9e Poitica T9eor< o! Po..e..ive In&ivi&uai.m ... Ho++e. to Loc;e.
O%!or&: Univer.it< o! O%!or& Pre...
$a<er/ Haro& an& Ric9ar& =a&e. 1747. C9ica(o: HroGt9 o! a $etropoi.. C9ica(o: Univer.it<
o! C9ica(o Pre...
$ea&/ Heor(e Her+ert. 1706. On Socia P.<c9oo(<. C9ica(o: Univer.it< o! C9ica(o Pre...
$ier/ Ro... 177?. American Apoca<p.e ... T9e Hreat 'ire an& t9e $<t9 o! C9ica(o. C9ica(o:
Univer.it< o! C9ica(o Pre...
$onroe/ Harriet. 1274. Bo9n =e+orn Root: A .tu&< o! Hi. Li!e an& =or;. NeG Ior;: Hou(9ton/
$i!!in.
$orri.on/ Hu(9. 1703. Loui. Suivan: Prop9et o! $o&ern Arc9itecture. NeG Ior;: =.=.
Norton.
$um!or&/ LeGi.. 1700. T9e #roGn "eca&e.: A Stu&< o! t9e Art. in America 1243-1273. NeG
Ior;: "over Pu+ication..
NeGman/ $.=. 1728. )Nort9Ge.ternK. Con&it Loo;. #ac; in Sa&ne...) C9ica(o Sun-Time.
,Apri 83-: 0-6.
Rort</ Ric9ar&. 1728. )Pra(mati.m/ Reativi.m/ Irrationai.m.) In Con.eXuence. o! Pra(mati.m:
E..a<. 17A8-172?. $inneapoi.: Univer.it< o! $inne.ota Pre...
R<+cz<n.;i/ =ito&. 1773. Cit< Li!e: Ur+an E%pectation. in a NeG =or&. NeG Ior;: Scri+ner.
Sa;ever/ Step9en H. 177?. 'in&in( t9e $ean. Princeton/ NB: Princeton Univer.it< Pre...
Sar!atti-Lar.on/ $a(ai. 1770. #e9in& t9e Po.tmo&ern 'aca&e. #er;ee<: Univer.it< o! Cai!ornia
Pre...
Sc9eier/ $erri. 1720. T9e S;<.craper in American Art. Ann Ar+or/ $I: U$I Re.earc9 Pre...
Smit9/ Car S. 1726. C9ica(o an& t9e American Literar< Ima(ination ... 122?-178?. C9ica(o:
Univer.it< o! C9ica(o Pre...
Steiner/ Heor(e. 1740. T9e "eat9 o! Tra(e&<. NeG Ior;: A!re& A. Lnop!.
Strau../ Leo. 1730. Natura Ri(9t an& Hi.tor<. C9ica(o: Univer.it< o! C9ica(o Pre...
--. 1722. =9at I. Poitica P9io.op9<. C9ica(o: Univer.it< o! C9ica(o Pre...
Suivan/ Loui.. 17A7 M1274N. )T9e Ta O!!ice #ui&in( Arti.tica< Con.i&ere&.) In I.a+ea
At9e< ,e&.-/ Loui. Suivan/ Lin&er(arten C9at. an& Ot9er =ritin(.. NeG Ior;: Heor(e
=itten+orn.
--. 17A7 M1712N. Lin&er(arten C9at. an& Ot9er =ritin(.. E&ite& +< I.a+ea At9e<. NeG Ior;:
Heor(e =itten+orn.
--. 1734 M1786N. T9e Auto+io(rap9< o! an I&ea. NeG Ior;: "over Pu+ication..
TocXuevie/ Ae%i. &e. 1763. "emocrac< in America/ Vo. II. NeG- Ior;: Vinta(e #oo;..
TGom+</ Ro+ert. 1724. Loui. Suivan: Hi. Li!e an& =or;. NeG Ior;: Vi;in( Pen(uin.
Ve+en/ T9or.tein. 1712. T9e Hi(9er Learnin( in America. NeG Ior;: Hue+.c9.
--. 1706. T9e T9eor< o! t9e Lei.ure Ca... NeG Ior;: T9e $o&ern Li+rar<.
=arner/ Sam #a../ Br. 1726. )Sum. an& S;<.craper.: Ur+an Ima(e./ S<m+o. an& I&eoo(<.) In
L. Ro&Gin an& R.$. Hoi.ter ,e&..-/ Citie. o! t9e $in&. NeG Ior;: Penum Pre...
=e+er/ $a%. 1764. )Science a. a Vocation.) In Han. Hert9 an& C. =ri(9t $i. ,e&..-/ 'rom $a%
=e+er. NeG Ior;: O%!or& Univer.it< Pre...
--. 1732. T9e Prote.tant Et9ic an& t9e Spirit o! Capitai.m. NeG Ior;: C9are. Scri+ner. Son..
=9<te/ =iiam H. 1722. CIO/: Re&i.coverin( t9e Center. NeG Ior;: "ou+e&a<.
=ii./ Caro. 1773. 'orm 'ooG. 'inance. NeG Ior;: Princeton Arc9itectura Pre...
Bame. R. A++ott i. a..i.tant pro!e..or o! .ocioo(< at RoGan Univer.it<. He i. current< Gor;in(
on a critiXue o! vaue-&riven an& vaue-neutra .ocioo(ie. !rom t9e per.pective o! Leo Strau...
A&&re.. !or corre.pon&ence: Bame. R. A++ott/ "epartment o! Socioo(</ RoGan Univer.it</
Ha..+oro/ NeG Ber.e< ?2?82P e-mai: A++ott\roGan.e&u.