Oil and gas are formed from the remains of ancient plants and bacteria buried deep underground. Over millions of years, as organic material is buried deeper, heat and pressure cause it to break down into hydrocarbon compounds like oil and gas. These hydrocarbons can migrate upwards through permeable rock layers until they become trapped beneath an impermeable cap rock, forming oil and gas fields. Britain's offshore oil and gas originated as organic material buried in tropical environments millions of years ago, with the remains of ancient forests and plankton generating hydrocarbon deposits throughout the North Sea.
Oil and gas are formed from the remains of ancient plants and bacteria buried deep underground. Over millions of years, as organic material is buried deeper, heat and pressure cause it to break down into hydrocarbon compounds like oil and gas. These hydrocarbons can migrate upwards through permeable rock layers until they become trapped beneath an impermeable cap rock, forming oil and gas fields. Britain's offshore oil and gas originated as organic material buried in tropical environments millions of years ago, with the remains of ancient forests and plankton generating hydrocarbon deposits throughout the North Sea.
Oil and gas are formed from the remains of ancient plants and bacteria buried deep underground. Over millions of years, as organic material is buried deeper, heat and pressure cause it to break down into hydrocarbon compounds like oil and gas. These hydrocarbons can migrate upwards through permeable rock layers until they become trapped beneath an impermeable cap rock, forming oil and gas fields. Britain's offshore oil and gas originated as organic material buried in tropical environments millions of years ago, with the remains of ancient forests and plankton generating hydrocarbon deposits throughout the North Sea.
Origins of Oil and Gas Oil and gas ar e deri ved al most ent i rel y fr om decayed pl ant s and bact eri a. Energy f r om t he sun, whi ch fuell ed t he pl ant growt h, has been r ecycl ed i nt o useful energy i n t he form of hydr ocarbon compounds - hydrogen and carbon at oms l i nked t oget her. Of al l t he di verse l i fe t hat has ever exi st ed comparat i vel y li t t l e has become, or wi ll become oil and gas. Pl ant remai ns must fi rst be t rapped and preser ved i n sedi ment s, t hen be buri ed deepl y and sl owl y cooked t o yi el d oil or gas. Rocks cont ai ni ng suffi ci ent organi c subst ances t o generat e oil and gas i n t hi s way are known as source rocks. Dead pl ant s usuall y are di spersed and decay r api dl y, but in areas such as swamps, l akes and poorl y oxygenat ed ar eas of t he seafl oor, vast amount s of pl ant mat eri al accumul at e. Bact eri a breaki ng down t hi s mat eri al may use up all availabl e oxygen, pr oduci ng a st agnant envi ronment whi ch i s unfit for l arger grazi ng and scavengi ng ani mal s. The pl ant and bact eri a remai ns become buri ed and preserved i n muds. I n swamps t he r emai ns may form coal s on buri al . Whet her oil or gas i s for med depends part l y on t he st art i ng mat eri al s ( F3) . Al most all oil forms f rom t he buri ed remai ns of mi nut e aquat i c al gae and bact eri a, but gas f orms i f t hese r emai ns are deepl y buri ed. The st ems and l eaves of buri ed l and pl ant s are al t ered t o coal s. Gener all y t hese yi el d no oil , but again produce gas on deep buri al . Bri t ai ns off shore and gas ori ginat es fr om t wo sour ces. Gas f rom beneat h t he sout hern Nort h Sea and t he I ri sh Sea f ormed fr om coal s whi ch wer e deri ved fr om t he l ush, t ropi cal rai n forest s t hat gr ew i n t he Carboni fer ous Peri od, about 300 mi lli on years ago. Oi l and most gas under t he cent ral and nort hern Nort h Sea and west of t he Shet l and I sl ands f ormed fr om t he remai ns of pl ankt oni c al gae and bact eri a t hat fl ouri shed i n t ropi cal seas of t he Jurassi c and Cret aceous Peri ods, about 140 t o 130 milli on years ago ( a si gni fi cant amount of t he Ki mmeri dge Cl ay Format i on i s Cret aceous i n age) . They accumul at ed i n muds, whi ch are now t he pr ol i fi c Ki mmeri dge Cl ay sour ce r ock.
On buri al t he carbohydrat es and pr ot ei ns of t he pl ant remai ns are soon dest r oyed. The remai ning organi c compounds for m a mat eri al call ed ker ogen. Aquat i c pl ant s and bact eri a form kerogen of di fferent composi t i on from woody l and pl ant s. The processes of oi l and gas format i on resembl e t hose of a ki t chen wher e t he r ocks ar e sl owl y cooked. Temperat ur es wi t hi n t he Eart hs crust i ncrease wi t h dept h so t hat sedi ment s ( F4) , and kerogen whi ch t hey cont ai n, warm up as t hey become buri ed under t hi ck pil es of younger sedi ment s. As a source rock, deposi t ed under t he sea or i n a l ake, becomes hot t er ( t ypi call y > 100oC) , l ong chai ns of hydr ogen and carbon at oms break fr om t he kerogen, formi ng waxy and vi scous heavy oi l . At hi gher t emperat ur es, short er hydrocarbon chai ns break away t o gi ve li ght oil and t hen, above about 160oC, gas. Most Nort h Sea oi l i s t he mor e val uabl e li ght oil . The woody ker ogen of coal s yi el d mai nl y met hane gas, whose mol ecul es cont ai n onl y one carbon at om. Gas fr om t he sout hern Nort h Sea i s met hane. Once a sour ce r ock has st art ed t o generat e oil or gas i t i s sai d t o be mat ur e. The most i mport ant product s generat ed are gas, oi l , oil cont ai ni ng di ssol ved gas, and gas cont ai ni ng di ssol ved oi l whi ch i s call ed gas condensat e. Condensat e i s t he li ght oil whi ch i s deri ved from gas condensat es whi ch are found at hi gh underground t emperat ur es and pressur es; i t i s t he most i mport ant product i n some Nort h Sea fi el ds.
I n t he Nort h Sea, oil for ms at 3- 4. 5km dept h, gas at 5- 6km. At gr eat er dept hs any remai ni ng kerogen has become carboni sed and no l onger yi el ds hydrocarbons. Buri al t o t hese dept hs occurs i n areas wher e t he Eart hs crust i s saggi ng. I n t he cent r al and nort hern Nort h Sea t he oi l source r ock i s buri ed in a deep ri ft vall ey. I n t he sout hern Nort h Sea, coal - beari ng rocks f or med t he fl oor of a basi n, whi ch fill ed wi t h younger sedi ment s.
Migrat ion Much oil and gas moves away or mi grat es fr om t he sour ce rock. Mi grat i on i s t ri ggered bot h by nat ural compact i on of t he source r ock and by t he processes of oil and gas format i on. Most sedi ment s accumul at e as a mi xt ure of mi neral part i cl es and wat er. As t hey become buri ed, some wat er i s squeezed out and once oi l and gas are formed, t hese are also expell ed. I f t he wat er cannot escape fast enough, as i s oft en t he case from muddy source rocks, pr essure buil ds up. Al so, as t he oi l and gas separat e f r om t he ker ogen duri ng generat i on, t hey t ake up mor e space and cr eat e hi gher pr essure i n t he source rock. The oi l and gas move t hrough minut e pores and cracks whi ch may have formed i n t he source rock t owards mor e per meabl e rocks above or bel ow i n whi ch t he pressure i s l ower ( F8) . Oil , gas and wat er mi grat e t hrough permeabl e rocks i n whi ch t he cracks and por e spaces bet ween t he r ock part i cl es are i nt erconnect ed and are l arge enough t o permi t fl ui d movement ( F5) . Fl uids cannot fl ow t hrough rocks where t hese spaces ar e very smal l or ar e bl ocked by mi neral growt h; such r ocks are i mpermeabl e ( F6) . Oil and gas al so mi grat e al ong some l arge f ract ur es and fault s whi ch may ext end for gr eat di st ances i f, or when as a resul t of movement , t hese ar e permeabl e. Oil and gas ar e l ess dense t han t he wat er whi ch fill s t he pore spaces in rocks so t hey t end t o mi grat e upwards once out of t he sour ce rock. Under t he hi gh pressur es at dept h gas may be di ssol ved i n oil and vi ce versa so t hey may mi grat e as si ngl e fl ui ds. These fl ui ds may become di sper sed as i sol at ed bl obs t hrough l arge vol umes of r ock, but l arger amount s can become t rapped i n porous r ocks. Havi ng mi grat ed t o shall ower dept hs t han t he source r ocks and so t o l esser pr essur es t he si ngl e flui ds may separat e i nt o oil and gas wi t h t he l ess dense gas ri si ng above t he oi l . I f t hi s separat i on does not occur bel ow t he sur face i t t akes pl ace when t he fl ui d i s brought t o t he surface ( F7) . Wat er i s al ways present bel ow and wi t hi n t he oil and gas l ayers, but has been omi t t ed fr om most of t he di agrams f or cl ari t y. Mi grat i on i s a sl ow process, wi t h oil and gas t ravel ling bet ween a few kil omet res and t ens of kilomet res over mi lli ons of years. But i n t he course of many milli ons of years huge amount s have ri sen nat urall y t o sea fl oors and l and surfaces ar ound t he worl d ( F8) . Vi si bl e li quid oil seepages are comparat i vel y rare, most oi l becomes vi scous and t ar ry near t he surface as a r esul t of oxi dat i on and bact eri al act i on, but t races of nat ural oi l seepage can oft en be det ect ed i f sought .
Trapping Oil and Gas Oil fi el ds and gasfi el ds are ar eas where hydr ocarbons have become t rapped i n permeabl e reservoi r rocks, such as por ous sandst one or fract ur ed l i mest one. Mi grat i on t owards t he surface i s st opped or sl owed down by i mpermeabl e r ocks such as cl ays, cement ed sandst ones or sal t whi ch act as seal s. Oi l and gas accumul at e onl y wher e seal s occur above and around r eser voi r rocks so as t o st op t he upward mi grat i on of oil and gas and form t raps ( F10) , i n whi ch t he seal i s known as t he cap r ock. The mi grat ing hydrocarbons fi ll t he hi ghest part of t he reservoi r, any excess oi l and gas escapi ng at t he spill poi nt ( F9) wher e t he seal does not st op upwar d mi grat i on. Gas may bubbl e out of t he oi l and form a gas cap above i t ; at great er dept hs and pressur es gas r emai ns di ssol ved in t he oi l ( F9) . Since few seal s are perf ect , oi l and gas escape sl owl y from most t raps. I n many fi el ds i ncomi ng oil and gas bal ance t hi s l oss, as i n t he Brent and Ekofi sk fi el ds i n t he Nort h Sea. Gas mi grat es and escapes f rom t raps more readi l y t han oil , but t he sal t l ayers beneat h t he sout hern Nort h Sea wher e much gas i s t rapped have proved a very effi ci ent seal because sal t cont ai ns no por e spaces, and fract ur es r eseal t hemsel ves. Fi gure 10 shows t he mai n t ypes of t raps. St ruct ural t raps ar e for med where rocks ar e fol ded i nt o suit abl e shapes ( A) or reservoi r and seali ng rocks are j uxt aposed acr oss faul t s ( B) . Traps may al so f orm when r ocks are domed over ri sing sal t masses ( C) . St rat i graphi c t raps ori gi nat e where a sui t abl e combinat i on of rock t ypes i s deposi t ed i n a part i cul ar envi ronment ( D) , for exampl e, wher e a r eser voi r r ock of permeabl e ri ver sand i s seal ed by cl ays accumul at ed i n t he swamps whi ch formed t o cover t he ri ver channel . I n real i t y most t raps are f ormed by mor e compl ex sequence of event s and cannot be cl assi fi ed so ri gi dl y. For exampl e ( E) , t he r eser voi r r ock was fi rst fol ded and eroded, t hen seal ed by an i mpermeabl e rock whi ch was deposi t ed l at er over t he eroded st ruct ur e. Where a part i cul ar set of ci rcumst ances has combi ned t o pr oduce a gr oup of oi l or gasfi el ds wi t h si mil ar t rap st ruct ures or reservoi r r ock, t hi s i s t ermed a pl ay. There ar e several i mport ant pl ays i n t he Nort h Sea, whi ch ar e descri bed on pages 18 t o 23.
I n order t o t rap mi grat ing oil and gas, st ruct ur es must exi st bef or e hydrocarbon generat i on occur s. I n some part s of t he Nort h Sea t rap st ruct ur es exi st ed 125 milli on years ago, but wer e not fi ll ed wi t h oil unt il 100 milli on years l at er. The r ocks beneat h t he Nort h Sea ar e si nking onl y a few millimet res i n t en years, so generat i on onl y occur r ed aft er very l ong peri ods of buri al and cooki ng. All oil and gas fi el ds for m by a chance combi nat i on of event s t hat pr oduces t he ri ght sort s of r ocks and st ruct ur es, t oget her wi t h t he ri ght t i mi ng. The for ces t hat shaped Bri t ai ns offshore oi l and gas fi el ds al so creat ed oceans and t ransport ed Bri t ai n from sout h of t he equat or t o i t s present l at i t ude. The ori gin of t hese f orces and t hei r eff ect on t he crust , bot h gl oball y and around Bri t ai n, are descri bed i n t he next sect i on.
Forces That Shape t he Eart hs Crust The whi t e- hot , part i all y mol t en int eri or of t he Eart h i s i n const ant mot ion. Thi s t ransmi t s i t sel f t o t he more ri gi d out er l ayer , t he l i t hosphere, whi ch i s al so const ant l y on t he move ( F12) . New li t hospher e i s creat ed al ong mi d- ocean ri dges wher e mol t en r ock i s i nj ect ed, cooli ng t o form new ocean crust , t he t op l ayer of t hi s young li t hosphere ( F13) . The li t hospher e moves away f rom t he ri dges i n t he pr ocess of sea- floor spr eadi ng, and i s dest r oyed wher ever i t sl i des back i nt o t he Eart h, al ong subduct i on zones. Si nce i t i s t hi cker and li ght er t han t he oceani c crust , cont i nent al crust i s not subduct ed and so i s most l y much ol der t han oceani c crust . The gr eat sl abs of li t hospher e bet ween mi d- ocean ri dges and subduct i on zones ar e call ed pl at es. The compl ex i nt eract i ons of oceani c and cont inent al li t hospher e, powered by pl at e movement s are cal l ed pl at e t ect oni cs. I n addi t i on t o t he openi ng out of ocean basi ns, t he mai n effect s of pl at e t ect oni cs ar e t he gr owt h and break- up of cont i nent s. Cont i nent s grow by format i on of new cont i nent al crust al ong vol cani c bel t s and by t he addi t i on of t err anes, whi ch are pi eces of cont i nent al mat eri al and ocean i sl and arcs formed el sewhere and raft ed i nt o ol der cont i nent s by sea- fl oor spr eadi ng. These colli si ons t el escope t he cont i nent al crust and produce mount ai n ranges. Conversel y, wher e t he spr eadi ng process l ocat es i t sel f under a cont i nent , t he cont i nent may event uall y spli t apart . A new ocean will form bet ween t he ri ft ed part s whi ch may t hen t ravel l ong di st ances as part s of t he movi ng pl at es. The rat e of growt h and hori zont al movement of pl at es i s anyt hi ng from about 2cm t o 10cm per year, about t he same as ones fi ngernail s. The dri ft i ng of ri ft ed cont i nent s may car ry t hem t hrough several cli mat i c zones, for exampl e, fr om equat ori al humi d t hrough t ropi cal ari d t o t emperat e and arct i c, over t ens or hundreds of mi lli on years ( F14) . Thi s i s of gr eat i mport ance t o t he generat i on and t rappi ng of oi l and gas, as ar e t he st ruct ur al di srupt i ons brought about by pl at e t ect oni cs. Large areas of t he cont inent al crust are cover ed by l ayers of sedi ment ary rock whi ch are t hi ckest i n t he mi ddl e of basi ns. Nearl y all oil and gas i s found i n such basi ns, whi ch ar e f ormed over many milli ons of years by st r et chi ng of t he crust combi ned wi t h saggi ng. The Nort h Sea i s a cl assi c exampl e. Most basi ns have a t wo- t i er st ruct ure; t he l ower t i er i s faul t ed i nt o bl ocks whil e t he upper- t i er i s a si mple sag ( F16b) . Ther e ar e di fferent t heori es t o expl ain basi n format i on. The li t hospher e may st ret ch uni forml y li ke t of fee, fract uri ng t he upper bri t t l e l ayers i nt o t il t ed bl ocks, t hen sag as t he underl ying, part l y- mol t en layer ( ast henospher e) cool s down. Al t ernat i vel y t he ent i re l i t hospher e may be det ached al ong a huge l ow- angl e faul t ( F16a) t o whi ch curved li st ri c bl ock- faul t s are li nked. The real i t y may be a combi nat i on or st ret chi ng at dept h wit h det achment hi gh up in t he li t hosphere. Compr ession of t he upper cont inent al cr ust by plat e t ect onic mechanisms result s in buckling and t elescoping of rock layers t o form fold and t hr ust belt s ( F15) . The t elescoping is oft en relat ed t o a deep det achment , above which a st ack of t hr ust sheet s pile up. Large masses of light weight granit e give buoyancy t o t he crust . The highs t hat result may be marked by reduced deposit ion of sediment s or act ual emergence and erosion. Beyond t he t hrust belt , r ock st r at a may undergo compression. This t ends t o expel t he cont ent s of basins upwards and out war ds in a process t ermed inver sion. The expulsion oft en t akes place along t he same list ric fault s t hat guided t he basins development . Basin inver sion is a ver y import ant mechanism in gas and oil f ield format ion. I t may cr eat e good st ruct ural t raps for oil and gas, and may prevent "over- cooking" of t he source rock. However, it may also per mit t he escape of hydrocarbons or cause erosion of source rocks or r eser voir rocks.
The Crust Around Brit ain
Al t hough t he pl at es of t he Eart hs crust are i n const ant mot i on, t he st r ongest eff ect s of pl at e t ect oni cs i n any one area occur at peak t i mes wi t h l ongi sh peri ods of r el at i ve t ranquillit y i n bet ween. Rock st rat a accumul at e i n t hese t ranquil peri ods and ar e di srupt ed and deformed by l at er pl at e col li si ons. Thi s may cause t hi ckeni ng of t he cont i nent al crust and i t s el evat i on as mount ai n ranges. The mount ai ns are er oded down and deposi t i on of sedi ment ary st rat a r esumes. The crust i s t hus built up of unit s, some hi ghl y deformed, ot hers hardl y di st urbed. These uni t s are st acked above or agai nst each ot her. The j unct i ons of t he uni t s are ei t her ol d er osi on surfaces or l arge di sl ocat i ons.
Ther e are fi ve maj or unit s buil di ng t he crust s under Bri t i sh seas ( F17) . At t he t op i s t he Younger Cover, rangi ng i n t he age fr om Permi an t o Recent ( F18) . I t fill s t he basi ns cont ai ni ng most of our oil and gas. Bel ow i s t he Ol der Cover compri si ng Devoni an and/ or Carboni fer ous st rat a bet ween 400 and 300 milli on years ol d. I n sout hern Bri t ai n, rocks of t hi s age are st r ongl y defor med and cut i nt o sli ces whi ch have been st acked above each ot her t o f orm t he Vari scan fol d- bel t or Vari sci des. Under much of t he Nort h Sea, t he Ol der Cover forms an underl ay r est i ng on earl y Pal aeozoi c st rat a f ol ded 410 milli on years ago ( t he l at e Cal edoni des) and mai nl y lat e Pr ecambri an st rat a fol ded and met amorphosed 510 milli on years ago and earli er ( t he earl y Cal edoni des) .
Precambri an rocks ol der t han 600 milli on years for m t he foundat i ons of t he whol e st ruct ur e. I n t he nort h are anci ent cryst alli ne rocks wi t h a fl at cover of l ess anci ent Precambri an st rat a i nvol ved i n adj acent earl y Cal edoni an fol di ng. I n t he sout h, t he Precambri an basement was not f ormed unt il t he very end of t he Pr ecambri an Era. The map ( F19) shows t he out crops of t he mai n uni t s of t he cont i nent al crust i n Nort h- West Europe. I t i s i mmedi at el y obvi ous t hat t he Bri t i sh I sl es are surr ounded by seas mai nl y underl ai n by t he Younger Cover f ormat i ons. The map shows t he l ocat i on of t he mai n depr essi ons i n whi ch t he Younger Cover was deposi t ed. Some of t hese exceed 10km i n dept h. Over hi ghs such as t he Mi d- Nort h Sea Hi gh and t he London- Brabant Pl at form, t he t hi ckness di mi ni shes t o 2 km or l ess. The Ol der Cover i s ext ensi vel y exposed on t he sea fl oor onl y i n t he west ern I ri sh Sea and i n t he Orkney- Shet l and regi on. Subsea out crops of t he Vari sci des border t he West ern Appr oaches and Cel t i c Sea basi ns. The Cal edoni des have a very rest ri ct ed subsea out cr op consi st ent wi t h t hei r t endency t o f or m upland areas of Bri t ain and I rel and. The anci ent Pr ecambri an basement of Nort h Bri t ai n - t he Lewi si an Gnei ss - i s wi del y exposed wher eas t he young Precambri an of sout h Bri t ain has al most as f ew subsea exposur es as on l and. Foundat ions
The Pr ecambri an basement forms t wo- t hi rds of t he Bri t i sh crust . The nort hern hal f ( F21) was part of t he supercont inent of Laurasi a ( Canada, Gr eenl and and Scandi navi a) and has had a l ong, event ful hi st ory dat i ng back nearl y 3000 milli on year s. Most of i t has been r epeat edl y reformed at hi gh t emperat ur es and pressures. The sout hern hal f, composed of l ess al t ered rocks, was a nort hern out post of t he supercont i nent of Gondwana ( Afri ca, Sout h Ameri ca, I ndi a and Ant arct i ca) . The t wo hal ves wer e brought t oget her when t he I apet us Ocean cl osed, cr eat i ng t he next t i er, t he Cal edoni des. The earl y Cal edoni des formed bef or e I apet us cl osed. They ar e met amorphi c rocks wi t h an i ncredi bl y compli cat ed st ruct ur e caused by r epeat ed compressi on. The l at e Cal edoni des are sedi ment ary and vol cani c rocks f ol ded aft er I apet us cl osed. The Nor wegi an Cal edoni des are i nt ermedi at e i n age and have a t hrust - sheet st ruct ur e unli ke t he Bri t i sh Cal edoni des. The Nort h Sea i s underl ai n at dept h by al l t hree t ypes of Cal edoni des. The Cal edoni an pl at e colli si ons in t he Devoni an Peri od produced a l and of l akes and wi de ri ver pl ains in whi ch t he Ol d Red Sandst one was deposi t ed. A seaway ext ended acr oss sout hern Bri t ai n and i nt o cent ral Eur ope at t hi s t i me. I n t he Carboni fer ous Peri od a warm coral sea fl ooded t he Ol d Red Cont i nent , but as t he cont i nent dri ft ed nort hwards t owards t he equat or, t he sea r et r eat ed and humi d swampl ands devel oped, cl ot hed i n luxuri ant veget at i on. These, t he coal forest s, wer e peri odi call y fl ooded when t he pol ar i ce- caps mel t ed. Lat e i n t he Carboni fer ous Peri od, t he sout hern seaway cl osed and Laurasi a became fused t o t he mai n mass of Gondwana, wi t h t he format i on of t he Vari scan mount ai n ranges - t he Vari sci des - al ong t he colli si on zone ( F23) . By t he Permi an Peri od al l cont i nent al masses had come t oget her t o form t he vast supercont i nent of Pangaea whi ch cont i nued t o dri ft nort hwards.
Forces The forces t hat creat ed Bri t ai ns offshor e oi l and gas basi ns and t hei r st ruct ur es wer e rel at ed t o gl obal pl at e t ect oni cs. Wi despread basi n format i on occurr ed i n t he Per mi an peri od duri ng t he crust al subsi dence t hat foll owed t he Vari scan fol di ng. Oft en i t si mpl y added t o pre- exi st i ng Devoni an and Carboni fer ous basi ns of t he Ol der Cover, and carri ed on i nt o t he Mesozoi c and Tert i ary Eras. Many of t hese superi mposed basi ns seemed t o be ali gned al ong t he dominant st ruct ural grai n in t hei r basement s ( F20) . I n t he Nort h Sea, t he t wo mai n Per mi an basi ns runni ng east - west are most l i kel y rel at ed t o t he adj acent Vari scan f ol d- bel t ( F24) . Whet her or not t he Permi an basi n subsi dence r epr esent s t he earl i est si gn of t he openi ng of t he At l ant i c Ocean i s hi ghl y cont roversi al , but by t he mi ddl e of t he Jurassi c Peri od t he openi ng was wel l under way. I t advanced nort hwards i n t he Cr et aceous Peri od and in t he earl y Tert i ary Peri od t he Nort h At l ant i c rapi dl y opened out . Duri ng a cruci al Jurassi c and Cr et aceous phase of wi despr ead cr ust al t ensi on, t he crust around Bri t ai n ri ft ed. Locat ed over ri si ng col umns of hot mant l e, t hese ri ft s ( fai l ed arms) never became oceans but wer e t he i ni t i al phase i n t he t wo- st age mechani sm of basi n format i on. Teari ng movement s al so produced l ocal pull - apart basi ns. Compr essi ons ori gi nat ing i n t he pl at e colli sions t hat produced t he Al ps caused upli ft and er osi on ( inversi on) of basi n cont ent s.
West ern Basins
A number of deep basi ns are l ocat ed of f west ern Bri t ai n from t he Shet l ands t o t he West ern Approaches. Most began l i fe i n t he Per mi an Peri od. Hal f- grabens ( F26) formed by t he t rap- door mechani sm are common; l arge basi ns li ke t he East I ri sh Sea Basi n and t he Faeroe- Shet l and Basi n ( F25) are compri sed of several such hal f- grabens. I n t hese basi ns di scoveri es have been sl ow i n comi ng. A gap of 16 year s occurr ed bet ween t he di scover y of t he gi ant Morecambe f i el d, and t he oil and gas di scoveri es of t he Li verpool Bay compl ex. The I r i sh Sea gas and oil come fr om underl yi ng Carboni ferous coal s and shal es. They have been t rapped i n Tri assic sandst ones beneat h i mpermeabl e mudst one. I n t he Faeroe- Shet l and Basi n ( F49) , t he gi ant Cl ai r fi el d was di scovered i n 1977. The compl ex fract ur ed r eser voi r pr event ed earl y devel opment , and i t i s onl y now, wi t h t he appl i cat i on of t echnol ogi cal advances, t hat t hi s fi el d i s being brought i nt o product i on. Around 15 year s aft er t he di scovery of Cl ai r, BP found t he Foi naven and Schi ehalli on fi el ds, al so i n t he Faer oe- Shet l and Basi n. These t wo fi el ds are now i n product i on, usi ng Fl oat i ng, Product i on, St orage and Offl oadi ng ( FPSO) vessel s, wi t h t he oil t ransport ed by shut t l e t anker. Nort h Sea Basins
Conceal ed beneat h t he bl anket - li ke sag of t he Nort h Sea basi n i s a compl ex of ol der basi ns and ri ft vall eys ( grabens) bet ween el evat ed hi ghs and pl at forms. I n t he sout hern and cent ral Nort h Sea, t he t hi ckest sedi ment s ar e i n t he Permi an basi ns and i n t he deep Cent ral Graben. The nort hern Nort h Sea i s domi nat ed by t he sedi ment - fill ed Vi ki ng Graben. Wer e t he graben empt y, Mount Ever est woul d j ust about fi t int o i t - upsi de- down. F27 shows t he Per mi an basins and buri ed grabens as t hey woul d appear i f all rocks younger t han 285 milli on years wer e st ri pped away. The earl y ri ft ing st age of basi n format i on l ast ed unt il about 125 milli on years ago, and was f oll owed by t he mai n saggi ng st age. The Eart hs crust i s t hi nned symmet ri call y across t he ent i re wi dt h of t he nort hern Nort h Sea. Two furt her i mport ant infl uences on t he st ruct ure i n t he cent ral and sout hern Nort h Sea ar e deformat ion produced by mobil e sal t masses ( F28) and inver si on of basi ns accompani ed by erosi on ( see F15) .
The Nort h Sea - t he Sout hern Gasfields
Al most all of t he hydr ocarbon fi el ds in t he sout hern part of t he Nort h Sea are gasfi el ds. From 285 milli on years ago, t hi s basi n area was set ami d t he vast Pangaea cont i nent . Duri ng i t s sl ow dri ft nort hwards across t he equat or ( see F14) , t he envi ronment i n t he basin graduall y changed as t he cli mat e al t ered. Seas and l akes came and went , surr oundi ng hill s were worn down and t he basi n cont i nued t o deepen. Duri ng t hi s cont i nual change, a seri es of rock l ayer s and st ruct ures have f ol l owed each ot her i n a way whi ch, by chance, all owed t he cr eat i on and st orage of nat ural gas beneat h t he area present l y occupi ed by t he sout hern Nort h Sea ( F31) . F30a shows t he envi ronment 300 milli on year s ago when t he area l ay over t he equat or. Lush, swampy rai n forest covered t he f l at lands across t he ar ea of Bri t ai n and t he Nort h Sea. These wer e t he Carboni fer ous coal forest s, t he remai ns of whi ch now provi de Bri t ai ns coal and nat ural gas resources. Layer s of veget at i on wer e peri odicall y submerged as t he land sank and sea level fl uct uat ed. As t hey became more deepl y buri ed t he pl ant l ayers wer e convert ed t o coal seams i n beds of shal e and sandst one; t hese r ocks ar e t he Coal Measures, whi ch underl i e t he area shown i n F29a. Cont i nued si nki ng, part i cul arl y i n t he area of t he Nort h Sea, has caused t he generat i on of l arge quant i t i es of gas; part s of t he Coal Measur es wer e at t he ri ght dept h for gas generat i on t o t ake pl ace over 140 mi lli on years ago. The process i s cont i nuing st ill in some pl aces. Because gas permeat es upwards, i t woul d all be l ost at t he l and surface or sea- bed but for t he exi st ence, i n cer t ai n areas, of overl yi ng rocks whi ch cont ai n and seal i n gas, effi ci ent l y t rappi ng i t . These r ocks ar e t he product s of varyi ng desert envi ronment s whi ch affect ed t he mi d- cont i nent al regi ons of Pangaea dur i ng t he Permi an and Tr i assi c Peri ods. The t rap st ruct ur es f ormed l at er, many around 70 mi lli on years ago.
By 270 milli on years ago, a desert l ake in t he sout h was border ed by massi ve sand dunes cut by wadi es ( F30b) . These sands buil t up t o a 300 met r e- t hi ck sandst one f ormat i on whil e t he area subsi ded. Some of t he dune sands form t he most permeabl e part s of t he Rot li egend Sandst one Group ( F29b) and hol d much of our nat ural gas. 250 milli on year s ago, sal t l ayers wer e deposi t ed i n t he i nl and Zechst ei n Sea over t he dune sands ( F29c and 30c) . These l ayer s are now t hi ck beds of sal t whi ch, i n places, act as a gas seal . F29 shows how part of t he sout hern ar ea cont ains Permi an Zechst ei n sal t above Rot li egend Sandst ones whi ch, in t urn, li es over Coal Measur es. Wher ever t hese t hr ee l ayers l ie one above t he ot her t her e i s a chance t hat gas may be hel d, so l ong as t he rocks are i n t he for m of a t rap.
Oil and Gas from t he Buried Rift Valley
The Bri t ai ns Offshor e Oil and Gas i n t he nort hern and cent ral areas of t he Nort h Sea i s domi nat ed by t he geographi cal hi st ory of t he buri ed ri ft vall ey, or graben. The ri ft i s seen in t he map on t he r i ght ( F32) , whi ch shows t he pr esent - day shape of t he surface of all rock t hat i s mor e t han 285 milli on years ol d. Duri ng t hi s last 285 milli on year s, si nce t he st art of Permi an t imes, subsi dence al ong t he line of t he ri ft vall ey cr eat ed a changi ng pat t er n of l and, lake and sea envi ronment s, and i nfl uenced t he t hi ckness and t ype of sedi ment s t hat accumul at ed, t he dept h t o whi ch t hey are now buri ed, and t he t rap st ruct ur es t hat for med. Consequent l y, hydr ocarbon deposi t s have been t rapped i n a much great er vari et y of r ocks and st ruct ur es t han i n t he sout hern Nort h Sea. Much of t he oi l and gas i s found i n sandst ones t hat are l ess t han 200 milli on years ol d. The mai n sandst one and li mest one reservoi r rocks ar e shown, i n green ornament i n t he col umn on t he ri ght in F32. Ri ft i ng movement s aff ect ed t hi s area f or mor e t han a hundred year s. They wer e most i nt ense duri ng t he Jurassi c Peri od, and Jurassi c rocks pr ovi de t he most i mport ant oil source and reser voi rs beneat h t he Nort h Sea. The mai n source of oil and gas i n t he ar ea i s t he 140 milli on year- ol d Ki mmeridge Cl ay. The most prol i fi c oil - beari ng reservoi rs beneat h t he nort hern Nort h Sea ar e t he Jur assi c Br ent Del t a sands. Br ent Del t a sedi ment s al so cont ai n coal seams deri ved f rom veget at i on on t he swamps.
These are t he sour ces of some of t he gas now t rapped i n t he area. The sedi ment s t hat buil t up t he del t a wer e t ransport ed nort hwards by ri ver s drai ni ng vol cani c upl ands whi ch had ri sen up at t he j unct i on of t hree ar ms of t he ri ft vall ey ( F36) . As l arge as t he Ni l e Del t a, t he Br ent Del t a i s now buri ed and broken i nt o a seri es of t il t ed bl ocks ( F33) whi ch act as t raps where overl yi ng rocks seal down oil and gas.
The Ki mmeri dge Cl ay i s part i cul arl y ri ch i n hydrocarbons al ong t he li ne of t he ri ft vall ey. Thi s i s because t he sl ow subsi dence of t he ri ft hel ped t o set up t he ri ght envi ronment for a rapi d buil d- up of t hi ck mud l ayers, ri ch i n pl ankt oni c al gal remai ns, on t he deepest part s of t he seabed ( F34) . Cl i mat e and sea condi t i ons wer e i deal for t he massi ve growt h of bl ooms of pl ankt on. Dead pl ankt on sank i n vast numbers, and t he seabed bact eri a feedi ng on t hei r remai ns made t he mud st agnant , so t hat part i cl es from t he pl ankt on cell s wer e preserved i n i t and sl owl y buri ed. The buri ed mud became compressed t o for m t he Ki mmeri dge Cl ay. The t hi ckest mud l ayers were deposi t ed over t he ri ft and have si nce subsi ded deep wi t hin t he ri ft heat i ng up sl owly as t hey became mor e deepl y buri ed. The Kimmeri dge Cl ay has been mat ure for mi lli ons of year s, generat i ng fi rst oil and t hen gas ( see F4, page 6) . F35 shows t he areas wher e i t i s mat ure and gener at ing oil and gas ri ght now.
Most of t he sandst one reservoi rs i n t he nort hern Nort h Sea wer e ori gi nall y part s of ri ver del t as and submari ne fans - l obes and sheet s of sedi ment whi ch were r e- deposi t ed from sl umping and fl owi ng masses of unst abl e sea- bed ( F38) . Many i mpor t ant oil and gas occur r ences ar e i n Jurassi c rocks of t hi s t ype but some of t he l argest ar e i n submarine fan sandst ones whi ch wer e deposi t ed more recent l y, 50 milli on years ago or so ( F37) . Around 150 mi lli on years ago, i n Jurassi c and on i nt o earl y Cr et aceous t i mes, part s of t he sea fl oor repeat edl y sank. The great ri ft vall ey syst em, or graben, was rapi dl y subsi di ng. Beneat h t he sea, t he Eart hs crust cont i nued t o fract ure al ong huge faul t s, and l arge bl ocks dropped down and t il t ed t o form l ong ri dges al ong t he sea fl oor . These movement s cont inuall y t ri ggered t he sl umpi ng of soft sedi ment s i nt o t he deeper t roughs. Unst abl e ar eas of seabed woul d st art t o shi ft unt il rock f ragment s and part i cl es were carri ed away acr oss t he sea fl oor as fast - fl owi ng current s of wat er y sedi ment . These set t l ed out as fans or mor e widespr ead sheet - l i ke deposi t s. Coar se, sandy rubbl e was dropped near st eepl y sl opi ng sea fl oors. Channel s and fans of sand and silt spread our furt her acr oss t he sea fl oor, bui ldi ng t hi ck l ayers out from t he submari ne ri dges. Some of t he sandy rocks whi ch wer e l ai d down i n t hi s way are permeabl e enough for oil and gas t o fl ow t hrough t hem wi t h ease. These rocks now hold oil and gas pool s i n t rap st ruct ur es, such as t hose of t he Brae, Gal l ey, Cl aymore and Magnus fi elds. The t raps formed well befor e t he oi l and gas mi grat ed i n from t he Ki mmeri dge Cl ay above or ar ound t hem. The Nort h At l ant i c Ocean was openi ng rapi dl y ar ound 50 mi lli on years ago and t hrough t hi s t i me of great crust al act i vi t y t he ar ea f rom t he Scot t i sh Hi ghl ands t o t he Shet l and I sl ands was upli ft ed ( F37) causi ng ri vers t o erode and move huge amount s of sedi ment . Unst abl e masses of sand and sil t built out acr oss t he surr oundi ng shel ves, whil e react i vat i on of ol der faul t s cont inuall y t ri ggered gr eat fl ows of sedi ment fr om t he edges of t he submari ne shelves, out acr oss t he deeper sea fl oor underl ai n by t he ri ft vall ey ( F37) . Submari ne channel deposi t s and fans, buil t up int o wi despr ead l ayers of sandy sedi ment . These have hardened t o form beds of sil t and sandst one wi t h shal e layers. Wher e t hey have become part s of sui t abl e t rap st ruct ur es, as i n t he Fort i es, Mont r ose, Fri gg and Cod fi el ds, t hey may hol d consi derabl e quant i t i es of oi l and gas whi ch have mi grat ed upwards fr om t he deepl y- buried source rock. Under some part s of t he Nort h Sea area, t he oi l and gas have t hen mi grat ed al most hori zont all y some t ens of ki l omet r es al ong sandy l ayers unt il t hey have ei t her escaped or become t rapped. Nat ural st orage of oi l and gas beneat h some par t s of t he Nort h Sea depends upon t he presence of t hi ck l ayers of sal t , especi ally t hose l ai d down i n t he t r opi cal sea duri ng t he Permi an Peri od, ar ound 250 milli on years ago. I n t he ari d cli mat e, rapi d evaporat i on of t he cont i nuall y i nfl owing seawat er r esul t ed i n t he buil d- up of mor e t han 2000 met r es of sal t . I n t he cent ral Nort h Sea ar ea, t rap st ruct ures have been cr eat ed where l ow- densi t y sal t l ayers have ri sen t hr ough overl yi ng rock ( F39) . Some of t hese st ruct ures have t rapped oil and gas, part i cul arl y wi t hin t he Cent ral Graben, where t he chal k i n t he Norwegi an and Dani sh sect or s has been fract ur ed and domed by ri sing salt . I n sout hern ar eas of t he Nort h Sea, however , sal t l ayers of t he same age act as hydrocarbon seal s. Here, t he source rock and t he mai n reservoi r r ock l i e beneat h t he sal t and are not affect ed by i t s movement . Fract ur es i n t he sal t heal by sal t - fl ow, so t he r ock makes an excel l ent seal . Chal k act s as an oi l seal i n some ar eas and as a r eser voi r rock i n ot hers. Normal l y, i t s permeabili t y i s l ow - oil will not fl ow t hrough i t . Chal k mai nly consi st s of t i ny mi neral cryst al s for med by al gae, whi ch dri ft ed as pl ankt on i n t he seas about 100 t o 65 mi lli on years ago. The cr yst al s, made of cal cit e, coll ect ed on t he seabed as whi t e, li my mud whi ch hardened t o f orm chal k r ock. Wher e deepl y buri ed, i t s mi nut e pore spaces become nat urall y cement ed and t he r ock hardens. Deep wi t hin t he Cent ral Graben, however , some chal k i s much mor e permeabl e t han normal and cont ai ns oi l and gas. Besi des fract uri ng, a cruci al fact or was t hat of sedi ment - sl umpi ng on t he seabed. Movement s acr oss t he Cent ral Graben ri ft - edge caused t he sedi ment t o fl ow and re- deposi t as a very por ous, wat er y sl urry. I n pl aces, t he por es wer e fi ll ed wi t h oil at hi gh pressure bef ore t he cryst al s coul d become cement ed i nt o a t i ght mass. A Closer Look at Some Nort h Sea Fields
Brent Field, di scover ed i n t he far nort h of t he ar ea i n 1971, cont ai ns oil and gas wi t hin t il t ed l ayers of sandy rock. 170 milli on years ago, t hese l ayers wer e part of a ri ver del t a. Si nce t hen, t he t ilt i ng movement s, associ at ed wi t h t he ri ft i ng Vi ki ng Graben have been fol l owed by a l ong peri od of saggi ng. Muddy sedi ment s - i ncl uding Ki mmeri dge Cl ay, t he sour ce of t he oil - have draped acr oss t he t i t l ed bl ocks ( F33) , filli ng t he subsi di ng t roughs bet ween t hem, and seali ng t he er oded upper edges of t he sandst one l ayer s ( F41) t o f orm t raps. Much l at er , oil was expel l ed downwards i nt o t he sandst ones fr om t he t hi ck mudrock, now deepl y buri ed wi t hi n t he t roughs. The oi l mi grat ed up t he t il t ed sandst one l ayers t o col lect i n t he crest s. Some of t he gas came fr om coal wi t hi n t he del t a sedi ment s. Oil i s st ill mi grat i ng t hrough t he ar ea. The sandst one l ayers, each more t han 200 met r es t hick, have hel d over 500 bi lli on li t res of oil , for milli ons of year s, wi t hin an area of 17 by 5 km. Piper Field, di scovered i n 1973, li es at t he edge of an arm of t he buri ed ri ft vall ey. Oil in t hi s fi el d i s t rapped wi t hi n a t il t ed sandst one l ayer cut by faul t s. The sandst one was deposi t ed 145 milli on years ago, duri ng l at e Jurassi c t i mes, as sand bars around a seri es of ri ver del t as. Ki mmeri dge Cl ay source rock overl i es t he oil - fill ed sandst one, act ing as part of t he seal . However, t he t rapped oil i s most l y deri ved fr om wi t hi n t he ri ft vall ey, on t he sout h si de of t he fi el d, where sour ce rock i s t hi cker and hot t er. The oil has mi grat ed t o t he fi el d area at some t i me aft er a mudrock seal was l ai d down 70 milli on years aft er t he sand. Oi l i s prevent ed fr om l eaki ng out at t he faul t s, or from t he er oded edges of t he sandst one, by t hi s seal . About one cubi c kil omet r e of t he sand i s fill ed wi t h 150 billi on li t res of oi l over an area of 30 squar e ki l omet res. Sout h Br ae Field cont ai ns oil and gas i n t he sandy debri s whi ch accumul at ed at t he f oot of a st eep submari ne sl ope. Thi s coarse sedi ment was deposi t ed al ong t he west ern edge of t he buri ed ri ft vall ey, i n t he sout hern part of t he Vi ki ng Graben. At t hi s t i me, 140 milli on years ago, t he organi c mud of t he Ki mmeri dge Cl ay source rock was bei ng deposi t ed acr oss t he area. Duri ng epi sodes of i nst abilit y, fan deposi t s of r ock fragment s and sand spread out fr om t he submerged, ri ft i ng edge of t he gr aben, whi l e organi c mud deposi t i on was confi ned t o t he floor of t he undersea ri ft val l ey away fr om t he st eep mar gi ns. Thus t he r eser voi r r ocks ar e now f ound as sand sheet s and wedges of congl omerat e - pebbl es and boul ders i n sand - int erl ayered wi t h bl ack, oil y mudrock. Here, t herefor e, t he r eservoi r rock i s t he same age as t he source rock. Sout h Brae Fi el d was di scover ed i n 1977, i t s oil bei ng found deeper down t han i n most Nort h Sea fi el ds, wi t hin a maxi mum of t hi ckness of over 500 met res of r eser voi r rock. The oi l i s hot , gassy and corr osi ve. Fort ies Field, di scover ed i n 1970, has hel d well over 500 billi on li t res of oi l in i t s sandy reservoi r rock. Thi s rock was deposi t ed as a submari ne fan sedi ment 55 milli on years ago ( F37 and 38) . At Fort i es Fi el d, t hese sandy l ayer s have draped and sagged across a hump i n t he underl yi ng rocks. The Mai n Sand reservoi r i s composed most l y of sandy sedi ment deposi t ed as a submari ne fan, whi l e much of t he separat e Charl i e Sand accumul at ed wi t hin feeder channel s of sand fl owing across t he sea fl oor . Oi l has mi grat ed upwards from Ki mmeri dge Cl ay sour ce r ock wi t hi n t he buri ed ri ft vall ey, and has t hen t ravel l ed al ong t he sand l ayers. Some of t he mi grat i ng oil has t hen been t rapped wi t hin t he dome- shaped beds of sandst one above t he underl ying hump. Shear wat er Field, di scovered i n 1988, l i es i n t he Cent ral Nort h Sea some 225 km ( 138 mi l es) east of Aberdeen. The gas condensat e r eservoi r dept h i s 4, 545 met res ( 15, 000 ft ) and i s charact eri sed by i t s ext r emel y high pressur e and hi gh t emperat ur e - 1, 000 bar and approxi mat el y 180 degr ees C. The pressur e i s equi val ent t o t hree el ephant s st andi ng on a post age st amp. The geol ogi cal st ruct ures dat e back t o t he Jurassi c Age. The fi el d was brought int o product i on i n 2000 wi t h t he use of cut t ing edge t echnol ogi es. One days product i on from Shear wat er woul d fuel a famil y car for 1690 year s or heat t he wat er for 4. 5 mi lli on showers. Argyll Field, fi rst discover ed i n 1971 ( and now bei ng re- devel oped as t he Ardmor e Fi el d) , li es on t he west ern edge of t he buri ed ri ft vall ey - t he Cent ral Graben - i n t he cent ral area of t he Nort h Sea. I t s oi l li es wi t hin reservoi r rock, whi ch i s much ol der t han t he source r ock. Oil migrat ed al ong t he ri ft faul t zone from t he dept hs of t he graben; t he reser voi r li es wit hi n a spur- li ke bl ock of rock whi ch i s fract ur ed and gent l y fol ded. The bl ock i s al so fault ed on i t s west ern si de, pr event i ng oil l eakage. The whol e bl ock i s draped by a seal of much more recent shal e and chal k, t rappi ng t he oil wit hi n an area of t hi rt een square ki l omet res. The reservoi r rocks ar e mai nl y l ayers of desert sedi ment s. The l ower l ayers ar e Devoni an rocks around 360 milli on year s ol d. Above t hem, Permi an dune sands wi t h all uvi um and lake- bed sedi ment s are overl ain by li mest one, al l around 250 milli on year s ol d. Deposi t ed as l i my mud- fl at s ar ound an i nl and sal t sea, t he li mest one makes an unusual reservoi r f or t hi s area. Some of i t s mi neral s have been di ssol ved out , l eavi ng cavi t i es whi ch now hol d oil . Oil and gas were di scovered at Ekofisk Field, i n t he Norwegi an sect or, i n 1969. They ar e cont ai ned wi t hin chal k whi ch i s not normal l y a good reser voi r r ock. Much of t he chal k in t hi s area, however , i s fr ee of cl ay i mpuri t i es and, mor eover, was sl umped and r e- deposi t ed across t he deeper sea fl oor above t he Cent ral Graben area. Thi s l eft chal k l ayers wi t h a porous, open t ext ure. The pores wer e lat er fi ll ed wi t h high- pressur e oil and gas, pr event i ng mineral s fr om subsequent l y bl ocki ng t he pores. Thus t he por es r emai n open and t he r ock st ays permeabl e t o t he fl ow of oi l and gas. Sal t movement s i n t he area fract ur ed and domed t he chal k, creat i ng bot h pat hways for hydr ocarbons t o mi grat e up t o t he reservoi r, and t he st ruct ure t o t rap t hem. Gas has l eaked fr om t he t rap i nt o t he shal es overl yi ng t he reservoi r. Leman Field was di scover ed i n 1966. I t i s t he l argest gas fi el d i n t he sout hern Nort h Sea, underl yi ng an area of more t han 30 by 10 km off t he Norf ol k coast . The Leman Bank ar ea i s one of a number of pl aces acr oss t hi s part of t he Nort h Sea beneat h whi ch t he chance fact or s f or t he ori gi n, mi grat i on, cont ai nment , seali ng and t rappi ng of gas have come t oget her i n t he ci rcumst ances descri bed in pages 18 and 19. The gas ori gi nat es fr om t he coal - beari ng shal es of t he 300 milli on year- ol d Coal Measures. The t hi ck, Lat e Per mi an sal t beds i n t hi s area f orm a very effi ci ent seal above t he excell ent reser voi r r ock of dune sands l ai d down i n Earl y Permi an t i mes, around 270 mi llion years ago. By 140 mi lli on years ago, cert ai n areas of t he Coal Measur es sour ce rock woul d have r eached a t emperat ur e of around 150C, at dept h of about 4. 5 km, a suffi ci ent l evel of heat t o generat e gas. Beneat h Leman Fi el d, however, t he crust has si nce been pushed upwards, li ft i ng t he Coal Measures back out of t he gas- generat i ng zone. I t i s possi bl e t hat t he gas has ei t her mi grat ed from fl ank areas i nt o t he r esul t ing dome- shaped t rap or i t may al ready have mi grat ed i nt o t he r eservoi r r ock. At nearby Hewet t Field t hese same upward movement s all owed gas t o escape past t he Permi an sal t seal . I t t hen mi grat ed t owards t he surface but was t rapped agai n in t wo sandst one reservoi rs of Earl y Tri assi c age, around 240 mi lli on year s ol d. These have seal s of shal e and a t hi n sal t layer. The mai n Permi an reservoi r sandst one was deposi t ed i n a great desert basi n whi ch cover ed t he ar ea bet ween t he east ern margi n of Engl and and t he Russi an- Poli sh border . Known as Leman Sandst one i n t he UK and Sl ocht eren Sandst one i n t he Net herl ands, t hi s rock i s part of t he Rot li egend Sandst one Gr oup. I t i s t he most i mport ant gas r eser voi r rock i n t he sout hern Nort h Sea. However, as t hi s sandst one becomes more deepl y buri ed i t s reser voi r capaci t y di mini shes because mi neral s preci pi t at e i n t he pores bet ween t he grai ns. Upl i ft has not r est or ed t he gas- r eservoi r capaci t y of t he r ock. I n 1959, gas was di scovered i n Rot li egend Sandst one at Groni ngen in t he Net herl ands. The fi el d l at er proved t o be ver y l arge. Wi t h a t hi ck sal t seal above i t , t he sandst one was f ound t o cont ai n hi ghl y permeabl e dune sands whi ch hol d much of t he gas. Such an i mport ant di scover y l ed expl orat i on geol ogi st s t o fol l ow t he dune sands west wards al ong t he di rect i on of t he prevaili ng wind whi ch formed t hose dunes mi lli ons of year s ago. Thi s brought t hei r at t ent i on i nt o t he ar ea now cover ed by t he sout hern Nort h Sea - t o a new r egi on of t he Eart hs crust wai t ing t o be sear ched, i t s st ruct ural pat t ern and geol ogy di scover ed and i t s past envi ronment s deduced - t he era of Nort h Sea expl orat i on had begun!
Oil and Gas from t he West ern Basins
General l y, expl orat i on of t he basi ns t o t he west of Bri t ain has been sl ower and more di fficul t t han expl orat i on i n t he Nort h Sea. I n t he East I ri sh Sea Basi n ( F48) t he gi ant Mor ecambe gas fi el d was di scovered by Bri t i sh Gas i n 1974 and remai ned t he onl y commer ci al expl or at i on success unt il t he di scovery of t he Hami l t on fi el d ( F25, page 16) by Hami l t on Brot her s i n 1990. The Hami lt on discovery was qui ckl y foll owed by t he Dougl as fi el d ( 1990) , t he Hami l t on Nort h fi eld ( 1991) and t he Lennox fi el d ( 1992) . These fi el ds are known as t he Li verpool Bay compl ex, whi ch st art ed gas pr oduct i on t o t he Poi nt of Ayr t ermi nal in 1995. The Mor ecambe fi el d i s t he second l argest gas fi el d in t he U. K. The shal l ow dept h of t he r eser voi r compli cat ed t he devel opment of t he fi el d and a sl ant ed drilling ri g had t o be used t o al l ow t he devel opment wel l s t o reach t he part s of t he reservoi r furt hest f rom t he pr oduct i on pl at form. The Mor ecambe gas i s t rapped i n Tri assi c sandst ones beneat h i mpermeabl e mudst one and sal t . The gas ori gi nat ed i n deeper Carboni fer ous coal s and shal es. The Faeroe- Shet l and Basi n began t o devel op in t he Permi an Peri od and cont i nued t o subsi de t hroughout t he Mesozoi c and Tert i ary Eras. Oi l and gas mi grat ed from t he Ki mmeri dge Cl ay source r ock i nt o a ri dge of much ol der Devoni an and Carboni fer ous r ocks t hat separat es t he t wo basi ns. The Cl ai r fi el d is l ocat ed on t hi s ri dge and cont ai ns a vast amount of oi l . The oil i s t rapped i n fract ur ed Devoni an and Carboni fer ous reservoi r r ocks. Much younger muddy sedi ment s of t he Upper Cret aceous cover t he ri dge and prevent t he oil from escapi ng t o t he surface. The f ract ures and faul t s i n t he ol der r ock al l ow t he oi l t o ri se easi l y t o t he hi ghest part of t he ri dge. The f ract ur es are onl y occasi onall y cut by a well so whet her a wel l will produce a suffi ci ent amount of oi l t o be profi t abl e i s very di ffi cult t o pr edi ct . The oi l has been bi odegraded by bact eri a t hat were carri ed i nt o t he oil fi el d by wat er when t he fi el d was al most uncover ed during t he Cret aceous Peri od. As a result of t he bi odegradat i on t he oil in t he Cl ai r fi el d i s a l ot mor e vi scous t han nor mal Nort h Sea oi l s and does not fl ow rapi dl y. Expl orat i on drilli ng cont i nued i n t he Faeroe- Shet l and Basi n wi t hout si gni fi cant success unt il BP di scovered t he Foi naven fi el d in 1992 ( F49) , foll owed a year l at er by t he Schi ehalli on fi el d. These fi el ds are 75 kms sout h- east of t he Cl ai r fi el d and wer e di scover ed i n much younger sandst ones, t hat ar e si mil ar i n age t o t he For t i es sandst one i n t he Nort h Sea. The ri vers t hat swept sands east ward int o t he Nort h Sea, about 55 milli on years ago, were mat ched by smal l er ri ver s car ryi ng sands west wards ont o t he cont i nent al shel f. Eart hquakes, al ong faul t s, repeat edl y caused t hese sands t o fl ow down i nt o t he deep wat ers al ong t he Faer oe- Shet l and Basi n. Once i n deep wat er , t he sands wer e cover ed wi t h mud t o provi de a seal and form a st r at i graphi c t rap.
The pr esent day wat er dept h in t he area i s over 1, 400 ft . Fl oat i ng Product i on, St orage and Offl oadi ng ( FPSO) vessel s have been used i n t he devel opment of t he Foi naven and Schi ehalli on fi el ds, whil e t he gi ant Cl ai r fi el d i s bei ng devel oped wi t h a fi xed pl at form and a pi peli ne t o an onshor e t ermi nal . Foi naven was t he fi rst f i el d i n t he worl d t o have a fi xed sei smi c array on t he seafl oor acr oss t he fi el d. Thi s will all ow BP t o monit or any changes t o t he sei smi c wave charact er t hr oughout t he li fe of t he fi el d and act uall y "see" t he oil drai ni ng from t he rock sei smi call y. Thi s will ensure al l t he sands are drai ned effi ci ent l y.
EXPLORATI ON Discovering t he Underground St ruct ure I nt roduct ion Large- scal e geol ogi cal st ruct ur es t hat mi ght hol d oil or gas reservoi rs ar e i nvari abl y l ocat ed beneat h non- product i ve r ocks, and i n addi t i on t hi s i s oft en bel ow t he sea. Geophysi cal met hods can penet rat e t hem t o pr oduce a pi ct ure of t he pat t ern of t he hi dden r ocks. Rel at i vel y i nexpensi ve gravi t y and geomagnet i c surveys can ident i fy pot ent i all y oil- beari ng sedi ment ary basi ns, but cost l y sei smic surveys are essent i al t o di scover oi l and gas beari ng st ruct ures. Sedi ment ary r ocks ar e general l y of l ow densi t y and poorl y magnet ic, and are oft en underl ai n by st rongl y magnet i c, dense basement r ocks. By measuri ng anomali es or vari at i ons from t he regi onal average, a t hree- di mensi onal pi ct ure can be cal cul at ed. Modern gravi t y surveys show a generali sed pi ct ure of t he sedi ment ary basi ns. Recent l y, high resol ut i on aero- magnet i c surveys fl own by speci all y equi pped ai rcraft at 70 - 100m al t i t ude show fault t races and near surf ace vol cani c rocks. Shoot ing seismic sur veys Mor e det ai l ed i nformat ion about t he r ock l ayers wi t hi n such an area can be obt ai ned by deep echo- soundi ng, or sei smi c ref l ect i on surveys. I n offshor e ar eas t hese surveys are undert aken by a shi p ( F52) t owi ng bot h a submerged ai r or wat er gun array, t o produce short bur st s of sound energy, and a set of st reamers of several kilomet res l engt h. Each st reamer cont ai ns a dense ar ray of hydrophone groups t hat coll ect and pass t o recorders echoes of sound from refl ect i ng l ayer s. The dept hs of t he refl ect i ng l ayers are cal cul at ed from t he t i me t aken for t he sound t o r each t he hydrophones vi a t he r efl ect or; t hi s i s known as t he t wo- way t ravel t i me ( F50a & b) . The pul se of sound from t he guns radi at es out as a hemi spheri cal wave fr ont , a port i on of whi ch will be refl ect ed back t owards t he hydrophones fr om rock i nt erfaces ( F50a) . The pat h of t he mi nut e port i on of t he r efl ect ed wave- f r ont i nt ercept ed by a hydrophone group i s call ed a ray pat h. Hydr ophone gr oups spaced al ong t he st r eamer pi ck out ray pat hs t hat can be r el at ed t o speci fi c point s on t he r efl ect or surface ( F50c) . Graphs of t he i nt ensi t y of t he r ecorded sound pl ot t ed agai nst t he t wo- way t i me are di spl ayed as wi ggl e t races ( F50b) . Sei smi c recordi ng at sea al ways uses t he common dept h poi nt ( CDP) met hod ( F50c & d) . A sequence of regul arl y spaced sei smic shot s i s made as t he survey vessel accurat el y navi gat es i t s cour se. Shot s ar e usuall y t i med t o occur at di st ances equal t o t he separat i on of t he hydrophone gr oups. I n t hi s way up t o 120 recordi ngs of t he echoes fr om any one of 240 refl ect i ng point s can be col l ect ed. Each represent s sound, whi ch has f ol l owed a sl i ght l y di fferent ray pat h, but has all been r efl ect ed f r om t he same common dept h poi nt .
Processing Processi ng recordi ngs i nvol ves many st ages of si gnal processi ng and comput er summi ng. Fi rst ly, wi ggl e t races fr om a si ngl e CDP are coll ect ed i nt o groups. Di spl ayed si de by si de i n sequence t hey f orm a CDP gat her ( F51a & b) . Refl ect i ons fr om any one r efl ect or form a hyperboli c curve on t he gat her because t he sound t akes l onger t o t ravel t o t he mor e di st ant hydrophones. Thi s ef fect i s cal l ed normal move out ( NMO) . Corr ect i on i s needed t o bri ng t he pulses t o a hori zont al ali gnment , as i f t hey al l came f rom vert i call y bel ow t he sound source ( F51c) . The separat e wi ggl e t races are added t oget her, or st acked ( F51d) . St acki ng causes t rue refl ect i on pul ses t o enhance one anot her, and hopefull y, random noi se will cancel out . Thi s process i s repeat ed for all t he CDPs on t he sur vey line. The st acked and corr ect ed wi ggl e t races ar e di spl ayed si de by si de t o gi ve a sei smi c sect i on ( F51e) . Most sei smi c sect i ons used by t he oi l and gas i ndust ry ar e t i me- sect i ons t hat have undergone a l ong sequence of dat a- pr ocessi ng st eps desi gned t o i mprove t he quali t y of t he refl ect i ons and bri ng out subt l e geol ogi cal feat ures. For part i cul ar purposes, aft er t he pri nci pal refl ect or s have been i dent i fi ed or pi cked, a t i me- sect i on may be convert ed t o a dept h- sect i on ( F54) . For t hi s and al so for NMO cor r ect i ons bef or e st acki ng, t he vel oci t i es of sound i n t he r ock l ayers t raver sed by t he sect i on need t o be known. Comput er anal ysi s of t races duri ng NMO cor rect i ons yi el ds vel oci t y val ues, but mor e accurat e dat a comes fr om speci al vel oci t y surveys car ri ed in well s i n conj unct i on wi t h soni c loggi ng. Dat a processi ng l essens t he i mpact of vari ous undesi rabl e eff ect s t hat obscure t he refl ect ed si gnal s; i t al so compensat es f or some i nt rinsi c defi ci enci es of t he CDP met hod. Undesi rabl e effect s ( F53b) i ncl ude mul t ipl es, wher e t he sound i s refl ect ed r epeat edl y wit hi n a rock for mat i on and, because t hi s t akes t i me, regi st er s as a deeper refl ect or; r efl ect i ons bet ween t he wat er surf ace and t he seabed ar e a si mil ar phenomenon known as ri ngi ng. Di ffract i ons ar e hyperbol i c refl ect i ons fr om t he br oken end of a refl ect or; t hey mi mi c arched for mat i ons. Random noi se, mai nl y unwant ed refl ect i ons f rom wi t hin rock l ayers, hori zont all y propagat ed and r efract ed sound, bubbl e pul sat i ons from t he ai rguns and ot her eff ect s al so need t o be reduced. St acki ng reduces mul t i pl es and random noi se, but t he mai n comput er processi ng st eps ar e deconvol ut i on, mut i ng and fil t eri ng, and mi grat i on. Deconvol ut i on ( decon) ai ms t o count eract t he bl urring of r efl ect ed sound by recompr essi ng t he sound t o t he cl ean spi ke emi t t ed from t he sour ce. The r esul t i s cl earer refl ect i ons and t he suppr essi on of mul t i pl es. Mut i ng cut s out part s of t races embodyi ng maj or defect s such as non- refl ect ed si gnal s; fil t eri ng removes undesi rabl e noi se t o enhance t he best refl ect i ons. Fi nall y, mi grat i on corr ect s di st ort i ons caused by pl ot t i ng incli ned refl ect ors as i f t hey were hori zont al and vert i call y bel ow t he mi dpoi nt bet ween shot and recei ver; i t al so col l apses di ffract i ons ( F53a) . I n t hi s process, t he sei smi c energy i s r el ocat ed t o i t s t rue subsurf ace locat i on, ready f or i nt erpret at i on.
I nt erpr et at ion Sei smi c sect i ons provi de 2- di mensi onal vi ews of underground st ruct ure. By usi ng speci al shoot ing t echni ques such as spaced ai rgun arrays or t owi ng t he st reamer sl ant wi se, or by shoot i ng ver y cl osel y spaced l i nes, it i s possi bl e t o produce 3- di mensi onal ( 3D) seismi c i mages ( F59) . These i mages compri se vert i cal sect i ons and hori zont al sect i ons ( t i me- sl i ces) . Sei smi c st rat i graphy i s t he st udy of t he deposi t i onal int err el at i onshi ps of sedi ment ary rock as deduced fr om an i nt erpr et at i on of sei smic dat a; i t can be used i n fi nding subt le sedi ment ary t raps i nvol ving changes i n porosi t y. Bri ght - spot s, short l engt hs of a refl ect i on t hat ar e conspi cuousl y st r onger t han adj acent port i ons may i ndi cat e gas: t he vel oci t y of sound i s sharpl y reduced i n gas- bear i ng rock, pr oduci ng a st r ongl y refl ect i ve cont r ast . A gas- wat er or gas- oi l int erface may st and out as a not i ceabl y fl at refl ect i on amongst arched r efl ect i ons ( F56) . The end- product s of sei smi c surveys ar e i nt erpret ed sect i ons showi ng geol ogi cal st ruct ure down t o fi ne sedi ment ary det ai l s. Maps ar e used t o descri be t he t opol ogy of known r ock uni t s and i sopach maps are showi ng t he t hi ckness of t hese uni t s. For t he maps, r efl ect i ons ar e pi cked and t hei r dept hs at poi nt s al ong parall el and int ersect i ng survey l i nes pl ot t ed and cont oured. Sei smi c sect i ons t hat have been pi cked by hand ar e di gi t i sed and t he di git al fil es ent er ed i nt o a gri ddi ng and cont ouri ng program. Cont our maps ( F58) can be pl ot t ed or 3D col our and shade enhanced i mages ( F61) can be generat ed t o ill ust rat e t he subsurf ace st ruct ure. Some rock l ayers produce wi ggl es wi t h a di st i nct i ve charact er t hat can be fol l owed ri ght across a sect i on; ot hers may be i dent i fi ed by compari son wi t h synt het i c sei smograms made from l oggi ng and vel oci t y sur veys i n exi st i ng well s i n whi ch t he rock sequence i s known.
The sei smi c maps ar e used t o i dent i fy st ruct ur es t hat woul d ei t her r epay more det ai l ed sei smi c surveyi ng or woul d warr ant wil dcat drilling. The i nt erpr et er st udi es t he maps t o i dent i fy ar eas t hat are shall ower and form a dome shape ( an ant i cline) or a shall ow area sur r ounded by faul t s ( a hor st bl ock) - wi t hin such st ruct ur es i t i s possi bl e t hat migrat ing oil or gas may have been t rapped. I ni t i all y 3D sei smi c surveys ( F60) wer e used over t he rel at i vel y small areas of t he oi l and gasfi el ds wher e a more det ail ed subsurface pi ct ure was needed t o hel p i mprove t he posi t i on of product i on well s, and so enabl e t he fi el ds t o be drai ned wi t h maxi mum effi ci ency. I n t he earl y 1990s, when expl orat i on i n t he Nort h Sea shi ft ed t o smal l er and more subt l e t raps, 3D sei smi c surveys became mor e wi del y used for expl orat i on work. The vast amount of dat a generat ed by even a smal l 3D sur vey meant t hat comput er workst at i ons wer e an essent i al t ool for i nt erpret i ng t he dat a qui ckl y. Wi t h a comput er an i nt erpr et er can map a speci fi c refl ect or by movi ng t he cur sor al ong i t on t he scr een or, when a r efl ect or i s st rong and cont i nuous, t he comput er can aut o- pi ck t hat hori zon t hrough t he whol e 3D dat a set . Di gi t al fil es of r efl ect or pi cks can be t ransferr ed di rect l y from t he i nt erpr et er s wor kst at i on t o mappi ng soft war e. Vi suali sat i on soft ware ( F63) i s an addi t i onal t ool t hat all ows t he i nt erpr et er t o vi ew t he whol e 3D dat a set as a cube and rot at e or cut i t at any angl e, al l owi ng a pi ct ure of t he subsurface geomet ry t o be qui ckl y seen. Lat est development s
Recent i ncreases i n comput i ng capaci t y have enabl ed t he mi grat i on process t o be appl i ed befor e st ack, i . e. on t he vast amount s of dat a coll ect ed i n t he acqui si t i on phase. Thi s pre- st ack dept h mi grat i on ( PSDM) appli cat i on i s cri t i cal in areas wi t h compl ex geol ogi cal subsur face st ruct ur es, such as around/ bel ow sal t domes and ot her hi gh- vel oci t y l ayers. Thi s has l ed t o t he fi rst rel i abl e sei smic i mages of sedi ment s l ocat ed bel ow such compli cat ed overburden st ruct ur es.
Because of t he gr eat l y improved sei smi c resol ut i on of 3D sei smi c i magi ng, t here has been an eff ort t o reduce t he cost of 3D dat a acqui si t i on and short en t he t i me i t t akes t o acqui re and process t he l arge vol umes of dat a acqui red. I n t he past i t coul d t ake up t o 24 mont hs t o pr ocess t he r ecordi ngs fr om a 3D survey. Acqui si t i on t i me has been cut by speci all y desi gned survey vessel s depl oyi ng up t o t en mul t ipl e st reamers at a t i me ( F62) , or by usi ng mult i pl e vessel s. These t echni ques all ow a swat h of sei smi c dat a t o be acqui red i n t he same t i me i t previ ousl y t ook t o record a si ngl e 2- di mensional li ne. Speci all y desi gned paravanes st eer t he cabl es away fr om each ot her. Thei r desi gn reduces t he drag of t he st r eamer array, whi ch ordi naril y woul d be suffi ci ent t o st op even quit e a powerful vessel. Modern st reamers have mul t i ple gl obal posi t i oni ng syst em ( GPS) sensor s t hat const ant l y record t he posi t i on of t he st r eamer s rel at i ve t o t he vessel and t he ear t h.
New t echni ques of dat a compr essi on are bei ng t ri ed t o all ow t he t ransmi ssi on of t he raw sei smi c records f rom t he acqui si t i on vessel t o t he shor e for i mmedi at e processi ng, i n an effort t o get t he dat a t o t he i nt erpr et er s fast er. I mproved resol ut i on and reduced acqui sit i on/ processi ng t i mes have opened up t he possi bili t y of shoot i ng sei smi c at di ffer ent t i me int erval s over t he same ar ea of a pr oduci ng fi el d, i n order t o det ect changes. These changes wi t h t i me will cl ari fy how a fi el d i s behavi ng by r eveali ng exact l y wher e t he fl ui ds are or are not movi ng, or by reveal i ng changes i n pressure i n di fferent part s of t he fi el d, t hereby i ndi cat ing how product ion mi ght be i mproved. Thi s i s t he so- call ed 4D or t i me- l apse sei smic, wher e t i me i s essent i all y t he "fourt h di mensi on". Resul t s i n recent year s have been qui t e ast oni shi ng.
I f sei smi c i s t o be acqui red at regul ar i nt erval s over t he same fi el d, t hen i t can be economi c t o permanent l y inst all an array of hydr ophones on cabl es buri ed j ust beneat h t he seafl oor . BP has done t hi s i n t he Foi naven fi el d ( F49) , for exampl e, wi t h t he ai m of shoot i ng over t he ar ray wi t h a sei smi c vessel once a year . Anot her r ecent devel opment i s t hat vi suali sat ion has been t aken t o a new l evel wi t h t he advent of Vi rt ual Reali t y rooms ( F63 & 64) , all owing 3D subsurface i mages t o be di spl ayed on l arge scr eens and t o be vi ewed f rom al most any angl e. Di fferent devel opment opt i ons, such as t he i mpact of vari ous drilli ng t arget s, can be si mul at ed. Much of t he benefi t of t hi s appr oach st ems f rom t he f act t hat communi cat i on and under st andi ng are great l y enhanced when mult i - di sci pline t eams meet whil st "i mmersed" i n such an envi ronment .
Drilling
Ther e are t wo basi c t ypes of drilli ng ri gs - fi xed pl at form ri gs and mobil e ri gs. Fi xed pl at form ri gs are i nst all ed on l arge off shore pl at forms and remai n i n pl ace for many years. Most of t he l arge fi elds i n t he Nort h Sea such as Fort ies and Br ent wer e devel oped usi ng fi xed pl at for m ri gs. Mobil e ri gs compri se t wo t ypes: j ack- up ri gs ( F66) used i n shall ow wat er l ess t han 100 met r es deep and semi - submer si bl e ri gs ( F65) used in deeper wat ers down t o 1000 met r es or mor e. I n very deep wat er s, drilli ng shi ps are used. Jack- up ri gs have l at t i ce l egs whi ch are l owered t o t he seabed befor e t he fl oat i ng sect i on carryi ng t he derri ck i s rai sed above t he sea surface. Semi - submer si bl e ri gs fl oat at al l t i mes, but when i n posi t i on for dri lling are anchor ed and ball ast ed t o fl oat l ower i n t he wat er wi t h t hei r pont oons bel ow wave- l evel . Some have dynami c- posi t i oning propell ers and can dri ll in ver y deep wat er. The dri lling derri ck t ower s above t he dri ll fl oor ( F71) and i s where most of t he act i vit y i s concent rat ed. The der ri ck support s t he wei ght of t he drill st ri ng ( F72) whi ch i s screwed t oget her f r om 9- met r e l engt hs of drill pi pe. Hoi st i ng equi pment in t he derri ck can rai se or l ower t he dri ll st ring. At t he bot t om of t he dri ll st ri ng i s a dri ll bi t ( F67 & F70) , whi ch can var y i n si ze and t ype. I t i s at t ached t o t he drill coll ars, heavy pi pe- sect i ons t hat put wei ght on t he bi t . On semi - submersi bl e rigs, a compensat or keeps t he drill st ri ng st at i onary whil e t he ri g and derri ck move as a resul t of wave mot i on. The dri ll bi t i s rot at ed ei t her by t urni ng t he whol e dri ll st ri ng ( "rot ary drilli ng") or by usi ng a downhol e t urbi ne whi ch rot at es as drilli ng fl ui d i s pumped t hrough i t . I n r ot ary dri lling, t he rot ary mot i on i s i mpart ed t o t he dri ll st ri ng by t he "t op dri ve". Thi s i s an el ect ro- hydrauli c mot or suspended i n t he t op of t he derri ck. I t i s at t ached t o t he t op of t he drill st ri ng and i mpart s t orque t o i t , causi ng i t t o rot at e. To add a new sect i on of dri ll pi pe t he drill st ri ng i s cl amped i n t he drill fl oor wi t h wedges ( slips) and t he t op dri ve di sconnect ed. The new j oi nt i s scr ewed i nt o t he dri ll st ri ng suspended i n t he drill fl oor, t he t op dri ve connect ed t o t he t op of t he new j oi nt , and drilling rest ar t ed. The r ai sing and l oweri ng of t he t op dri ve and t he mai nt enance of corr ect t ensi on on t he dri ll st ri ng i s cont rol l ed by t he drill er operat i ng t he drawworks l ever i n a cont rol cabin ( F69) ( call ed t he "doghouse") on t he dri ll fl oor . Dri lling fl ui d ( al so call ed "mud") , whi ch i s mainl y wat er- based, i s pumped cont i nuousl y down t he drill st ri ng whil e drilli ng. I t l ubri cat es t he drilli ng t ool s, washes up rock cut t i ngs and most i mport ant l y, bal ances t he pressure of fl ui ds in t he rock for mat i ons bel ow t o prevent bl owout s. I n offshor e dri lling, t he fi rst st ep i s t o put down a wi de- di amet er conduct or pi pe i nt o t he seabed t o gui de t he drilli ng and cont ai n t he drilling fl uid. I t i s drill ed int o t he seabed f rom semi - submersi bl e ri gs, but on pr oduct i on pl at for ms a pi l e- dri ver may be used. As dri lling cont i nues, compl et ed sect i ons of t he wel l are cased wi t h st eel pi pe cement ed i nt o pl ace. A bl owout prevent er i s at t ached t o t he t op of t he casi ng. Thi s i s a st ack of hydrauli c rams whi ch can cl ose off t he wel l i nst ant l y i f back pressure ( a ki ck) devel ops f rom invadi ng oil , gas or wat er . A t ypi cal probl em faced whil e drilling i s t he drill st ri ng st i cki ng in di ffi cult rock format i ons such as t he t hi ck Tert i ary cl ays i n t he Nort h Sea. A hydrauli c devi ce known as a j ar, mount ed bet ween t he drill col l ars, can gi ve t he dri ll st ri ng a seri es of j ol t s. I f t hat does not work, ot her t echni ques may be used, i ncl uding spot t i ng wi t h oil and wat er. Speci al fi shi ng t ool s can al so ret ri eve st uck pi pe and broken equi pment ( j unk) . Dri lling gri nds up t he rock i nt o t ea- l eaf- si zed cut t ings whi ch are br ought t o t he surface by t he drilli ng mud. The drilling mud i s passed over a shal e shaker whi ch si eves out t he cut t i ngs ( see F115, page 64) . I n expl orat i on drilli ng, t he cut t ings are t aken f or exami nat i on by a geol ogist known as a mudl ogger who i s const ant l y on t he l ookout for oi l and gas. Oil ent rapped i n t he mud i s det ect ed by i t s fl uorescence i n UV li ght . Gas i s ext ract ed f rom t he mud i n a gas t rap and sent under vacuum t o a gas det ect or and anal yser. An i ncrease i n t he amount t ri ggers an al arm t o al ert t he mudl ogger and t he drilling superi nt endent . I f l aborat ory t est s are needed on pot ent i al reservoi r rock, a soli d cor e of r ock can be dri ll ed by a speci al holl ow drilli ng bit . Each short l engt h of core r et ri eved cal ls for t he ent i re drill st ri ng t o be pull ed out of t he wel l and t hen rei nsert ed, so cori ng i s an expensi ve operat i on not undert aken l i ght l y.
Get t ing t he Most out of a Well
Vi t al i nformat i on on t he t ype of r ock dri ll ed and t he fl uids i t cont ains oft en needs t o be obt ai ned ei t her whi l e act uall y drilli ng, or aft er dri lling bef or e running casi ng ( F74) . Thi s i s obt ai ned by running el ect roni c measuri ng devi ces i nt o t he well - ei t her whil e drilli ng ( as part of t he drill st ri ng) or aft er drilli ng on "wi reli ne" ( F73) . The vari ous t ypes of measurement i ncl ude: ( 1) el ect ri cal resi st i vi t y of flui ds wi t hin t he rock; ( 2) t he speed of sound t hrough t he rock; ( 3) react i on of t he r ock t o gamma ray bombardment ; ( 4) pr oduct i on of gamma rays fr om fl ui ds wi t hin t he rock due t o neut r on bombardment ; and ( 5) nat ural gamma radi at i on of t he rocks. The dat a obt ai ned gi ve indi cat i ons of r ock t ype and por osi t y and t he pr esence of oil or gas. Ot her devi ces measure hol e di amet er, di p of st rat a and t he di rect i on of t he hol e. Si dewall corers whi ch punch or drill out small cor es of rock, geophones f or wel l vel ocit y surveys and sei smi c profili ng are al so l ower ed i nt o uncased well s. I n devi at ed wel l s approachi ng t he hori zont al , flexi bl e hi gh- pressure st eel coil ed t ubi ng may be used t o car ry wi reli ne l oggi ng t ool s and f or per formi ng wel l bore mai nt enance operat i ons.
I f oi l or gas has been det ect ed i n a wel l , a t ool i s l ower ed on a wi reli ne t o measure fl ui d pressur es and col l ect small sampl es. I f t he fl ow rat e of t he wel l needs t o be measur ed, a "wel l t est " i s car ri ed out . Thi s i nvol ves running product i on t ubi ng wi t h fl ow cont r ol val ves and i sol at i on packer s i nt o t he wel l , t hen fl owi ng t he hydr ocarbons t o surf ace t hr ough t he hi gh pressur e pi pework cont aini ng pressur e recorders and fl owmet ers. DEVELOPMENT Developing a Discovery When pr omi si ng amount s of oi l and gas are f ound i n an expl orat ory wel l , a programme of det ail ed fi eld apprai sal may begi n. The si ze of t he fi el d must be est abli shed, and t he most effi ci ent product i on met hod wor ked out i n order t o assess whet her i t will repay, wi t h profi t , t he huge cost s of off shore devel opment and day- t o- day operat i on. Apprai sal may t ake several years t o compl et e and i s i t sel f very cost l y. Apprai sal draws t oget her i nformat i on fr om al l avai l abl e t echni ques. Det ai l ed sei smi c surveys buil d up an accurat e 3- di mensi onal i mage of t he di scover y, and apprai sal well s are dri ll ed t o confi rm t he si ze and st ruct ur e of t he fi el d ( F75) . Wi reli ne l ogging in each new well yi el ds dat a on porosi t y and fl ui d sat urat i on and t he t hi ckness of t he hydrocarbon- beari ng rocks, whi l e product i on t est i ng yi el ds hydrocarbon sampl es and i nformat i on on reservoi r pr oduct i vi t y, t emperat ur es and pressur es. Oi l , gas and reservoi r rock sampl es are anal ysed in t he laborat ory. Most fi el ds have bot h good and bad feat ures whi ch must be full y consi dered when deci ding whet her t o devel op.
Product i on may pr ove di ffi cul t and expensi ve i f t he reservoi r rock i s seri ousl y di srupt ed by fault i ng or cont ai ns ext ensi ve ar eas of poor permeabili t y. Por osi t y and permeabi lit y may vary dramat i cally wher e t he r eser voi r rock consi st s of a vari et y of sediment s ( F78 - 80) , and may be much r educed i n areas wher e mi neral growt h has bl ocked t he avai l abl e pore spaces. Geol ogist s compar e core sampl es from t he deepl y buri ed reser voi r rock wi t h present - day sedi ment s t o i dent i fy t he envi ronment i n whi ch it accumul at ed. Thi s envi ronment i s used t o devel op a geol ogi cal model t o hel p pr edi ct li kel y variat i ons i n t he reservoi r rock t ypes and propert i es. I f, f or exampl e, t he best - qualit y reservoi r rock i s a dune sand or a beach sand, i t s likel y ext ent and t hi ckness can be est i mat ed from t he si ze and shape of a comparabl e modern dune compl ex or beach. The i dent i fi cat i on of mi cr ofossi l s t hat inhabi t ed part i cul ar envi ronment s, such as shall ow seas or bracki sh l agoons, hel ps confi rm t he model , as well as indi cat i ng t he age of t he r eservoi r rock ( F76 & 77) . Geol ogi st s and reservoi r engi neers use t he geol ogical model t o sel ect t he best si t es f or pr oduct i on wel l s. St udi es i n t he Brent Fi eld showed t hat t he reser voi r rocks most cl osel y r esembl e t he sedi ment s deposi t ed i n a l arge del t a. Thi s geol ogi cal model expl ained t he i nt erlayeri ng of muddy, poorl y permeabl e rocks wi t h bet t er quali t y reservoi r sandst ones. F78 shows t he vari ed del t a envi ronment s wher e t hese r ocks may have accumul at ed, and F79 indi cat es t he envi ronment s t hat pr oduced t he bet t er quali t y reservoi r r ocks. Such anal ysi s suggest ed t he possi bili t y of findi ng mor e oi l fi elds wi t hi n t hi s anci ent del t a beneat h t he nort hern Nort h Sea. Furt her expl orat i on proved t hi s t o be so; t hese del t ai c rocks ar e t he most pr ol i fi c oil reservoi rs i n t he Nort h Sea.
How Much Oil and Gas?
When deci di ng whet her t o devel op a fi el d, a company must est i mat e how much oi l and gas wi ll be recovered and how easil y t hey will be pr oduced. Al t hough t he vol ume of oi l and gas i n pl ace can be est i mat ed fr om t he vol ume of t he r eser voi r, i t s por osi t y, and t he amount of oi l or gas i n t he por e spaces, onl y a proport i on of t hi s amount will be recovered. Thi s proport i on i s t he recover y fact or, and i s det ermi ned by vari ous fact ors such as reservoi r di mensi ons, pressur e, t he nat ure of t he hydr ocarbon, and t he devel opment pl an. Pressure i s t he dri vi ng for ce i n oil and gas product i on. Reser voi r dri ve i s power ed by t he di ffer ence i n pressur es wi t hi n t he reservoi r and t he well ( F82) , whi ch can be t hought of as a col umn of l ow sur face pressur e l et i nt o t he highl y pressured r eservoi r. I f permeabi li t y i s good and t he reservoi r flui ds fl ow easi l y, oil , gas and wat er wi ll be dri ven by nat ural depl et i on int o t he wel l and up t o t he surface. Expansi on of t he gas cap and wat er dri ves oil t owards t he wel l bore. Gas and wat er occupy t he space vacat ed by t he oil . I n reservoi rs wi t h insuffi cient nat ural dri ve ener gy, wat er or gas i s i nj ect ed t o mai nt ain t he reservoi r pressur e. The proport i on of oi l t hat can be recovered f rom a reservoi r i s dependent on t he ease wi t h whi ch oil in t he por e spaces can be r epl aced by ot her fl ui ds li ke wat er or gas. Test s on r eservoi r r ock i n t he l aborat ory i ndi cat e t he f ract i on of t he ori gi nal oil i n pl ace t hat can be r ecovered. Vi scous oi l i s di ffi cul t t o di spl ace by l ess vi scous fl uids such as wat er or gas as t he di spl aci ng fl uids t end t o channel t hei r way t owards t he wel l s, l eaving a l ot of oi l in t he reservoi r. The quot ed recovery fact or for most Nort h Sea fi el ds i s about 35 percent , but may be as l ow as 9 percent wher e t he oil i s very vi scous, or per haps as hi gh as 70 per cent where r eser voi r pr opert i es are except i onall y good and t he oi l of l ow vi scosi t y. The recovery fact or i n gasfi el ds i s much hi gher, fi gures of over 85 per cent bei ng quot ed for most . Each oi l and gas reser voi r i s a uni que syst em of r ocks and fl ui ds t hat must be underst ood bef or e product i on i s pl anned. Pet r ol eum engi neers use all t he avail abl e dat a t o devel op a mat hemat i cal model of t he r eser voi r. Comput er si mul at i ons of di ffer ent pr oduct i on t echniques are t ri ed on t hi s reservoi r engi neeri ng model t o predi ct reservoi r behavi our during product i on, and sel ect t he most eff ect i ve met hod of recovery. For exampl e, i f t oo few product i on wel l s are drilled wat er may cusp or channel t owards t he wel l s, l eaving l arge ar eas of t he reservoi r upswept . Fact or s, such as const r uct i on requi rement s, cost infl at i on and fut ure oil pri ces must al so be consi dered when deci ding whet her t o devel op an oil or gas fi el d. When a company i s sat i sfi ed wi t h t he pl ans for devel opment and product i on, t hey must be approved by t he Government , whi ch moni t ors al l aspect s of off shor e devel opment .
PRODUCTI ON The Offshore Challenge
When devel opment of t he Nort h Sea fi el ds began i n t he mi d- 60s, t he i ndust ry had never befor e faced such a host il e envi ronment . Whilst si mpl e pl at form desi gns deri ved fr om t hose used i n t he Gul f of Mexico suffi ced f or t he shall ow sout hern Nort h Sea, t he severe st orms and great wat er dept hs of t he nor t hern Nort h Sea call ed for maj or engi neeri ng and t echnol ogi cal i nnovat i on ( F84) . Pr oduct i on facilit i es had t o be desi gned t o wi t hst and wi nd gust s of 180 km/ hour and waves 30 met res hi gh. Ot her pr obl ems i ncl uded t he ever- pr esent sal t - wat er cor rosi on and fouli ng by mari ne or gani sms. Deal i ng wi t h t he many under wat er const ruct i on and maint enance t asks fal l s t o di vers and r emot el y operat ed vehi cl es. Gi ant fl oat ing cranes ( F83) desi gned t o li ft ever great er l oads were commi ssi oned and many ot her speci ali sed craft had t o be devel oped t o est abli sh and servi ce t he off shore i ndust ry. Huge heli copt er fl eet s wer e needed t o f er ry worker s t o and from t he pl at for ms and ri gs. I n r ecent years, as t he Nort h Sea i ndust ry has reached mat uri t y, most new devel opment s do not ent ail massi ve new product i on pl at for ms. I nst ead, t he t endency has been t o use exi st ing i nfrast ruct ur e f or new devel opment s. Thi s has t wo benefi t s - i t ext ends t he economi c l i fe of t hat infrast ruct ur e, and means t hat smal l accumul at i ons can be devel oped economi cal l y. Most Nort h Sea fi nds now ar e r el at i vel y small compared wi t h t he earli er gi ant s such as Fort ies and Brent . Ther e has been an ongoi ng dri ve t o make t he i ndust ry increasi ngl y cost eff ect i ve, wi t hout compromi si ng safet y or envi ronment al fact ors, so t hat t he Nor t h Sea i ndust ry can cont inue t o wi n invest ment for new proj ect s, i n compet i t i on wi t h t he rest of t he worl d. Product ion Plat forms
Most oi l and gas product i on pl at forms i n offshor e Bri t ai n rest on st eel support s known as j acket s, a t erm deri ved f r om t he Gul f of Mexi co. A small number of pl at for ms are fabri cat ed fr om concret e. The st eel j acket , fabri cat ed f rom wel ded pi pe, i s pi nned t o t he sea fl oor wi t h st eel pil es. Above i t are pr efabri cat ed uni t s or modul es provi di ng accommodat i on and housi ng vari ous f acili t i es i ncl uding gas t urbi ne generat i ng set s. Toweri ng above t he modul es are t he drilli ng ri g derri ck ( t wo on some pl at forms) , t he fl are st ack i n some desi gns ( also fr equent l y cant il ever ed out wards) and servi ce cranes. Hori zont al surfaces ar e t aken up by st or e areas, dri lling pi pe deck and t he vi t al heli copt er pad. Concr et e gravi t y pl at forms ar e so- call ed because t hei r great wei ght holds t hem fi rml y on t he seabed. They wer e fi rst devel oped t o provi de st orage capaci t y i n oil fi el ds wher e t anker s wer e used t o t ransport oi l , and t o eli mi nat e t he need for piling in hard seabeds. The Brent D pl at for m ( F87) , whi ch wei ghs mor e t han 200 000 t onnes, was desi gned t o st or e over a mi lli on barrel s of oi l . But st eel pl at forms, i n whi ch t here have been desi gn advances, are now favoured over concret e ones.
Several pl at forms may have t o be i nst all ed t o expl oi t t he l arger fi el ds, but wher e t he capaci t y of an exi st i ng pl at form permi t s, subsea coll ect i ng syst ems l i nked t o i t by pi peli nes have been devel oped usi ng t he most modern t echnol ogy. They wi ll be i ncreasi ngl y used as smal l er fi el ds ar e devel oped. For very deep wat er s, one sol ut ion was t he Hut t on Tensi on Leg Pl at form: t he buoyant pl at form, resembling a huge drilli ng ri g, i s t et her ed t o t he sea- bed by j oi nt ed l egs kept i n t ensi on by comput er- cont r oll ed ball ast adj ust ment s. Al t ernat i vel y, a subsea col l ect i on syst em may be l inked vi a a pr oduct i on ri ser t o a Fl oat i ng, Pr oduct i on, St orage and Offl oadi ng ( FSPO) vessel ( F88) ; eit her a purpose buil t ship or a convert ed t anker or semi - submer si bl e ri g. The oi l i s offl oaded by a shut t l e t anker .
Const ruct ion and I nst allat ion
The scal e of off shor e oi l and gas const ruct i on proj ect s i s vast , especi ally for t he oi l fi el ds of t he nort hern Nort h Sea. The l arge fi el ds di scovered i n t he earl y 1970s t ook an average of fi ve year s f rom t he begi nning of devel opment t o t he dat e of pr oduct i on st art - up, and each cost over a billi on pounds i n 1987 pri ces. The UK Cont i nent al Shel f has recei ved 190 billi on ( at 2000 pri ces) of i nvest ment si nce expl orat i on began. A furt her 100 bi lli on has been spent on oper at i ng cost s whi ch, at 4 billi on per year, now makes up hal f of t he t ot al annual expendi t ure - a l evel whi ch i s expect ed t o cont i nue for several years. I n t he t en years up t o 2000, t he i ndust ry account ed for 17 per cent of al l UK capi t al i nvest ment . Over t he l ast 20 years t he bul k of t he i nvest ment expendi t ure has been made i n Bri t ai n. As soon as fi el d apprai sal has shown t hat devel opment woul d be a commerci al success, order s f or t he necessar y hardwar e and associ at ed pi peli nes go out . I ni t i all y t hi s rout i nely i nvol ved t he fabri cat i on of pl at forms - some of whi ch have been buil t i n Scot l and. Fabri cat i on of a pl at form j acket can t ake up t o t wo year s t o compl et e ( F90) . The fi ni shed j acket must be t owed out t o t he fi el d in cal m weat her , usual l y duri ng t he ' fi ne weat her wi ndow' of t he summer mont hs. I t i s l aunched off i t s barge and up- ended i nt o posi t i on by t he cont r oll ed fl oodi ng of ball ast t anks i n i t s l egs. Aft er pi l es are dri ven t o secure t he j acket t o t he seabed, barges bri ng t he deck support and product i on modul es t o be li ft ed i nt o posi t i on on t he j acket ( F89) . Speci all y desi gned crane barges can li ft over 10 000 t onnes. At t hi s st age of t he pr oj ect , rough weat her can cause seri ous del ays. Concret e pl at forms have been buil t in deep, shel t ered fj ords or sea l ochs. As new concret e i s pour ed, t he st ruct ur e graduall y si nks. The deck and modul es are pl aced on t he l egs cl ose t o shor e, t hen t he pl at form i s t owed out t o t he fi el d. Wit h ball ast wat er pumped i nt o t he st orage t anks, t he pl at for m set t l es fi rml y on t he seabed. I nsi de t he pl at form, t he hook- up and t est i ng of equi pment ready f or dri lli ng and product ion may t ake anot her season, and requi re up t o a t housand i nst all at i on worker s, call ed ' bear s' , at any one t i me. Fi nall y, aft er compl et i on of t he fi rst of t he well s, t he pl at form comes on- st ream, begi nni ng a produci ng li fe of at l east t went y years. Mor e r ecent l y, however , t here has been l ess emphasi s on new pr oduct i on pl at forms when new fi el ds are bei ng devel oped. Thi s i s because most of t he new fi el ds are r el at i vel y small and do not meri t a st and- al one pl at form. I n t hese cases t he pr eparat or y desi gn and fabri cat i on focuses on seabed product i on unit s, i ncl uding sophi st i cat ed r emot el y cont rol l ed pumps, wit h links t o exi st i ng pl at forms or pi peli nes. Somet i mes such devel opment s can now be compl et ed i n mont hs rat her t han year s. Funct ions of a Product ion Plat form Oil pl at forms ar e an indust ri al t own at sea, carr yi ng t he personnel and equi pment needed for cont i nuous hydrocarbon product i on. The most import ant funct i ons are drilli ng, prepari ng wat er or gas for i nj ect i on int o t he reservoi r, processi ng t he oil and gas befor e sendi ng i t ashore, and cl eaning t he produced wat er for di sposal i nt o t he sea. Power i s generat ed on t he pl at form t o dri ve product i on equi pment and support li fe. All product i on syst ems ar e const ant l y moni t or ed f or l eaks, si nce oi l and gas are hazardous and ext r emel y fl ammabl e.
The t op of each pr oduct i on well sprout s a br anchi ng seri es of pi pes, gauges and val ves call ed t he Chri st mas t ree ( see F97, page 55) . At t hi s poi nt , crude oi l i s a hot , frot hy, cor rosi ve, hi gh- pressur e fl ui d cont ai ni ng gas, wat er and sand. Aft er separat i on, t he crude oi l is met er ed and pumped i nt o t he pi peli ne, or st ored unt il sent ashore by t anker. The gas separat ed fr om t he oil may be used for fuel , or compressed and pi ped t o shore or re- i nj ect ed i nt o t he reservoi r. Any gas t hat cannot be used or pi ped ashor e must be burnt in t he pl at forms fl are. Ver y li t t l e gas i s now flared. Pr ocessi ng syst ems for t he gasfi el ds of t he sout her n Nort h Sea ar e rel at i vel y si mpl e. Any li qui ds dissol ved i n t he gas ar e r emoved, t hen t he gas i s compressed, cool ed, dehydrat ed and met er ed befor e bei ng pi ped t o shore. Product ion Wells
To devel op offshor e fi el ds as economi call y as possi bl e, numerous di rect i onal wel l s radi at e out from a si ngl e pl at form t o drai n a l arge area of r eservoi r ( F94) . For di rect i onal drilling speci al wei ght ed dri ll collars ar e used wi t h a bent sub t o defl ect t he dri ll bi t at a cert ai n angl e in t he requi red di rect i on ( F93) . Well s whi ch devi at e at more t han 65 degr ees f r om t he ver t i cal and reach out hor i zont all y mor e t han t wi ce t hei r vert i cal dept h are known as ext ended r each wel l s. I n order for t he drill er t o guide t he devi at ed wel l t o a speci fi c t arget zone i n t he reservoi r a moni t ori ng- whil e- drilling ( MWD) direct i onal sub i s run above t he bi t t o r el ay i nformat i on back t o t he surface on t he bi t l ocat i on and i ncli nat ion. Thi s i nformat i on can be t ransmi t t ed t o t he surface usi ng a mud- pul se t el emet r y syst em or r ecorded i n t he di rect i onal sub and recovered when t he bi t is changed. As t he angl e of devi at i on from t he vert i cal increases, t he f ri ct i on of t he r ot at i ng drill st ri ng becomes excessi ve. Al so, as dri lling becomes sl ower t he ri sk of st i cking t he drilli ng assembl y agai nst swelling shal es rapi dl y increases. Envi ronment al rest ri ct i ons li mi t t he use of f ri ct i on- reduci ng oil - based muds i n many ar eas, so t hat oi l - cont ami nat ed cut t ings fr om wel l s need t o be shi pped back f or onshore di sposal . The al t ernat e i s wat er- based whi ch needs addi t i ves t o r educe i t s fri ct i onal eff ect s, and t o i nhi bit i t s chemi cal react i vi t y wi t h t he cl ays dri ll ed. Devi at ed well s whi ch exceed 80 degrees fr om t he vert i cal are known as hori zont al well s ( F92) and t he hori zont al sect i on of t he wel l i s mai nt ained i n t he r eser voi rs t o gi ve t he hi ghest product i on rat e possi bl e. Hori zont al wel l s are used when t he r eser voi r permeabi lit y i s l ow, or t he reser voi r i nt erval i s very t hi n or t he oi l and gas i s being produced fr om vert ical fract ur es i n t he rock. The fl ow f rom a hori zont al well may be over 5 t imes t he fl ow fr om a normal vert i cal well . The hi gher fl ow rat es mor e t han off set t he hi gher cost of dri lling a hori zont al well .
Mor e t han one hori zont al sect i on can be drill ed i n one wel l as a mult il at eral wel l ( F96) . Thi s t echni que i s used t o r educe drilli ng cost s and t o maxi mi se t he number of wel l s t hat can be drill ed from small pl at forms. Get t ing Every Last Drop Out Crude oi l can cont ai n aci di c fl ui ds i ncl uding hydrogen sul phi de and carbon di oxi de whi ch cor rodes casi ng. I f necessary hi gh grade st eel product i on t ubi ng i s insert ed i nt o t he wel l t o col l ect oil and gas and prot ect t he casi ng. Access t o t he r eservoir i s achi eved ei t her by perf orat i ng hol es t hrough t he casi ng i nst all ed across t he r eser voi r usi ng small expl osi ve charges, or by runni ng casi ng wi t h pre- dri ll ed hol es or sl ot s. Many sandst one r eservoi rs are l i abl e t o coll apse and produce sand al ong wi t h pet r ol eum - i n t hese wel l s "sand screens" , whi ch fil t er out t he sand part i cl es downhol e, are run. Fl ow from t he well i s cont rol l ed by val ves on t he "Chri st mas t ree" ( F97) at t he well head. For smal l er fi el ds, rat her t han bei ng drill ed from a l arge cent ral pl at form, t he wel l s are drill ed fr om subsea cl ust ers. For t hese t ypes of well s, t he wel lhead and Chri st mas t ree i s i nst all ed di rect l y on t he seabed, wi t h product i on from sever al well s co- mi ngl ed at a subsea mani fol d. Subsea mani fol ds are oft en l inked by pi peli nes and umbili cal cont rol lines back t o a nearby pl at form, wher e engi neer s can cont rol and moni t or t he oil and gas product i on. Al t ernat i vely, t he pr oduct i on can be pi ped t o a Fl oat i ng, Product i on, St orage and Offl oading vessel ( FPSO) for pr ocessi ng and export ( F88) . Fl oat i ng product i on facili t i es are generall y l ess expensi ve t o i nst all t han fi xed pl at forms but t hei r operat i ng cost s are hi gher. The di sadvant age of fl oat i ng product i on syst ems i s t he weat her may prevent t he docki ng of t he offl oadi ng shut t l e t ankers f or several days duri ng t he wi nt er peri od. I n oi l reser voi rs, t o achi eve as hi gh a recovery fact or as possi ble reservoi r pressures must not be al l owed t o fall t oo l ow as oi l and associ at ed gas ar e r emoved. I t i s desi rabl e t o mai nt ain pressures above t he poi nt where di ssol ved gas i n t he oi l comes out of sol ut i on t o for m fr ee gas. Seawat er i s pumped i nt o t he wat er- soaked r ocks beneat h t he oil zone i n volumes equal t o t he sub- surface vol ume of t he li qui ds produced. Wat er i nj ect ion wel l s are usuall y l ocat ed around t he peri phery of an oil fi el d. Gas separat ed fr om oil on t he pl at form may al so be compressed and i nj ect ed i nt o t he reservoi r r ocks t o mai nt ain pressure. Wat er and gas i nj ect i on can i mprove recover y of oi l from l ess t han 15 per cent t o mor e t han 50 percent . Ver y deep fi el ds, such as Brae, wi t h hi gh pressur es and t emperat ur es may yi el d condensat e, a val uabl e li ght oil whi ch exi st s as di ssol ved in gas i n t he reser voi r. Dr y gas will be i nj ect ed i nt o t he reser voi r t o mai nt ain pressure, t hus avoi di ng condensat e drop out , and t o sweep t he gas condensat e t o t he wel l s. Downhol e pumps have been used of fshore when reservoi r pressur es are i nsuffi ci ent t o send t he oil t o t he surface, as i n t he Beat ri ce Fi el d. A more common t echnique i s gas li ft i n whi ch gas from t he same nearby fi el d i s mi xed wi t h oil i n t he t ubing t o l essen t he weight of t he li qui d col umn ( F98) . Fl ow from every oi l and gas wel l i s t est ed and moni t ored t hroughout t he li fe of t he wel l . Repl acement of worn equi pment such as t ubi ng and val ves hel ps prol ong t he li fe of t he wel l . I n l ess product i ve wel l s, wel l st i mulat i on may be t ri ed. Hi gh- pressure fl uids ar e pumped down t he wel l t o creat e deep fract ures i n t he reser voi r r ock t hrough whi ch oil and gas can fl ow. These fract ures are hel d open by sand grai ns whi ch are forced i nt o t he fract ur e wi t h t he fl ui d. Aci d st i mul at i on hel ps remove cl oggi ng mi neral scal e such as cal cium carbonat e whi ch may have accumul at ed duri ng years of pr oduct i on. I n ext ended r each and hori zont al well s, coil ed t ubing i s oft en used t o carr y product i on equi pment t o t he bot t om of t he wel l . Coil ed t ubing i s more fl exi bl e and much qui cker t o use t han t he convent i onal drill st ri ng. Working Offshore
At t he peak of Nort h Sea devel opment act i vit y i n 1990, over 36, 000 wor kers were empl oyed in UK offshor e fi el ds. I n 1994, wi t h many more produci ng fi el ds, about 27, 000 worker s wer e empl oyed. By 2000, wi t h a t ot al of 200 fi el ds in product i on, a t ot al of about 19, 000 peopl e wer e empl oyed off shore wi t h mor e fi el ds processes bei ng aut omat ed. For l ogi st i cal support , t he off shor e oper at i ng compani es have est abli shed onshore suppl y bases whi ch communi cat e wi t h t he pl at forms, t r ansf er per sonnel and ensure deli very of food and equi pment . I n recent years t here have been maj or effort s t o co- ordi nat e and shar e l ogi st ics requi rement s t o hel p reduce operat i ng cost s. A t ypi cal l arge oil fi el d pl at form compl ex houses a st aff of about 100 men and women offshor e, suppor t ed by ot her st aff onshore. The l ogi st i cs i nvol ved are phenomenal . One maj or operat or t ransport s mor e t han 5, 000 peopl e every mont h t o and f rom t hei r of fshore i nst all at i ons; t he same operat or t ransport s ar ound 300, 000 t onnes of cargo offshor e every year - everyt hi ng from st at i oner y, f resh food and veget abl es t o comput er s, gas t urbi nes, generat ors and speci ali st well equi pment . The same operat or segregat es and di sposes of 35, 000 t onnes of wast e annuall y. All rubbi sh i s brought back t o shor e for r esponsi bl e di sposal wi t h an increasi ng focus on r ecycl i ng wherever possi bl e. Li vi ng quart ers off shor e ar e compact but comf ort abl e. Food i s good and abundant , but no al cohol i s all owed. Off- shi ft , a worker can choose t o wor k out i n t he gym, wat ch vi deos, pl ay snooker, read or l earn t o use a personal comput er . Wi t h fourt een- day st i nt s of t wel ve- hour shi ft s on a remot e pl at for m, an off shor e wor ker r equi res t he abili t y t o co- operat e i n a group. Women as wel l as men wor k i n t hi s off shore envi ronment . The Off shore I nst all at i on Manager of a pl at for m i s li ke t he capt ai n of a shi p, maki ng sure t hat all operat i ons run smoot hly and safet y st andards are met . He co- ordi nat es t he wor k of di ffer ent groups such as dri lling, product i on and mai nt enance, and communi cat es progr ess or probl ems t o t he beach. Get t ing Oil and Gas Ashore Most of fshore oi l and all offshore gas are br ought t o shore by pi peli nes whi ch operat e i n all weat hers. Pi peline rout es are pl anned t o be as short as possi bl e. Sl opes t hat could put st ress on unsupport ed pi pe are avoi ded and seabed sedi ment s are mapped t o i dent i fy unst abl e areas and t o see i f it will be possi bl e t o bury t he pi pe. Pi peline const ruct i on begi ns onshore, as l engt hs of pi pe ar e wat erproof ed wi t h bi t umen and coat ed wi t h st eel - rei nforced concr et e. Thi s coat ing wei ghs down t he submari ne pi peli ne even when i t is fi ll ed wi t h gas. The prepared pi pe- l engt hs ar e wel ded t oget her off shor e on a l aybarge ( F101) . As t he barge wi nches forwar d on i t s anchor lines, t he pi peli ne drops gent ly t o t he seabed, gui ded by a st inger. The i nsi de of pi peli nes need t o be cl eaned regul arl y t o remove wax deposi t s and wat er: t o do t hi s a col l ect i ng device known as a pi g i s for ced t hr ough t he pi pe.
Wher e t ankers t ransport oi l from smal l or i sol at ed fi el ds, vari ous oil st orage syst ems may be used. These may range fr om cyl i ndri cal cells cont ai ned i n some of t he massi ve concr et e st ruct ures, t o seabed st orage uni t s such as t hat empl oyed at t he Ki t t i wake fi el d, or int egral st orage such as t hat cont ai ned i n t he vari ous Fl oat i ng, Pr oduct i on, St orage and Offl oadi ng vessel s. I n essence t hese FPSOs ar e fl oat ing st orage t anker s, as well as pr oduct i on and processi ng i nst all at i ons. FPSOs pr ovi de an i mport ant opt i on for devel opi ng fi el ds whi ch may be r emot e f rom exi st ing i nfrast ruct ure or wher e t he fi el d recoverabl e r eser ves ar e uncert ai n, for exampl e because of di ffi cul t geol ogi cal condit i ons. Exampl es of FPSOs are Foi naven and Schi ehalli on in t he At l ant i c Margi n, and t he Anasuri a ( F88, page 49) i n t he Cent ral Nort h Sea. I n onshor e t ermi nal s, carefull y l andscaped t o mi ni mi se t hei r envi ronment al i mpact , crude oil and gas undergo furt her pr ocessi ng. Any remai ni ng wat er and gas ar e r emoved from oil whi ch i s st ored at t he t ermi nal befor e t ransport t o refi neri es. Gas is dri ed and t hen gi ven i t s charact eri st i c smell befor e ent eri ng t he nat i onal gri d. Duri ng t ransport at i on, great care i s t aken t o avoi d or deal eff ect i vel y wi t h spill age. SUSTAI NABI LI TY, SAFETY AND THE ENVI RONMENT Sust ainabilit y One of t he key st rat egi c t hemes f or t he off shor e i ndust ry i n recent year s has been t he desi re t o for mul at e an appropri at e st rat egy regardi ng t he pri nci pl es of sust ai nabilit y. An ini t i al framewor k has been put i n pl ace. Thi s was an i mport ant mil est one f or t he i ndust ry. Sust ai nabilit y i s an i nt egral part of t he shared vi si on developed wi t h Government duri ng 1999 from t he wor k of t he Oi l and Gas I ndust ry Task For ce ( OGI TF) . Formul at i ng a sust ai nabl e devel opment st rat egy ( F104) for t he upst r eam oil and gas i ndust ry was a nat ural progressi on fr om t hat vi si on. I n so doi ng, t he i ndust ry t ook i t s fi rst st eps t o defi ne i t s i nt eract i ons wi t h, and responsi bilit i es t o, soci et y at l arge and t o art i cul at e i deas of how t o appl y sust ainabili t y pri nci pl es t o t he busi ness. Busi nesses t oday ar e much mor e t han mer e economi c ent i t i es. Successful businesses generat e j obs, cr eat e new t echnol ogi es, r et urn profi t s t o sharehol der s and cont ri but e t o t he economi c heal t h of t he nat i on and, or course, t he off shore i ndust ry aspi res t o t hat success. The off shor e i ndust ry i s part of and deepl y i nt ert wi ned wi t h t he wi der worl d - a concept whi ch i s becomi ng i ncreasi ngl y cl ear as busi ness becomes mor e gl obal and t he worl d seems t o grow ever smaller . The success of t he offshor e i ndust ry depends on wi nni ng and keepi ng t he t rust and good wi ll of many st akehol ders - empl oyees, suppli ers, sharehol ders, end cust omers, communi t i es and, ul t imat el y, t hose wi t h whom i t shares t hi s pl anet . Li ke any rel at i onshi p, t hat requi res good communi cat i on, mut ual underst andi ng, honest endeavour and recogni t i on of shared benefi t s. The oi l and gas i ndust ry has br ought many benefi t s t o our li ves. I t s commodi t i es underpi n modern soci et y, suppl yi ng ener gy t o power i ndust ry and heat homes, fuel for t ransport t o carry goods and peopl e al l over t he worl d and t he raw mat eri al s fr om whi ch deri ve many i t ems i n everyday use ( F105) . The of fshor e i ndust ry empl oys hundreds of t housands of peopl e and makes a maj or cont ri but ion t o t he UK economy. Yet , t he i ndust ry i s ext ract i ve in nat ure, focuses on a fi nit e resour ce and pr oduces a commodi t y t hat i s i ncreasi ngl y vi ewed as a sour ce of pol lut i on. The i ndust rys responsi bili t y and chall enge i s t o fi nd a way t o bal ance t hese consi derabl e economi c and soci al benefi t s wi t h good st ewardshi p of t he worl ds nat ural resources and envi ronment al care. That i s t he essence of t he i ndust rys cont ri but i on t o sust ai nabl e devel opment . Devel opment of t he i nit i al st rat egy i nvol ved subj ect i ng t he i ndust ry t o some cl ose scrut i ny and i dent i fi ed cert ai n chall enges - how, f or exampl e, t o ali gn sust ainabilit y pri ncipl es wi t h an ext ract i ve i ndust ry; how t o r espond t o t he publi c percept i on t hat use of our product s i s envi ronment al l y damagi ng, and how t o make our hi ghl y t echni cal and fi nanci all y compl ex busi ness accessi bl e t o all our st akehol der s. The i ndust ry has t ri ed t o address t hese chal l enges and di scovered i n t he process t hat t here i s much whi ch i s al ready done wel l and will provi de a pl at form for t he perf ormance i mprovement s whi ch t he indust ry i s commi t t ed t o make. An ext ract i ve i ndust ry can i ndeed be managed accordi ng t o sust ai nabili t y pri nci pl es. The i ndust ry has al so t aken some fi rst st eps t owards exami ning t he full li fe cycl e i mpact of t he mat eri al s produced, bot h t o pl ace t hi s i n i t s proper cont ext of i ndust ri al act i vit y and nat ural processes, and t o i mprove perf ormance. I n del i veri ng t he st rat egy t he i ndust ry has made commi t ment s t o a range of act i ons whi ch requi re t arget s t o be set and performance measur es t o be devi sed t o gui de and vali dat e pl anni ng and deli very. UK Off shore Operat or s Associ at i ons ( UKOOA) di verse membershi p - 30 member compani es wi t h qui t e di fferent operat i ons, cult ures and, somet i mes, pri ori t i es - j oi ned i n what was a t rul y collaborat i ve process t o produce one of t he fi rst sect oral sust ai nabili t y st rat egy document s i n t he UK. A br oad consul t at i on process i nvol ved empl oyees, cont r act or s and suppli ers, Government , NGOs and t he wi der st akehol der communi t y t o gat her br oad rangi ng vi ews on t he concept of sust ai nabilit y, what i t means for t he oi l and gas i ndust ry and t he i ndust rys pr oposed act i ons. Sust ai nabl e devel opment i s not about qui ck fixes, but requi res st ri ki ng t he ri ght bal ance for t he l ong t erm. Si nce i t s begi nning i n t he 1960s, t he UKs oil and gas i ndust ry has adapt ed t o many changes, cont i nuall y remodelli ng i t sel f t o respond t o t he chall enges of pri ce vol at ilit y, dynami c gl obal condit i ons, mat uri t y and changing per cept i ons wi t hi n soci et y. I t i s a l ong t erm i ndust ry wi t h a l ong li fe ahead. The st rat egy f or uphol di ng sust ai nabilit y will devel op over t i me, all owi ng t he i ndust ry t o map a way f orward t hat i s vit al , cl ear, account abl e and whi ch st ri ves t o st ri ke t he ri ght balance. Exampl es of pr ogr ess are many and vari ed. I mproved t echnol ogy means well s can be dr ill ed more effi ci ent l y and are f ewer i n number; exi st ing i nfrast ruct ure i s used t o bri ng new r eser voi rs i nt o product i on; drill cut t ings ar e now r out i nel y brought ashore t o be r ecycl ed and re- used f or exampl e as cat li t t er or pat hway sur faci ng; and t he indust ry has gi ven st r ong support t o a workshop near Aberdeen wher e wood packi ng mat eri al from of fshor e i s gat hered and r ecycl ed, provi di ng empl oyment for a number of adul t s wi t h l earning di sabilit i es ( F107) . One l eadi ng operat or, wi t h 19 i nst all at i ons i n t he proper cont ext of i ndust ri al act i vi t y and nat ural processes, and t o i mprove per formance. I n del i veri ng t he st rat egy t he i ndust ry has made commi t ment s t o a r ange of act i ons whi ch require t arget s t o be set and perf ormance measur es t o be devi sed t o guide and val i dat e pl anni ng and deli very. UK Off shore Operat ors Associ at i ons ( UKOOA) di verse member shi p - 30 member compani es wi t h quit e di fferent operat i ons, cul t ures and, somet i mes, pri ori t i es - j oi ned i n what was a t rul y coll aborat i ve process t o produce one of t he fi rst sect oral sust ai nabilit y st rat egy document s i n t he UK. A br oad consul t at ion pr ocess i nvol ved empl oyees, cont ract ors and suppli ers, Government , NGOs and t he wi der st akehol der communi t y t o gat her br oad rangi ng vi ews on t he concept of sust ai nabilit y, what i t means for t he oi l and gas indust ry and t he i ndust rys proposed act i ons. Sust ai nabl e devel opment i s not about qui ck fixes, but requi res st ri ki ng t he ri ght bal ance for t he l ong t erm. Si nce i t s begi nning i n t he 1960s, t he UKs oil and gas i ndust ry has adapt ed t o many changes, cont i nuall y remodelli ng i t sel f t o respond t o t he chall enges of pri ce vol at ilit y, dynami c gl obal condit i ons, mat uri t y and changing per cept i ons wi t hi n soci et y. I t i s a l ong t erm i ndust ry wi t h a l ong li fe ahead. The st rat egy f or uphol di ng sust ai nabilit y will devel op over t i me, all owi ng t he i ndust ry t o map a way f orward t hat i s vit al , cl ear, account abl e and whi ch st ri ves t o st ri ke t he ri ght balance. Exampl es of pr ogr ess ar e many and vari ed. I mproved t echnol ogy means wel l s can be drill ed more effi ci ent l y and are fewer i n number; exi st i ng i nfrast ruct ure i s used t o bri ng new r eservoi rs i nt o pr oduct i on; drill cut t ings are now r out i nel y brought ashor e t o be r ecycl ed and re- used f or exampl e as cat l i t t er or pat hway sur faci ng; and t he i ndust ry has gi ven st rong support t o a wor kshop near Aberdeen where wood packi ng mat eri al from off shore i s gat her ed and recycl ed, provi di ng empl oyment for a number of adul t s wi t h l earning di sabilit i es ( F107) . One l eading operat or, wi t h 19 i nst all at i ons i n t he Nort hern and Cent ral Nort h Sea, now sort s and sends all of i t s domest i c wast e t o an i nci nerat or i n Lerwi ck, Shet l and. The i nci nerat or, buil t t o t he l at est European speci fi cat i on, i s operat ed by Shet l and I sl ands Council , and t he energy generat ed by wast e combust i on i s used t o heat t he l ocal hospit al , t he sport s cent r e and busi ness and domest i c premi ses. Nort hern and Cent ral Nort h Sea, now sort s and sends al l of i t s domest i c wast e t o an i ncinerat or i n Lerwi ck, Shet l and. The i nci nerat or, buil t t o t he l at est Eur opean speci ficat i on, i s operat ed by Shet l and I sl ands Council , and t he energy generat ed by wast e combust i on i s used t o heat t he l ocal hospi t al , t he sport s cent r e and busi ness and domest i c pr emi ses.
Safet y
I n t erms of soci al sust ai nabilit y, safet y performance wi t hi n t he i ndust ry i s one of t he most i mport ant el ement s. Not hi ng has a hi gher pri orit y t han safet y. Saf et y i s al ways t he pri nci pal concern i n ever y aspect of t he off shor e oi l and gas indust rys act i vi t i es. Foll owi ng t he Pi per Alpha di sast er i n 1988, t he i ndust ry qui ckl y i mpl ement ed saf et y i mprovement s, i ncl uding t he Saf et y Case approach, based on goal - set t i ng regul at i ons, seeki ng t o ensure such a t ragedy woul d not happen agai n. Worker s are encouraged t o r eport any pot ent i al safet y pr obl ems. The dri ve t o achi eve cont i nuous safet y i mprovement s was rei nforced in 1997 when t he i ndust ry l aunched i t s "St ep Change i n Safet y" programme. Thi s was fol l owed i n 2000 by a Government - sponsor ed i nit i at i ve "Revi t ali si ng Heal t h and Safet y. " Bot h t hese programmes have set ambi t i ous t arget s f or furt her enhanci ng indust ry safet y. Maj or advances have been achi eved, but t here i s st i ll much work t o be done. I n r ecent years i ncreasi ng at t ent i on has been paid t o t he behavi oural aspect s r el at i ng t o safet y perf ormance. Det ai l ed i nformat i on on safet y perf ormance and t arget s can be accessed on t he "St ep Change" websi t e at ht t p: / / st ep. st eel - sci . org/
Environment
Envi ronment al management , as part of t he commi t ment t o sust ai nabili t y, i s t oday a full y i nt egrat ed part of t he oi l business. From t he earl y expl orat i on act i vi t y, t hrough t he product i on phase unt il t he fi nal decommi ssi oni ng of t he pr oduct i on facili t i es, t he pot ent i al envi ronment al i mpact s of t hese operat i ons ar e assessed. At each st age of act i vit y, envi ronment al cont rol s ar e put i n pl ace t o meet or exceed t he l egal requi rement s and t o mi ni mi se t he i mpact on t he envi ronment . UKOOA member compani es have adopt ed gui deli nes on Envi ronment al Management Syst ems, Audi t i ng and Trai ning procedur es t o provi de a framework for r esponsi bl e conduct of busi ness. Envi ronment al management as a process exami nes t he envi ronment al fact ors and t he act i vi t i es or processes t hat i ndust ry uses. These assessment s ai m t o ident i fy t he envi ronment al sensi t i vi t i es and t o devel op or ut ili se t echni ques, procedures and t echnol ogi es t o mi nimi se t he i mpact s on t he envi ronment s. These measur es range f rom fi ri ng sei smi c survey ai rguns soft l y t o al ert nearby mammal s t o t he i mpending survey, t o devel opi ng and i mpl ement ing new t echnol ogy t o r educe oi l i nput from produced wat er and reduce t he use of oi l based muds. Oil does bi odegrade i n t he nat ural envi ronment , but may t ake some t ime. Because each phase of t he expl orat i on and product i on act i vit y will produce di ffer ent hazar ds and ri sks t o t he envi ronment , so t hi s process must be r epeat ed t hroughout t he fi el d li fecycl e, r egul arl y revi ewi ng t he si t uat i on and revi si ng or i mpl ement ing appropri at e envi ronment al prot ect i on st rat egi es. Thi s process i nvol ves f requent consult at i on wi t h Government , conservat i on agenci es and t he publi c t o ensur e envi ronment al concerns ar e i dent i fi ed and cont rol s est abli shed, part i cul arl y i n nearshor e or envi ronment al l y sensi t i ve areas. A key aspect of envi ronment al management is knowl edge of t he envi ronment l ocal t o t he i ndust ry act i vi t y. UKOOA member s have been act i ve i n fi nanci all y support i ng resear ch and st udi es t o i ncrease knowl edge of t he mari ne envi ronment ar ound Bri t ai n where oil and gas are found or bei ng explor ed f or . I n part i cul ar, UKOOA members assi st ed wi t h t he publi cat i on of t he Joi nt Nat ure Conser vat i on Commi t t ees ( JNCC) "Coast al Di rect or y" seri es, whi ch i dent i fi es envi ronment al i nformat i on on t he UK coast al envi ronment . The JNCC Seabi rds at Sea t eam has al so been l ocall y support ed by UKOOA member compani es and Government t o provi de comprehensi ve dat a on t he di st ri but i on of seabi rds whi ch may be i mpact ed by oi l spill s. I n r ecent year s t he i ndust ry has been payi ng increasi ng at t ent i on t o wat er s nort h- west of t he Uni t ed Ki ngdom, an area know as t he At l ant ic Margi n ( F114) . Thi s i ncludes wat er s t o t he west of Orkney and Shet l and, as wel l as t he area around t he Faeroe I sl ands. Thi s act i vi t y has prompt ed furt her co- operat i on among t he i ndust ry and st akehol ders t o ensur e t he best possi bl e envi ronment al management of t he ar ea. For exampl e, an At l ant i c Front i er Envi ronment al Net work ( AFEN) has been est abl i shed t o hel p t he i ndust ry under st and t he key sensi t i vi t i es and concerns - and devel op appropri at e prot ect i on measur es. UKOOA has publi shed "Envi ronment al Gui deli nes" f or expl orat i on operat i ons in nearshor e and envi ronment all y sensi t i ve areas. These descri be good i ndust ry pract i ce for car ryi ng out expl orat i on operat i ons i n a way in whi ch will mi ni mi se pot ent i al damage t o t he envi ronment . The of fshor e i ndust rys envi ronment al record i s good and i t i s det ermi ned t o keep i t t hat way, by cont i nui ng t o i nvest consi derabl e resources i n devel opi ng new t echnol ogy, new oper at i onal and management syst ems, wor ki ng pract i ces and increasi ng envi ronment al awar eness amongst t he wor kf or ce. Al l of t he Nort h Sea operat i ng compani es have envi ronment al depart ment s t hat revi ew and comment on all t he compani es act i vi t i es, from sei smi c surveys t o pr oduct i on procedures and ensur e t hat t he company i s fol l owi ng t he best envi ronment al pract i ce. These depart ment s may al so perf orm audi t s t o see t hat procedur es ar e i mproved. I n new ar eas t o be l i censed for oi l or gas expl orat i on, an envi ronment al report on each area i s aut omat i call y submi t t ed wi t h t he companys appli cat i on and proposed work programme. Such report s ar e avail abl e t o any i nt erest ed st akehol der. Work i s cont i nui ng on a l ong- t erm research proj ect whi ch began in 1998, st udyi ng t he hi st ori cal l egacy of accumul at ed dri ll cut t ings ( F115) beneat h off shor e i nst allat i ons in t he Nort h Sea. These cut t i ngs are r ock fragment s pr oduced duri ng drilling operat i ons, and have accumul at ed in pil es beneat h some pl at for ms, i n areas of t he Nort h Sea wher e cur r ent s and t i des are not st rong enough t o di sperse t hem. The cut t i ngs piles cont ai n t races of hydrocarbons, produced t hrough cont ami nat i on of t he fragment s by dri lli ng mud. I n recent year s maj or advances have been made i n t he t ypes of dri lling mud used t o hel p r educe pot ent ial cont ami nat i on. However, exi st i ng pil es of cont ami nat ed cut t i ngs remain i n pl ace. Opt i ons bei ng st udi ed include l eavi ng t he pil es undi st urbed, compl et e removal or some f or m of i n si t u t reat ment . Anot her maj or focus i nvol ves decommi ssi oni ng. Today t here are more t han 6500 offshor e oil and gas product i on inst all at i ons worl d wi de, l ocat ed on t he cont i nent al shel ves of some 53 count ri es. Mor e t han 4, 000 ar e si t uat ed i n t he US Gul f of Mexi co, some 950 i n Asi a, some 700 i n t he Mi ddl e East and some 600 i n t he Nort h Sea and Nort h East At l ant i c. Ther e ar e some 400 st ruct ures ext ract ing oil and gas from t he UKs Cont i nent al Shel f ( UKCS) . These i ncl ude subsea equi pment fi xed t o t he ocean fl oor as well as pl at forms rangi ng from t he smal l er st ruct ur es i n t he sout hern and cent ral Nort h Sea t o t he enormous i nst allat i ons in t he nort hern Nort h Sea built t o wi t hst and very harsh weat her condi t i ons i n deep wat ers. Many of t he st ruct ur es wer e bui l t i n t he 1970s and wer e hail ed as t echnol ogi cal feat s when t hey wer e i nst all ed. The i ndust ry i s now faced wi t h t he equall y chall enging t ask of decommi ssi oni ng t hem. A st ri ct l egal framework of nat i onal , regi onal and i nt ernat i onal regul at i ons govern how operat or s decommi ssi on di sused off shor e faci li t i es. Under cur rent r egul at ory r equi rement s for t he Nort h East At l ant i c ( whi ch i ncludes t he Nort h Sea) some 80% of st ruct ur es wi ll be compl et el y r emoved fr om t hei r curr ent mari ne si t es and brought t o shore for reuse or r ecycl ing ( F116) . The rest , whi ch compri se t he very l arge and heavy st eel or concret e i nst all at i ons, will be l ooked at on an i ndi vi dual basi s t o assess whet her i t i s t echni cally f easi bl e and safe t o remove t he st ruct ures, beari ng i n mi nd t hat t her e i s a general presumpt i on for t ot al removal of all st ruct ures. I f t hey ar e t oo di ffi cul t or danger ous t o be moved, an except i onal case for "der ogat i on" ( based on sound sci ent ifi c and t echnol ogi cal reasoni ng) can be made t o OSPAR cont ract i ng part i es. The evi dence wi ll t hen be revi ewed and a r ecommendat i on made t o t he count ry appl yi ng for der ogat i on. However, t he fi nal deci si on t o grant t he der ogat i on remai ns wi t h t he nat i onal government i n whose t er ri t ori al wat ers t he st ruct ur e i s si t uat ed.
Organising Offshore Development
I n 1964, Bri t ai n enact ed t he Cont i nent al Shel f Act t o ext end sover ei gnt y off shor e, dr ew up t he Pet r ol eum Pr oduct i on Regul at i ons t o pr ovi de a syst em f or li censi ng and cont r ol and i ssued t he f i rst round Li censes. For l i censi ng purpose, t he Uni t ed Ki ngdom cont i nent al shel f i s di ved int o quadrant s, t he areas of one degree l at i t ude by one degree l ongit ude. Each quadrant i s furt her di vi ded i nt o t hi rt y bl ocks of appr oxi mat el y 250 square km. Compani es ar e i nvi t ed t o appl y for t he ri ght t o expl or e bl ocks sel ect ed by t he Depart ment of Trade and I ndust r y i n li censing rounds hel d ever y t wo years. Li censes ar e awarded t o Bri t i sh regi st ered compani es j udged t o have good operat i onal records, wel l - prepared expl orat i on and envi ronment al pl ans, and fi nanci al soundness. The offshor e pet r ol eum i ndust ry has generat ed huge t ax r evenues and cr eat ed many j obs i n indust ri es whi ch suppl y servi ces and equi pment . Tot al capi t al i nvest ment in expl ori ng and devel opi ng t he Nort h Sea has reached some 190 billi on. Government t ax r evenues over t he same peri od are some 170 billi on. Of t he t ot al pri ce of a barr el of oil , 71% pays for pr oduct i on cost s ( expl orat i on, devel opment and operat i ng) , some 16% goes t o t ax, l eaving 13% f or t he pr oducer . The operat i ng compani es have formed t he UK Offshore Operat ors Associ at i on ( UKOOA) t o provi de a forum t o deal wit h common i nt erest s and probl ems, and t o r epr esent t he operat ors t o t he Government and ot her i nt erest ed groups. The Fut ure
Nort h Sea Gas was fi rst di scovered i n t he sout hern Nort h Sea i n 1965 and brought ashor e i n 1967. The gi ant Fort i es Fi el d was di scovered i n 1970 and t he fi rst oil ( from t he Argyl l Fi el d) came ashor e i n 1975. All t he l argest and most easil y devel oped oil fi el ds have been di scover ed and are now past t hei r product i on peak. Oi l product i on general l y has peaked and i s now decl i ning graduall y, t hough gas product i on i s st ill ri si ng. Bot h will l ast well i nt o t he cur rent cent ury. Furt her expl orat i on will cont inue, searchi ng i n part i cul ar for subt l e t raps. Hi gh oil pri ces encourage furt her i nvest ment in new t echnol ogy whi ch can be of assi st ance i n expl orat i on, apprai sal , devel opment and product i on. Even very mat ur e devel opment s can be gi ven a new l ease of li fe t hrough enhanced recovery t echni ques such as i nj ect i on st eam, surfact ant chemi cal s, mi sci bl e gases and pol ymers t o l ower t he vi scosi t y of t he oi l . However, t he oil pri ce i s not ori ousl y vol at il e, and l ong- t erm pl ans by compani es must t ake account of t hat fact by maki ng sure pl anned proj ect s are economi call y robust at a rel at i vel y l ow oil pri ce l evel . There wi ll be increasi ng devel opment of smal l sat el li t e fi el ds linked by subsea t i ebacks t o an exi st i ng cent ral pl at form. Est i mat ing fut ure product i on i s a hazardous t ask. Ever y l ong t erm f or ecast t o dat e has been wr ong ( and all i n a pessi mi st i c di rect i on) . Bri t ai ns off shore oi l and gas i ndust ry has devel oped t o t he poi nt wher e an i ncreasi ng number of i nst allat i ons will be decommi ssi oned because t hey have come t o t he end of t hei r economi c li ves. The i ndust ry r emai ns commi t t ed t o doi ng all t hat i s reasonabl e pract i cabl e t o r educe t he safet y ri sk and ri sk of damage t o t he envi ronment when decommi ssi oni ng such i nst all at i ons, t he maj orit y of whi ch will be removed ent i rel y. To t hi s end i t i s devel opi ng effi ci ent decommi ssi oni ng pl ans for t hose i nst all at i ons, which are based upon achi evi ng t he ri ght bal ance bet ween saf et y, pr ot ect i on of t he envi ronment and cost . A number of rel at i vel y small i nst all at i ons have been successfull y decommi ssi oned al ready. At t he same t i me, t he i ndust ry i s maki ng st renuous eff ort s t o sust ai n i t s huge cont ri but i on t o Bri t ai ns economy and j obs as i t moves i nt o t he 21st cent ury. Fact s, Figures and Explanat ions How Oil and Gas were Formed
Oil has formed t hroughout much of t he Eart hs hi st ory, i n fact , oil i s bei ng formed i n some part s of t he Eart h t oday. Al most al l oil and gas comes f r om t i ny decayed pl ant s, al gae, and bact eri a. At cert ain t i mes i n t he Eart hs hi st ory condi t i ons for oi l format i on have been part i cul arl y favourabl e. Oil fr om t he Nort h Sea i s mai nl y found i n rocks t hat formed duri ng t he Jurassi c peri od - about 150 milli on years ago, l ong bef ore peopl e appear ed on Eart h. Duri ng t hi s t i me t he seas and swampy areas were ri ch i n mi croscopi c pl ant s and ani mal s. When t hese di ed t hey sl owl y sank t o t he bot t om formi ng t hi ck l ayers of organi c mat eri al . This i n t urn became covered i n l ayers of mud t hat t rapped t he organi c mat eri al . Oil and gas wer e formed by t he anaer obic decay of organic mat erial in condit ions of incr eased t emper at ur e and pr essur e. The l ayers of mud pr event ed ai r from reachi ng t he organi c mat eri al . Wi t hout ai r, t he organi c mat eri al coul dnt rot i n t he same way as organi c mat er i al rot s away i n a compost heap. As t he l ayers of mud grew i n t hi ckness, t hey pushed down on t he organi c mat eri al wi t h i ncreasi ng pressure. The t emperat ur e of t he organi c mat eri al was al so i ncreased as i t was heat ed by ot her pr ocesses goi ng on i nsi de t he Eart h. Ver y sl owl y, i ncreasi ng t emperat ur e, pr essure and anaerobi c bact eri a - mi cro- organi sms t hat can li ve wi t hout oxygen - st art ed act i ng on t he organi c mat eri al . As t hi s happened t he mat eri al was sl owl y cooked and al t ered, li ke food i n a pressur e cooker. I n t hi s was t he energy fi rst gi ven t o t he pl ant s by t he sun i s t ransf er r ed and t he organi c mat t er i s changed i nt o crude oil and gas. Oil forms f ir st , t hen as t he t emperat ure and pressure increase at great er dept h gas begins t o form. Temperat ur es wi t hi n t he Eart hs crust i ncr ease wi t h dept h so t hat t he sedi ment s, and any pl ant mat eri al s t hey cont ai n, warm up as t hey become buri ed under mor e sedi ment . I ncr easi ng heat and pressur e fi rst cause t he buri ed algae, bact eri a, spor es and cut i cl es ( l eaf ski n) t o j oi n t hei r wax, fat and oil t o form dark specks call ed kerogen. The cel l ul ose and woody part of pl ant s are convert ed t o coal and woody kerogen. Rocks cont aini ng suffi ci ent organi c subst ances t o generat e oi l and gas i n t hi s way ar e known as source rocks. When t he sour ce r ock st art s t o generat e oi l or gas i t i s said t o be mat ur e. As t he source rock get s hot t er, chai ns of hydr ocarbon chemi cal s use t hi s heat energy t o break away from t he kerogen t o f orm waxy and vi scous heavy oi l . At great er dept h, t he t emperat ure ri ses. At hi gher t emper at ures t he chai ns of hydr ocarbons become short er and break away t o gi ve l i ght oil and gas. Most Nort h Sea Oi l i s t he val uabl e li ght oil . Gas fr om t he Sout hern Nort h Sea i s met hane. Oil and gas are called hydrocarbons because t hey most ly cont ain molecules of t he element s hydrogen and carbon.
Hist or y Chart Crude oil i s a compl ex mi xt ure of hydr ocarbons wi t h small amount s of ot her chemi cal compounds t hat cont ai n sulphur, ni t rogen and oxygen. Traces of ot her el ement s, such as sul phur and ni t rogen, wer e al so present i n t he decayi ng organi c mat eri al , gi ving ri se t o small quant i t i es of ot her compounds i n crude oi l . Hydr ocarbon mol ecul es come i n a vari et y of shapes and si zes, ( st rai ght - chai n, branched chain or cycl i c) , t hi s i s one of t he t hi ngs t hat makes t hem so val uabl e because i t all ows t hem t o be used i n so many di ffer ent ways. Oil and gas form as t he result of a pr ecise sequence of environment al condit ions: The presence of organi c mat eri al Organi c r emai ns bei ng t rapped and preserved i n sedi ment The mat eri al i s buri ed deepl y and t hen sl owl y "cooked" by i ncreased t emperat ur e and pressure.
Fact s, Figures and Explanat ions Oil and Gas on t he Move Once i t has formed, oil and gas moves away ( mi grat es) from t he sour ce r ock. Thi s movement happens for t wo reasons. Fi rst t he oi l and gas expand t o t ake up more r oom t han t he ori gi nal organic mat t er ( al gae, bact eri al and l eaf ski ns) t her ef or e t hei r pressure on t he r ock increases and t hey t r y t o escape. Second, bei ng l ess dense t han t he surroundi ng rock and wat er, t hey t end t o ri se upwards. Thi s mi grat i on i s a sl ow process. I t t akes mi lli ons of years for t he oi l and gas t o ri se a f ew ki l omet res. What happens t o t he migrat ing oil and gas? I f t her e i s no seal above t he rock sour ce, oi l and gas sl owl y ri se and escape at t he sur face. Thi s does happen on occasi ons but , when i t does, no oil and gas deposi t s can buil d up. However because oil and gas format i on t akes such a l ong t i me i t oft en spans milli ons of year s and during t hi s ext ended peri od of t i me a range of di ff er ent envi ronment al condi t i ons can appl y. For exampl e, a desert coul d devel op whose sands coul d compact t o for m a l ayer of sandst one over t he sour ce rock bef or e any or al l of t he oil and gas have escaped. I n t hi s case, t he mi grat i ng oil and gas woul d ri se up i nt o t he sandst one, whi ch woul d act as r eser voi r r ock. Sandst one can st or e oil and gas because i t i s bot h por ous and permeabl e. Porous means t hat liqui ds and gas can be hel d and st ored. The por es i n rock ar e t he spaces t hat occur bet ween t he i ndi vi dual rock part i cl es. These spaces ar e creat ed because t he r ock part i cl es ar e i rregul arl y shaped and so dont fi t t oget her exact l y or cl osel y t oget her. Thi s por ous r ock i s call ed t he reservoir. Permeable means t hat li quid can fl ow t hrough. A permeabl e rock has por es t hat are connect ed and so all ows oi l and gas t o fl ow t hrough. I n swampy ar eas and in wat er, t he muddy sedi ment t hat was si nki ng at t he same t i me as t he organi c mat eri al t hat went on t o become oil , formed r ocks known as sediment ar y rocks. Some sedi ment ary rocks ar e por ous and ot hers ar e i mpermeabl e. Lot s of peopl e t hi nk t hat crude oi l i s li ke a l ake beneat h t he eart hs surface but act uall y i t s all hel d i n t he por es of porous r ock rat her l i ke wat er i s hel d i n a sponge. Once f ormed, crude oi l and gas sl owl y ri se upwards, seepi ng int o t he t i ny pores i n porous r ock. Event ual l y t he oi l and gas reaches a l ayer of i mpermeabl e r ock and i s t rapped. Unl ess an i mpermeabl e rock st ops i t s pr ogr ess, oi l and gas will event uall y mi grat e from por ous r ock t hrough permeabl e rock t o t he surface. So oi l and gas deposi t s will only remai n in t he reservoi r rock i f anot her l ayer f orms on t op whi ch i s i mpermeabl e i . e. does not al l ow t he l i qui ds or gases t o pass t hrough or escape. Thi s i mpermeabl e l ayer i s call ed a seal. So al t hough t here ar e many pl aces i n t he worl d wher e crude oi l seeps t o t he surface i t i s more common t o fi nd oil - cont aini ng rocks deep bel ow t he l and or seabed i n rock st ruct ures cal l ed t raps.
How oil and gas were t rapped by sediment ary rocks Just as oil has formed t hroughout t he Eart hs hi st ory, so have rocks. The movement s of rocks on a massi ve scal e over mi llions of years has resul t ed i n t he format i on of di fferent t ypes of r ock st ruct ures. A t rap can occur wher e r ocks have been pushed or f ol ded by t he powerful forces wi t hi n t he Eart hs crust . When t hi s happens- t hi s i s known as an ant i cline t rap. The i mpermeabl e rock t raps t he crude oil prevent i ng i t from fl owing away - l i ke an upt urned bat ht ub. A fault t r ap i s cr eat ed when rocks sl i de past each ot her - an i mper meabl e r ock t hen f orms a sort of dam t rappi ng t he fl ow of t he movi ng oil . Salt domes ar e f ormed by a combi nat i on of rock movement s f or ci ng a l ayer of r ock sal t up t hrough t he l ayer s of rock above. I f one of t hese l ayer s of rock i s por ous, oi l and gas may become t r apped by t he sal t dome whi ch for ms an i mpermeabl e pl ug.
Traps
Fact s, Figures and Explanat ions The Search for Oil and Gas
The format i on and accumul at i on of crude oi l and gas has occur red at di ffer ent t i mes t hroughout t he hi st ory of t he Eart h, so how do we know wher e t o fi nd oil t oday? I n t he earl y days of commer ci al oil expl orat i on, ar ound 150 year s ago, prospect ors dri ll ed around t he areas wher e oi l seeped t o t he surface, t ryi ng t o fi nd t he undergr ound source of t he oil . They al so dri ll ed i nt o domed st ruct ur es hoping t o fi nd oil t raps. Somet i mes t hey wer e l ucky but oft en t hey found not hi ng. The fi rst wel l t o be drilled speci fi call y t o l ocat e oil was in Tit usvill e, Pennsyl vani a i n 1859. Si nce t hen an est i mat ed t wo milli on well s have been sunk i n t he sear ch f or oi l . Today, drilli ng for oil is an ext remel y expensi ve busi ness and has t o be approached sci ent i fi call y. Through sci ence we have di scover ed how oi l and gas were formed, but how do we know wher e t o st art l ooki ng for t he part i cul ar r ock f or mat i ons t hat are most li kel y t o cont ai n t hese pr eci ous hydrocarbons? How does t he search begin? Rock st ruct ur es t hat cont ain oil or gas are hi dden fr om vi ew by t he sea or ot her r ock l ayer s but we cant j ust go ar ound dri lling l ot s of hol es and hopi ng t o st ri ke l ucky. We have t o be mor e pr eci se and st art by doi ng a full survey of t he area. Thi s i s wher e geol ogi st s and geophysi ci st s, t he sci ent i st s who st udy r ocks and t hei r f ormat i ons, ar e r eall y valuabl e. A geologist l ooks at t he makeup of r ocks - where t hey ar e and t he format i ons t hey make. A geophysicist , as t he name i mpli es, uses t he physi cal charact eri st i cs of r ocks - t hei r magnet i c and gravi t at i onal propert i es, and very i mport ant l y, how sound waves t ravel t hrough di ffer ent ki nds of r ocks - t o hel p underst and t he st ruct ur es bel ow t he Eart hs surface. I dent ifying t he Rocks Ther e ar e cl ear di ffer ences bet ween i gneous rocks, whi ch wer e formed when hot , mol t en magma from t he Eart hs i nt eri or cool ed and sol i di fi ed and sedi ment ary rocks. Sedi ment ary rocks wer e formed when small worn part i cl es of sedi ment were compressed t oget her - li ke t he sandst one descri bed earlier or t he muddy sedi ment t hat sank t o t he bot t om of t he sea at t he same t ime as t he organi c mat eri al whi ch went on t o f orm oi l and gas.
Search Hist ory Gravit y and magnet ic surveys We know t hat soft , sedi ment ary rocks t hat may cont ai n oil or gas are l ess dense t han t he heavy i gneous rocks whi ch cont ain a l ot of magnet i c mi neral s. These di ffer ences can be det ect ed by remot e sensi ng surveys car ri ed out f r om shi ps, t hat make no di rect cont act wi t h t he r ock st ruct ur es beneat h t he sea. Aeri al phot ography can gi ve useful basi c infor mat i on. Ai rcraft can al so be used t o measur e accurat el y t he gravi t at i onal pull of t he Eart h over an area. Small di fferences i n t he gravi t at i onal pull are caused by vari at i ons in t he densi t y of t he underl ying rocks. Because some r ocks are more magnet i c t han ot hers, we can al so measur e vari at i ons i n t he st rengt h of t he Eart hs magnet i c fi el d. So di ffer ent surveyi ng t echni ques can be used t o l ocat e t he part i cul ar rock f ormat i ons t hat might cont ai n t rapped oil . Geol ogi st s and geophysi ci st s can buil d up a det ail ed pi ct ure of t he r ock st r uct ures, even t hough t hese ar e oft en many hundreds of met res beneat h t he Eart hs surface usi ng t he resul t s from t hese t echni ques.
General survey t echni ques cover l arge areas quit e qui ckl y and easi l y and hel p t o build a broad pi ct ure of t he underl yi ng rock st ruct ur es. I f t he result s are encouragi ng, and a promi sing area l ocat ed, a second st age of expl orat i ons i s undert aken and a more det ai l ed sei smi c survey i s car ri ed out . Seismic survey A seismic sur vey i nvolves fi ri ng pul ses of sound energy down t hr ough t he l ayer s of rock beneat h t he Eart h and recordi ng t he energy t hat i s bounced back by t he rock l ayer s bel ow t he surface. The way i n whi ch t he sound energy t ravel s back depends on t he ki nds of rocks and t he st ruct ur es t hey f or m. I t s a bi t li ke bounci ng a bal l . As an experi ment t ry bounci ng a t enni s ball on di fferent surf aces. ( Preferabl y not gl ass wi ndows! ) You will get a di fferent bounce on t he pl ayground, grass, sand or agai nst a sl opi ng surface. Seismic surveys at sea I n t he Uni t ed Ki ngdom most of t he oi l and gas t hat i s produced has been di scovered under t he sea - off shor e. To do a sei smic sur vey at sea, t he sur vey shi p fi res bl ast s of compressed ai r i nt o t he wat er. A l ong cabl e wi t h recei ver s call ed hydrophones, whi ch are sensi t i ve li st eni ng devi ces, l i ke mi crophones, i s t owed behi nd t he ship t o det ect t he echoes f rom t he l ayer s of r ocks beneat h t he seabed. A comput er i s used t o measur e and record t he echoes, or pul ses, t hat are r efl ect ed back t o t he surface. The geophysi ci st s t hen have t o i nt erpret t he dat a, whi ch i s di spl ayed as a seri es of wavy li nes, t o buil d up a det ail ed pi ct ure of t he r ock f ormat i ons. Seismic dat a can now be shown as a t hree di mensi onal pi ct ure usi ng t he l at est comput er t echnol ogy.
Surveying The import ance of environment al assessment Bef or e a sei smi c survey at sea i s car ri ed out several t hi ngs have t o be consi der ed. One of t hese i s t he eff ect on bi rds, fi sh, and mammal s - li ke whal es or dol phins, pl ant li fe, and ot her cr eat ur es t hat li ve on t he seabed. A full envi ronment al assessment i s t heref or e car ri ed out bef or e any sei smi c survey i s st ar t ed. Thi s i nvol ves maki ng a det ail ed st udy of t he si t e t o see, for exampl e, whet her whal es mi grat e t hr ough t he area and i f so, at what t i me of year. We al so need t o know t he feedi ng habi t s of l ocal sea bi rds and make a r ecord of t he t ypes of shel l fi sh t hat li ve on t he seabed. I n fact everyt hi ng t hat coul d possi bl y be affect ed by our act i vi t ies i s exami ned. Marine biologist s do t hi s sci ent i fi c work. Ot her gr oups and organi zat i ons ar e al so consul t ed and i nvol ved, for exampl e l ocal fi shermen and t he Royal Soci et y for t he Pr ot ect i on of Bi rds ( RSPB) . At t he end of t hi s pr ocess an environment al report i s pr oduced. How t he environment al report can affect explorat ion The envi ronment al report shows how damage t o a si t e will be avoi ded. Thi s mi ght mean t hat work i s not carri ed out duri ng: cert ai n hours of t he day when seabi rds are f eedi ng; cert ai n mont hs of t he year because fi shermen are cat chi ng l obst ers; or at cert ai n breedi ng or mi grat i ng seasons. Part i cul ar areas may be avoi ded ent i rel y because t her e i s some rar e pl ant or ani mal li fe on t he seabed.
Fact s, Figures and Explanat ion Drilling for Oil Once t he envi ronment al and sei smi c surveys are compl et ed, and i f t he r esul t s l ook good drilli ng an expl orat ory wel l i s consi der ed. Even at t hi s st age, i t remai ns an uncert ai n business wi t h no guarant ees. Ther e i s st i ll a hi gh ri sk t hat not hi ng at all will be f ound, or t hat t he oi l will be i n such small quant i t i es t hat i t woul d not be wort hwhil e ext ract i ng i t . I n t he Nort h Sea onl y about 1 i n 8 expl orat i on wel l s fi nd quant i t i es of oi l and gas t hat are economi c t o devel op.
Drilling explorat ory wells Three di ffer ent ways of drilli ng expl orat ory wel ls: Jack- up unit Thi s i s a barge wi t h l egs t hat can be r ai sed and l ower ed. I t i s usuall y t owed i nt o posi t i on, i t s l egs l ower ed and t hen once t hey ar e si t t i ng on t he seabed, t he barge i s raised out of t he wat er cr eat i ng a st abl e drilli ng pl at form. Jack- up uni t s are usual ly used i n up t o 100 met res of wat er . Semi- submer sible dr illing rig These usual l y have an engi ne so t hey dont need t o be t owed. The wor ki ng pl at form i s support ed on vert i cal columns t hat are at t ached t o submer ged pont oons. Once i n posi t i on t he pont oons can be fl ooded wi t h wat er t o l ower t he whol e uni t furt her i nt o t he wat er. The l ower t he pont oons are beneat h t he wat er, t he l ess l i kely t hey are t o be affect ed by wave act i on. Thi s makes t hem st abl e i n rough seas and i n dept hs of 300 met r es or mor e. Drillships These l ook mor e l i ke a convent i onal shi p and can be easi l y moved bet ween l ocat i ons. The l at est drill shi ps can drill i n wat er dept hs of 1500 met r es or more, but t hey can be unst abl e i n rough seas.
Drilling
On Boar d Spudding t he well The fi rst st ep i s t o dri ll a 90cm hol e and t hen put a wi de pi pe i nt o t he seabed t o gui de t he dri ll and t he drilli ng fl uid. As each sect i on of t he wel l i s compl et ed i t i s li ned wi t h a heavy st eel pi pe casing t hat i s cement ed i n pl ace t o pr event i t cavi ng i n. Thi s process i s cal l ed "spudding t he well". The derrick The der ri ck i s t he t all st ruct ur e t hat support s all t he drilling operat ions. I t i s desi gned t o haul t he drill st ri ng - l engt hs of drill pi pe wit h t he drill bi t on t he end - i n and out of t he hol e. Sect i ons of drill pi pe or drill st ri ng are added as t he hol e get s deeper . Each pi ece of dri ll st ri ng i s t ypi call y 10 met res l ong, about t he l engt h of a bus whi ch expl ai ns why t he der ri ck, whi ch needs t o accommodat e 3 l engt hs of drill pi pe, has t o be so t all . The drill st ri ng can wei gh several hundred t onnes, so a powerful mot or i s needed t o wi nch i t up and down. The drill bit The dri ll bit i s at t ached t o heavy dri ll coll ars t hat put wei ght ont o t he bi t . The drill bit i s rot at ed ei t her by t urning t he whol e drill st ri ng or by a t urbi ne down t he hol e t hat i s dri ven by drill flui d. Depending on how hard t he rock i s, t he dri lling rat e can be l ess t han 30 cent i met res an hour or as much as 60 met r es an hour i n rel at i vel y sof t rock. The drill bi t needs changi ng every f ew days, or maybe every f ew hour s, dependi ng on t he har dness of t he r ock. When t he dri ll bi t has t o be changed, t he whol e dri ll st ring i s pull ed back up, uncoupl ed in sect i ons, st acked up, t he dri ll bi t changed and t he whol e process st art s agai n. Thi s i s known as a round t ri p and can t ake 10 hours or more. Use of mud Dri lling flui d, whi ch i s commonl y known as mud, i s cont i nuousl y pumped at hi gh pressure down t o t he drill bi t t o l ubri cat e i t and keep i t cool . The mud al so fl ushes out t he rock cut t i ngs and bri ngs t hem back t o t he surface. Geosci ent i st s are abl e t o i nspect and anal yze t hese t ea l eaf si zed sampl es and gain mor e i nformat i on about t he rock st ruct ur es and t he presence of hydr ocarbons. The per son who does t hi s i s known as a mudlogger. Anot her i mport ant consi derat i on i s t hat t he for ce and wei ght of t he mud t hat i s pumped down t he drill st ri ng i nt o t he well , bal ances t he pressur e of t he crude oi l and gas in t he surroundi ng rocks and so si gni fi cant l y reduces t he ri sk of a bl ow out . Cont rolling t he well Because t he oi l and gas, deep bel ow t he Eart hs surface ar e at hi gh pressur e gr eat car e has t o be t aken t o cont r ol t he pressur e. I n ci nema fil ms t hey oft en show what i s called a bl ow out . Thi s can occur when a dri ll ent ers a r eservoi r and t he pressur e causes t he oi l and gas come spurt i ng out of t he wel l . The r esul t i s pot ent i all y ver y dangerous. Al t hough bl ow out s ar e very unusual , all well s are f i t t ed wi t h an emergency val ve desi gned t o prevent t hi s fr om happeni ng. Core samples I f t he geol ogi st s fi nd somet hi ng part i cul arl y int er est i ng t hey can ask f or a core sampl e. A holl ow drill , call ed a cor e bar rel , i s at t ached t o t he dri ll st ri ng and as it goes down a core of r ock forms i nsi de - a bit li ke usi ng a gi ant appl e corer! Thi s core sample gi ves a cont i nuous record of t he di fferent l ayers of rock and t heref ore more det ai l ed i nformat i on t han t he rock cut t i ngs. Col l ect ing a cor e sampl e i s expensi ve and t i me consumi ng because i t i nvolves a compl et e r ound t ri p. Logging Bef or e a wel l i s fi nall y capped, vi t al i nformat i on i s gat hered by l oweri ng measuri ng devi ces cont ai ned i n what as known as a sonde down t he hol e on a wi reli ne. As t he l i ne i s pull ed back up t he hol e, t he sonde t ransmi t s i nformat i on t o a comput er on t he surface about t he por osi t y and ot her quali t ies of t he rock i t i s cut t ing t hrough. Thi s i nformat i on provi des a survey of t he wel l and gi ves more i nformat i on about t he pr esence of hydrocarbons i n t he por es. Thi s t echni que i s called logging. Field Appraisal I f an expl orat or y wel l shows t hat hydrocarbons are pr esent , mor e sei smi c dat a i s gat hered and t hen a number of apprai sal well s are drill ed and mor e dat a i s col l ect ed. From t hi s dat a i t i s possi bl e t o est i mat e how much oil and gas t he fi el d cont ains, how di ffi cul t i t will be t o ext ract and what per cent age of t he oi l and gas can be ext ract ed. Unfort unat el y, i t s not possi bl e t o get every l ast drop of oil out of a reser voi r - in t he Nort h Sea, f or exampl e, operat ors expect t o r ecover about 40 - 50% of t he t ot al reser voi r. Thi s fi gure may seem qui t e l ow, but remember t her e i snt a l ake of oi l and gas. I nst ead i t i s t rapped i n t he por es of t he r eser voi r rock and you can appreci at e t hat it i snt possi ble t o get every l ast drop out . Think back t o t he idea t hat oil i s hel d i n pores i n much t he same way t hat wat er i s hel d i n a sponge. We know t hat i t i snt possi bl e t o get every l ast li t t l e drop of wat er out of a sponge - i t s al ways a bi t damp. Oil expl orat i on i nvol ves l ot s of peopl e wi t h di fferent ski ll s, for exampl e geol ogi st s, geophysi ci st s, surveyor s, mudl oggers, comput er sci ent i st s, mari ne bi ol ogi st s, dri lling engi neers, t he drilling crew. Al ongsi de t hese are all t he peopl e empl oyed back onshore f or example economi st s, pl anners, l awyers, I T speci ali st s, envi ronment al advi sers and safet y advi sor s t o name a f ew.
Fact s, Figures and Explanat ions Product ion - How Crude Oil and Gas are Ext ract ed
I f l arge deposi t s of crude oi l and gas are found, t he company must apply t o t he Government t o devel op t he oil fi el d and bring it i nt o product i on. The average t i me bet ween di scoveri ng an oil fi el d i n t he Nort h Sea and pi pi ng oil ashor e i s fi ve years. Duri ng t hat t i me vari ous st ages bef ore pr oduct i on are gone t hrough. Companies developing new off shor e fields have t hree main opt ions: A Fixed plat form The l egs - made ei t her of st eel or concr et e - are known as t he j acket and t ake about 2 years t o const ruct . Many are made i n Scot l and. They ar e bui lt on l and and t hen fl oat ed out t o t hei r l ocat i on over t he well s whi ch have been l eft by t he appr aisal- dr illing uni t and secured t o t he seabed by l arge st eel pi ns. The accommodat i on, dri lling and product ion faci li t i es pad for hel icopt ers t o l and on - known as t he t op- si des - are al so buil t onshore, t hen t owed out on a barge. These modul ar part s ar e lift ed i nt o posi t i on by a massi ve crane barge. Fi xed pl at for ms can operat e i n wat er dept hs of up t o about 400 met r es. Float ing product ion facilit ies These are desi gned ei t her l i ke a semi - submersi bl e drill ri g or li ke a convent i onal ship. They are useful for smal l er fi nds because t hey can be moved and used agai n el sewher e when t he fi el d i s no l onger produci ng. However because fl oat i ng product ion pl at forms ar e l ess abl e t o cope wi t h heavy st orms, product i on i s more li kely t o be suspended duri ng adver se weat her condit i ons t han i t woul d be usi ng a fi xed pl at form. Underwat er product ion facilit ies These ar e a seri es of seabed wel l heads cont roll ed remot el y fr om a nearby fi xed pl at form. Thi s i nnovat i ve met hod of product i on has been devel oped al most ent i rel y because of t he condi t i ons i n t he Nort h Sea. Compani es have t ri ed t o fi nd ways of maki ng t he best use of t hei r exi st i ng fi xed pl at forms and by searchi ng surr oundi ng areas have somet i mes f ound l ot s of small reser voi rs. An underwat er wel lhead i s i nst all ed t o produce oi l and gas fr om t hese smal l reservoi rs whi ch i s t hen pi ped back t o t he pl at form for pr ocessi ng and t ransport at i on t o shor e. Thi s means t hat small oil and gas deposi t s can be recovered.
Under sea View Oil Plat forms Oil pl at forms ar e reall y i ndust ri al t owns at sea. I n addi t i on t o dri lling t he ot her mai n funct i ons of an oi l pl at form ar e: Prepari ng wat er and gas f or i nj ect i on i nt o t he r eser voi r - t o mai nt ai n pressur e. Processi ng t he crude oi l, whi ch i s a hot , fr ot hy, corr osi ve, hi gh pressur e li quid. Pumpi ng t he oi l ashore. Provi di ng all t he necessi t i es of ever yday l i vi ng for t hose who work i n t he har sh envi ronment of t he Nort h Sea. An oil r ig whi ch i s a small er, mobi l e st ruct ur e i s used f or dri lling expl orat i on well s and shoul d not be confused wi t h a product i on pl at form t hat accommodat es all t he act i vi t i es expl ained above.
A product ion plat for m oper at es 24 hour s a day for 3 65 days a year. I t has t hree main sect ions: Accommodat ion area Thi s i ncl udes cabi ns, cant eens, r ecreat i onal facilit i es and offi ces as well as a heli copt er pad f or fl yi ng st aff on and off t he pl at for m. Ther e ar e about 26, 000 peopl e worki ng offshor e i n UK wat ers at any one t i me. Whil st some pl at forms have up t o 100 peopl e worki ng on t hem, ot her s ar e unmanned. General l y when peopl e ar e on a pl at form t hey work a 12 hour shi ft and t hen have 12 hour s r est . Depending on t hei r j ob, t hey may ei t her work t wo weeks of fshore fol l owed by t wo weeks at home or t hr ee weeks off shor e wi t h t wo weeks l eave. Suppl y boat s const ant l y shut t l e from shor e t o t he pl at forms t aki ng in suppli es and bri ngi ng away r efuse. Wellhead/ drilling module Thi s cont ai ns t he der ri ck, dri ll fl oor and wellheads. Each wel l has a speci fi c funct i on: i t may be a product i on wel l , a wat er i nj ect i on well , t hrough whi ch wat er i s pumped down i nt o t he r eser voi r; or a gas i nj ect i on well t o pump gas back down i nt o t he reser voi r. These met hods ar e used t o get mor e oi l out of t he reservoi r. Crude oil i s nat urall y forced t o t he surf ace because i t i s under pr essure i n t he reservoi r. However , as t he fi el d get s ol der t her e i s l ess pr essure so wat er or gas has t o be pumped down t he i nj ect i on well s t o i ncrease t he pressur e and for ce t he crude oi l up. Process facilit ies - ar e used t o separ at e cr ude oil, gases and wat er What comes out of t he wel l i s a mi xt ure of cr ude oi l , gas and wat er and so needs t o be separat ed befor e bei ng t ransport ed t o shor e. The wat er i s cl eaned and t hen ei t her pumped back i nt o t he sea or i nj ect ed back i nt o t he r eser voi r t o mai nt ai n pressur e. The gas i s compr essed and pi ped back t o shore or i nj ect ed back i nt o t he reser voi r t o i ncrease pr essur e. Some of t he gas i s used as fuel for t he pl at form generat ors. Safet y Wi t h so many peopl e wor ki ng in pot ent i all y dangerous si t uat i ons, not hi ng i s l eft t o chance wher e saf et y i s concerned. Hi ghl y t rai ned safet y managers are empl oyed t o make sur e t hat al l safet y equi pment - li feboat s, f i re- fi ght ing equi pment , smoke hoods et c - i s i n good worki ng order. Ever yone who goes off shor e r ecei ves saf et y t rai ning, even day vi si t ors. Regul ar off shore workers must pass a medi cal and compl et e a fi re- fi ght i ng and survi val course t hat t eaches t hem what t o do i n an emergency. Because off shore workers t ravel t o work by heli copt er, t hey al so have t o l earn how t o survi ve i f t he heli copt er has t o di t ch in t he sea. Part of t hi s invol ves escapi ng from t he heli copt er and t hey pract i ce how t o do t hi s by bei ng l ower ed, i n a si mul at ed heli copt er, i nt o a speci al wat er t rai ning t ank. On all pl at forms saf et y exer ci ses and drill s are car ri ed out on a r egular basi s. Each manned pl at form will al ways have a st andby shi p whi ch, i n an emergency, wi ll pi ck up wor kers and care f or t hem unt il hel p arri ves.
Float ing Product ion, St orage and Offloading ( FPSO) I nst allat ions I nt roduct ion The of fshor e oil and gas indust ry has been usi ng fl oat i ng product i on, st orage and offl oadi ng syst ems, or FPSOs, si nce t he mi d- 1970s. They can of fer si gni fi cant advant ages over fi xed pr oduct i on pl at forms part i cul arl y i n remot e offshor e l ocat i ons where deep wat er , st rong ocean curr ent s and harsh weat her condi t i ons may occur, or where export pi peli nes ar e di ffi cul t t o i nst all or uneconomi c t o run. They can al so be fl oat ed of f at t he end of a fi el ds product i ve l i fe and re- used el sewhere, whi ch has envi ronment al as wel l as economi c benefi t s, part i cul arl y for marginal fi el ds wher e t he product i on faci lit i es may onl y be r equi red for a f ew year s. UKOOA has an est abl ished commi t t ee t o deal speci fi call y wit h i ssues r el at ing t o FPSOs and ot her fl oat ing st ruct ures used on t he UK Cont i nent al Shel f. Drawi ng on t he shared experi ence and expert i se of i t s member and associ at e member compani es, as wel l as t he Heal t h and Safet y Execut i ve and t he Depart ment of Trade and I ndust r y, t he commi t t ee commi ssi ons st udi es coveri ng a range of t opi cs in t he desi gn, const ruct i on and safe operat i on of t hi s t ype of oi l and gas i nst all at i on. I t al so publi shes guideli nes promot i ng best pract i ce deri ved f rom t hi s UK experi ence. These web pages provi de basi c informat i on about t he fl oat ing syst ems used i n t he UK t oday, part i cul arl y FPSOs. Ther e ar e li nks t o st udi es publi shed by t he FPSO commi t t ee and a sear ch engine for rel evant gui deli nes t hat may be purchased fr om t he Associ at i on.
Frequent ly Asked Quest ions What is an FPSO? An FPSO i s a Fl oat i ng Product i on, St orage and Offl oadi ng uni t and i s j ust one of a range of di fferent t ypes of fl oat i ng syst ems used by t he off shor e oil and gas i ndust ry t oday. I t i s si mil ar i n appearance t o a shi p but i s desi gned quit e di ffer ent l y and carries on board all t he necessar y product i on and processi ng faci lit i es normal l y associ at ed wi t h a fi xed oil and gas pl at form, but wi t h t he addit i on of st orage t anks for t he crude oi l recover ed from t he well s on t he seabed bel ow. I t i s moor ed permanent l y on l ocat i on and i s connect ed t o t he wel ls bel ow by fl exi bl e ri ser s. Cli ck on t he pi ct ure bel ow t o vi ew i t i n full :
What dif fer ent t ypes of f loat ing syst ems ar e t here? As t he name suggest s, f l oat i ng syst ems ar e not fi xed permanent l y t o t he seabed but are desi gned t o be moored t o remai n on st at i on for l ong peri ods of t i me. Ther e ar e many di fferent vari ant s of t hese syst ems, and t he t ermi nol ogy and acr onyms vary t oo, even for t he same " syst em"! Some common abbrevi at i ons include: FSO Fl oat i ng st orage and off l oadi ng syst em, oft en a shi p or barge- shaped float i ng hull i ncorporat i ng t anks for st orage of pr oduced oi l, and a met hod of l oadi ng t he oil i nt o offt ake t ankers. These i nst all at i ons do not have any pr oduct i on or processi ng faci lit i es. FPSO Fl oat i ng product i on, st orage and of fl oadi ng vessel whi ch i ncl udes, i n addi t i on t o i t s st orage and offl oadi ng capabilit y, faci lit ies f or r ecei vi ng crude oi l from produci ng wel l s and processi ng it for export by separat i ng wat er and gas. FPS Fl oat i ng product i on syst em: a general t erm t o descri be any fl oat i ng facili t y desi gned t o recei ve cr ude oi l from pr oduci ng wel l s and process i t . I t may not have faci li t i es for st orage, i n whi ch case expor t woul d be by pi peli ne t o shore or t o a nearby FSO. FSU Fl oat i ng St orage Uni t ; a fl oat i ng facilit y i nt ended onl y f or st orage of oi l . Export may be by pi peli ne t o an onshor e faci li t y rat her t han offl oaded t o shut t le t ankers. Somet i mes used synonymousl y wi t h FSO. FPS uni t s - whi ch have product i on but usuall y no st orage facili t i es - can t ake many forms. They range i n si ze from convert ed barges i nst all ed wi t h separat i on equi pment for smal l scal e pr oduct i on of up t o 25, 000 barr el s of oi l per day ( b/ d) t o gi ant purpose- desi gned vessel s wi t h capaci t y for processi ng mor e t han 200, 000 b/ d. Some may be convert ed dri lling ri gs or semi - submer si bl e and t ensi on- l egged pl at forms. FPSOs, whi ch combi ne product i on, st orage and offl oadi ng faci lit i es, ar e usual l y "shi p- shaped" and may be purpose buil t or convert ed f rom an exi st ing hull , i ncorporat i ng key modi fi cat i ons t o i ncrease t he st rengt h or fat i gue r esi st ance i n part i cul ar areas. Each desi gn has i t s own advant ages dependi ng on t he oil fi eld wat er dept h, l ocal envi ronment al condi t i ons and economi c fact or s. How many f loat ing unit s are t here? Ther e ar e cur r ent l y 15 FPSO and FPS uni t s operat i ng on t he UK Cont i nent al Shel f and 70 worl dwi de.
Why use a f loat ing syst em? Acr oss t he worl d, oi l and gas i s bei ng found and produced i n ever- deeper wat ers. Her e, wat er dept h, ocean curr ent s and harsh weat her condi t i ons may all influence t he deci si on on whi ch t ype of pr oduct i on inst all at i on t o use. A fi xed i nst all at i on may not be t echni call y feasi bl e i n a part i cul arl y chall engi ng l ocat i on wher e a fl oat i ng uni t would off er t he best sol ut i on. Fl oat i ng syst ems are al so a cost - ef fect i ve sol ut i on for devel opi ng small er, sat elli t e or margi nal fi el ds i n shall ower wat er as t hey can be fl oat ed off when reservoi rs ar e depl et ed, and re- used el sewher e. The benefi t s of "r ecycling" such faci li t i es are not j ust economi c but al so envi r onment al . How does an FPSO keep on st at ion? The off shore i ndust ry has devel oped hi ghl y sophi st i cat ed moori ng and st at i on- keepi ng syst ems whi ch enabl e oil product i on vessel s t o operat e saf el y and rel i abl y. I n t he UKCS, where weat her condi t i ons can be ext reme, most vessel s have a cent ral moori ng arrangement l ocat ed wi t hi n t he hull i n a "t urret ", t hat all ows t hem t o rot at e fr eel y around t he poi nt of moori ng i n response t o shi ft i ng weat her di rect i on. Thi s i s known as "weat hervani ng" and allows t he vessel s bow al ways t o poi nt i nt o t he prevai ling wi nd and current s, mi ni mi sing t he i mpact of nat ures for ces. Oft en t hrust er syst ems ar e al so used t o suppl ement t he st at i on- keepi ng and cont rol vessel headi ng. I n count ri es wi t h mor e beni gn weat her, such an arrangement may not be r equi red and t he vessel i s kept on st at i on by an ar ray of moori ngs and anchors, known as a spread- moored syst em. How does an FPSO recover oil and gas? The hydr ocarbons t r eat ed on an FPSO or FPS are pr oduced t hr ough wel l s t hat are l ocat ed on t he seabed. Unt reat ed li quids are br ought t o t he surface vi a subsea equi pment on t he sea fl oor i ncl uding val ves at t he well ( a "Chri st mas t ree") , a manifol d t o connect several wel l s t oget her i nt o one fl owline, whi ch i s t hen li nked t o t he vessel . These pi pelines must pass fr om t he seabed t o t he fl oat i ng faci lit y at t he sur face - and ar e call ed "ri sers". They must be fl exi bl e t o accommodat e t he heavi ng mot ion of t he vessel above, and be very resi st ant t o fat i gue.
What are t he safet y precaut ions on boar d an FPSO? Safet y on board any product i on faci li t y has t he ut most pri ori t y. Robust saf et y st andards must be i n pl ace and ri gorousl y enfor ced. I n t he UK, all operat i ng compani es must submi t a Safet y Case t o t he Heal t h and Safet y Execut i ve, whi ch: demonst rat es t hat t he company has i n pl ace saf et y management syst ems; has i dent i fi ed ri sks and reduced t hem t o as l ow as r easonabl y pract i cable; has put management cont rol s i n pl ace; has a safe r efuge f or personnel in t he event of an emergency and has made pr ovi si ons for saf e evacuat i on and r escue. Feat ures whi ch cont ri but e t o t he saf e operat i on of FPSOs ar e descri bed bel ow: The hull must be desi gned f or at l east t he expect ed l i fe of t he fi eld - oft en 15 t o 25 year s - and const ruct ed t o st andards t hat wi ll permi t i t t o remai n at sea duri ng t hi s t i me wit hout access t o dry docki ng facili t i es. Of speci al i mport ance i s how t he vessel will survi ve a possi bl e col lisi on at sea. Normal mari t i me cri t eri a are used such t hat t he vessel will be abl e t o st ay afl oat wi t h any t wo hull compart ment s fl ooded. Crude oil st age t anks, an int egral part of t he FPSO hull , are bl anket ed wit h inert gas t o mai nt ai n a safe envi ronment for l oadi ng and di schargi ng crude oi l . Oil and gas processi ng is cont rol l ed and moni t ored r emot el y. Shut down syst ems ar e bui l t i n t o cl ose off t he fl ow and cont ai n hydrocarbons under pr essure i n an emergency and all owi ng depressuri sat i on vi a a fl are st ack. Prot ect i on agai nst fi re and expl osi on i s provi ded i n t he form of prot ect i ve coat i ngs and bl ast or fi rewall s. Wat er del uge syst ems ar e i nst all ed i n open areas and spri nkler syst ems i n cl osed ar eas. The accommodat i on bl ock i s mechani call y vent il at ed and pressuri sed, t aki ng fresh ai r from a saf e l ocat i on remot e f rom t he pr ocess equi pment , and i s t hus a safe r efuge f or personnel . Emergency evacuat i on i s pri maril y by helicopt er f rom a hel i deck si t uat ed di rect l y above t he accommodat i on bl ock, or by servi ce craft . Ot her met hods use li feboat s, li fe raft s and st andby servi ce craft worki ng i n t he fi eld. Per sonnel ar e t rai ned t o respond t o vari ous acci dent scenari os r el at i ng t o t he process syst ems, i ncl udi ng safe shut down of operat i ons, de- pr essuri sat i on and event ual evacuat i on. All per sonnel ar e pr ovi ded wi t h personal safet y equi pment such as sur vi val sui t s and li fe vest s. How is t he oil t aken ashor e? I n t he UK, crude oi l i s normal l y t ransport ed t o shor e usi ng dedi cat ed off- t ake or "shut t l e" t ankers speci all y desi gned for t he weat her condi t i ons found offshor e i n Bri t ai n. For exampl e, most shut t l e t ankers are now equi pped wit h a bow- l oadi ng syst em, usuall y hydrauli call y operat ed. Bow l oadi ng was fi rst i nt roduced i n 1975 and has proved t o be hi ghl y reli abl e over t he year s. The met hod i s well suit ed t o t he harsh condi t i ons oft en experi enced i n UK wat er s. Ot her f eat ures i ncl ude emergency shut down equi pment and dynami c posi t i oni ng t o keep t he t anker on st at i on at a saf e di st ance away f rom t he FPSO or st orage f aci lit y whil e loadi ng. Cargo i s t ransf err ed by fl exi bl e hose or hoses whi ch connect t he i nst all at i on wi t h t he t anker . The process of l oadi ng from t he st ern of t he FPSO t o t he bow of t he shut t l e t anker i s known as " t andem l oadi ng" What float ing product ion f acilit ies current ly oper at e on t he UKCS? Ther e are cur rent l y 15 fl oat i ng product i on facilit i es i n operat i on on t he UK Cont i nent al Shel f. The most r ecent FPSO t o ar ri ve i n t he Nort h Sea i s Ker r- McGees Gl obal Pr oducer I I I whi ch has j ust l eft Swan Hunt er s Newcast l e- upon- Tyne shi p yard f or t he Leadon fi el d i n t he Cent ral Nort h Sea. The fi rst oi l i s due t o fl ow by t he end of 2001. Ot her r ecent st art - ups usi ng FPSO t echnol ogy are Amerada Hesss Chest nut fi eld, al so i n t he Cent ral Nort h Sea, whi ch came on st ream i n Jul y 2001and BGs Bl ake fi el d whi ch is l inked by pi peli ne ( known as a "t i e- back" syst em) t o Tali smans exi st i ng FPSO facilit y on t he Ross fi el d. Amerada Hess used FPSO t echnol ogy i n t he Nort h Sea wi t h t he commi ssi oni ng of t he Pet r oj arl I i n t he earl y 1990s t o produce oil from t he small Angus fiel d. I nt erest i ngl y, new product i on t echnol ogy has gi ven Angus a fr esh l ease of li fe and aft er l yi ng dormant for ei ght years, i t has been r edevel oped and oil has once agai n st art ed t o fl ow. Thi s t i me, pr oduct i on i s t i ed- back by pi peli ne t o anot her FPSO, t he Ui sge Gorm, whi ch al ready servi ces t he Fi fe, Fergus and Fl ora fi el ds 18 km away t o t he sout h east . I n t he r emot e, deep wat er s t o t he west of Shet l and, t wo fl oat ing facili t i es produce oi l from BPs Schi ehalli on and Foi naven fi el ds respect i vel y, t he onl y fi el ds current l y in product i on i n t he At l ant i c Margi n. The f ol l owi ng i s a li st of t he FPSOs and FPS oper at i ng on t he UKCS t oday: Oper at or Field Type of f loat ing syst em I nst allat ion Dat e AGI P Bal moral FPS June 1986 Conoco Banff FPS January 1999 Texaco Capt ai n FPSO December 1996 Amerada Hess Chest nut FPS Jul y 2001 Shell Curl ew FPSO Sept ember 1997 BP Foi naven FPSO November 1996 Ker r- McGee Gr yphon FPSO Sept ember 1993 Ker r- McGee Jani ce FPS Februar y 1999 Ker r- McGee Leadon FPSO Sept ember 2001 Conoco MacCull och FPSO April 1997 Ent erpri se Pi erce FPS Februar y 1999 Tali sman Ross FPSO March 1999 BP Schi ehalli on FPSO Jul y 1998 Shell Teal , Teal Sout h and Guill emot A FPSO August 1996 Amerada Hess Tri t on - Bi t t ern, Gui ll emot West & Nort h West FPSO March 2000