BC 8813 GREEN CONSTRUCTION

Graduate Research
Project
The Need, Use, and Effectiveness of
Water Conservation Technologies in the
Residential Construction Industry of the
U.S.
Andre Tejeda
12/10/2009
Through this research I set out to explore the need, use, and effectiveness of past, present, and
proposed water conservation technologies and the inherent evolution of regulation that has,
and will continue to occur within the United States.
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1. Research Purpose:

Through this research I set out to explore the need, use, and effectiveness of past, present,

and proposed water conservation technologies and the inherent evolution of regulation that has,

and will continue to occur within the United States. This study will (1) succinctly touch on the

global history of water shortages, (2) identify the effects they have had on ancient societies, and

(3) identify the current international demand for water conservation technologies to set up the

evolutionary pattern of industrialized nations. The main objective of this research is to gain a

deeper understanding of how both past and present water shortages have influenced the United

States present day regulation and product offerings and the effect they have had on water supply

throughout the nation. In this study, I have conducted lab studies on (3) three dissimilar water

closets in an attempt to ascertain the true effectiveness of new vs. old fixture technologies.

2. A Brief History on Water Shortage:

Researchers have said that “overcrowded cities, water shortages and electricity

brownouts in 21st century California, India and Brazil are ominous reminders of the fate of

ancient Rome, Babylon and the Maya Empire” (SD Tribune 2001). Vernon Lee Scarborough, an

American anthropologist and archeologist who has performed extensive research on the ancient

societies, believes that the “trigger event” of the collapse was over population coupled with a

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long drought beginning about 840 A.D. (SD Tribune 2001). Unfortunately this same scenario

can be recognized in many parts of the world today. Population experts estimate that by the year

2015, there will be 28 "megacities," each containing more than 10 million people (SD Tribune

2001). It is currently estimated that the Greater Tokyo region is home to a staggering 32-35

million people (wiki answers 2009). Studies show that Bombay India, is expected to grow from

18 million to 26 million; Los Angeles from 13.1 million to 14.1 million; and New York City

from 16.6 million to 17.4 million (SD Tribune 2001).

In a conference titled, “The Collapse of Complex Societies”, Vernon Scarborough

explained that, “Intensive agriculture and excessive irrigation led to the salinization of the

Mesopotamian plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now Iraq” (SD Tribune

2001). He went on further to point out that, “These actions ultimately damaged the very

landscape these societies were striving to improve" (SD Tribune 2001).

3. Water Facts and Current Global Shortages:

According to the director of PISDES in Oakland and statistics pulled from the 2006

United Nations Human Development Report, nearly 850,000,000 – 1,000,000,000 people lack access

to safe water supplies, which ultimately amounts to approximately one in every eight people

worldwide (Water.org 2009 and SD Tribune 2001). Research shows that “less than 1% of the

world’s fresh water is readily accessible for direct human use (Water.org 2009). It has been

claimed that “The water and sanitation crisis claims more lives through disease than any war

claims through guns and that at any given time, half of the world’s hospital beds are occupied by

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patients suffering from a water-related disease” (Water.org 2009). Peter Gleick, Author of the

report “The Worlds Water 2000-2001” asserts that “Water-borne diseases kill 10,000 to 20,000

children every day”(SD Tribune 2001).

Studies that result in statements like these bring astonishment to most people living in

industrialized nations. Many families in the United States cannot even begin to fathom this

reality. It is estimated that the daily requirement for sanitation, bathing, and cooking needs, as

well as for assuring survival, is about 13.2 gallons per person (Water.org 2009). When this

figure is calculated into the U.S. population, it becomes obvious that we too are staring at a water

shortage though out many portions of the U.S. Reality struck many lawmakers in the early

1960’s as these shortages began to take a toll on U.S. cities.

4. Water shortage Hits the United States:

In the early 19th and 20th century much of the western hemisphere viewed the Unites

States of America as the land of opportunity, with real estate fortune at the forefront of the

agenda. This perception shared by many foreigners coupled with returning soldiers brought an

influx of people to many developing cities throughout the U.S. Along with this surge in

population came a great demand for housing. It was in the mid 1960’s that housing production

began to take on the shape of a standardized product. This was in response to tighter government

regulation, the establishment of building code, and advances in lending practices (ULI 127-169).

Houses were being built all over the country and with those houses followed a spike in water

consumption.

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The larger cities developed in the U.S. were typically located in close proximity to major

transportation routes, many of which were waterways. This natural resource offered irrigation to

the farmlands, a means of transportation for watercraft, and domestic water supply (ULI 145-

169). Indoor plumbing was a new concept in the early to mid 20th century, and its unanticipated

impact on water supply was not realized until the housing boom.

Realization struck when water levels began to dwindle and sanitary sewer systems began

to reach full capacity. Droughts in the northeast and western states coupled with expanding

populations caused strain on the existing infrastructure, thus stretching the capacity of the

developing cities. As a result, construction moratoriums were instituted, which in essence,

halted construction and economic activity. Suffering real estate developers and builders turned

to the government for help. Through government studies, it was quickly recognized that the key

contributor to the excessive water consumption was water closets, which at the time, amounted

to nearly 50 percent of all water consumed within a residential structure (P & M Magazine

2004). It was in fact ascertained that water closets were the largest consumer of water outside of

industrial and agricultural use (P & M Magazine 2004). Federal, state, and local governments

quickly reacted with changes to the building standards.

5. Changing Standards:

Development regulations are a set of constantly evolving minimum specifications that

developers and builders must meet to comply with local municipality’s comprehensive plan.

Studies are always being performed as changes in population and development density occur.

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Analyzing the cyclical booms and busts in the U.S. real estate industry offers a clearer picture of

where we stand today in the struggle against water shortages.

The Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (WSSC) was among the first

government agencies to act on the severe capacity and supply shortages (P & M Magazine 2004).

Recognizing in the early 1960’s that the toilet was a major consumer of their limited commodity,

the WSSC mandated that all water closets installed thereafter within their jurisdiction must not

consume more than 3-1/2 GPF (P & M Magazine 2004). Other communities with supply and/or

treatment capacity shortages quickly followed the WSSC’s lead.

Figure 1 illustrates the evolution of water closets over the past 50 years, and the

significant strides manufactures have made in the conservation of water. From the one-piece 12

GPF units of the early 1960’s to the 1 GPF units sold in the 21st century, it appears obvious that

through advancements in hydro-technology, we have produced better, more efficient fixtures.

This process of water reduction technology was not a result of simple advances in technology,

but rather a combination of regulation and technology attained through many trials and

tribulations.

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Figure 1. Water Closet Trends over 50 yrs.

Many early models of “water conservation” water closets like the 3-1/2 GPF American

Standard “Cadet” Watersaver boasted of their 36 percent water reductions. Unfortunately the

new “watersaver” did not work very well. Early attempts to conservation design resulted in

added partitions in conventional 5 ½ GPF tanks or reduced size tanks with little or no adaption to

the bowl. This most often resulted in an inadequate siphon thus creating the need for double and

even triple flushes to extract (P & M Magazine 2004). The American National Standards

Institute (ANSI) recognized the need for minimum performance requirements in addition to

consumption limits. It established extraction and drain line carry pass/fail tests in its A112.19.2

version.

Later in 1984, Mansfield Plumbing introduced its revolutionary pressure-flush water

closet. This was a first of its kind and seemed to be the answer to all the current issues faced in

the water closet industry. Its 1.5 GPF was a large leap from the next competitor, but brought

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with it new cons that had not been experienced before. Its modern appearance was far different

than the traditional design of all preceding water closets and it had a small water-spot which

resulted in skid marks and clogs (P & M Magazine 2004). ANSI reacted with an updated 1990

edition of requirements containing the following:

1. Recognition of the new six liter water closet classification called “Low Consumption

2. Refined the extraction tests contained within the earlier version

Innovations over the subsequent years like the 3-inch flush valve and slot rim design led

to higher velocity flushes and cheaper design, making the 1.6 GPF gravity toilets “tolerably”

acceptable to Americans (P & M Magazine 2004). Gradually over the second half of the

century, the largest consumer of water in the house, the water closet, had reduced its impact by

over 80 percent, or at least as demonstrated by past independent studies (P & M Magazine 2004).

6. Regulation Today:

Meteorologist and climatologist have been studying weather patterns since the 18th

century, with breakthroughs in weather forecasting techniques occurring in the 19th and 20th

century. Both historic and current weather data have proven the existence of drought conditions

throughout many areas of the U.S. (See Figure 2).

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Figure 2. Drought Index from the NOAA

As illustrated in the water closet example, regulation evolution plays a major role in the

advancement of fixture technology. Drought data has been the focal point of numerous

municipalities’ revisions to building code. The enactment of the “California Green Building

Code” is an excellent example of this process.

“Green regulation” began in California as an incentive program, but with the relentless

drought the state has endured over the past decade, lawmakers have turned to strict development

regulations that now demand compliance. On Feb. 27, 2009, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger

declared a state of emergency after the state's three year drought (Simi-Valley Acorn 2009). He

urged the urban water agencies to reduce water use by 20 percent through the enactment of

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conservation plans (Simi-Valley Acorn 2009). Just one month later the governor instituted

mandatory water reductions. This was the first time since 1991 that the state enforced such a

regulation (Simi-Valley Acorn 2009).

Another article published by Simi-Valley Acorn points out that Simi Valley, at the

request of the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, began looking into similar

ordinance that would encourage water conservation through incentives, but could also restrict

activities that contribute to water waste. The Water Conservation Initiative included an

expanded Challenge Grant Program which provided competitive grants for water marketing and

conservation projects. This enabled the continued funding of water reuse and recycling projects

as well as extended tax credits for adaptations to landscapes which consume less water (USBR

2009 and AWE 2009). Much like the aforementioned Simi Valley examples, this regulation

eventually evolved from incentive based ordinance, to mandated compliance.

The culmination of local ordinances like these gradually formed the foundation for the

present day “California Green Building Code”. The CGBC is the nation’s first “green” building

code to be instituted in the inventory of any state’s statutes and is expected to be the mandatory

code of the future. Much like the transitions we have seen in the past, from the loosely regulated

early pioneer days of the late 1800’s to the industrial era of the mid 1900’s, the California Green

Building code will be sure to usher in a new age of acceptable building practices with major

concentrations on sustainability, efficiency, and conservation of the limited yet vital resources

the world shares today.

The California Green Building Code was created by the California Building Standards

Commission based on studies and data produced by the International Code Council. In it you

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will find a series of specifications, descriptions, identification of regulating bodies, and measures

that mainly concentrate on conservation and efficiency with the main goal of building

sustainably (CBSC 08). California regulators recognize the fact that there is a transition period

to be expected so they have stipulated that year 2009 will be a voluntary period, and starting in

2010 the code will be mandatory on all new buildings (CBSC 08). It will reach even further in

2011 where it will impose mandatory residential standards (Ecohome09). The new code calls for

a 20% improvement in water use efficiency, 50% increase in water conservation, and 15%

reduction in energy consumption in all new construction (GlobeST 09).

Other states with water shortages have enacted similar regulation, like Washington’s

Municipal Water Supply - Efficiency Requirements Act which became effective January 22,

2007. Water use efficiency elements of this plan include “planning requirements, distribution

leakage standards, water use efficiency goal-setting, and performance reporting” (MRSC of

Washington 2008).

On a larger scale, President Obama has organized committees that will begin working

toward a multifaceted conservation plan for the future. On October 5, 2009, the White House

issued an executive order that set sustainability goals for Federal agencies with one of its focuses

being water efficiency (AWE 2009). Through the creation of the so called “2020 Plan”, the

federal government aims at achieving a 26% improvement in water efficiency (AWE 2009).

7. The Methods and Products of Water Conservation:

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Many companies throughout the U.S. and beyond have thrived on the recent demand for

high efficiency “green construction” products and sustainable processes. As with the water

closet fiasco of the mid-20th century, the development of newer technologies has been achieved

through a series of trials and tribulations. Some new product offerings like waterless urinals and

composting toilets have achieved water conservation, but have brought new cons that had not

been experienced before. The thought of periodically removing waste from a composting toilet’s

storage reservoir, or the inevitable smell of aging urine in a waterless urinal is a reality not to be

desired by most industrialized nation’s population.

Fossil fuel conservation has been achieved through the creation of alternative bio-fuels

like corn ethanol yet creates unanticipated negative impacts on water and food supply. Another

great example of unanticipated impacts is the effect solar harvesting has had on water supply in

the western U.S. Lawmakers have found themselves scrambling to enforce new regulation

which will stipulate acceptable water usage for such operations.

In the midst of these trials and tribulations are other innovative manufactures who are

achieving the goals of water conservation through revolutionary design. Advancements in storm

water collection and reuse systems, drip irrigation and low-flow fixtures design have produced

homes that are more than 50 percent more efficient than the standard home built to code in many

parts of the U.S.

8. Performance Test of 3 Water Closets:

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Ferguson Enterprises, the U.S. operating company of the Wolseley group, is getting ready

to launch a Niagara Conservation .8 GPF Stealth water closet. Through a generous offer from

Ferguson Enterprises, I have been afforded the opportunity to conduct some studies on the water

closet to make a direct comparison to others offered in the past decade. The other two sample

models I have chosen are the Mansfield Standard 1.6 GPF and the Niagara 1.28 GFP Flapperless.

The Mansfield Standard 1.6 GPF was very common fixture installation throughout the

1990’s and even today, can be found in stock at many plumbing supply and home improvement

stores throughout the U.S. (See Figure 3). One of the biggest complaints associated with the

Mansfield standard, and the many like it, are the all too common leaking flappers, which must be

replaced multiple times during the lifetime of the fixture.

Figure 34. Mansfield Standard 1.6 GPF Figure 4. Niagara 1.28

Flapperless WC

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Government funded housing and buildings have found a special interest in the 1.28 and

1.6 GPF Niagara Flapperless water closets because of their water trough design. This design is

claimed to increase flush power and remove the maintenance hassle of replacing leaky flappers,

which as you know contributes to water waste and expensive maintenance if connected to a

septic system. It has been utilized for a few years though out the U.S. and continues to be a

popular choice today (See Figure 4). Among the few complaints gathered through surveys on

the flapperless design are the rare sticking / leaking trough, and the need for a second flush.

The Niagara Conservation Stealth .8 GPF is the most advanced water closet to be

launched on the market (See Figure 5 and 6). Its pressure flush technology (See Figure 7) allows

it to use less water per flush and its modern design (See Figure 5) is sure to appeal to a wide

consumer market.

Figure 5. Niagara Conservation Stealth .8 GPF Figure 6. Niagara

Conservation Stealth .8 GPF

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Figure 7. Stealth Flush Technology

I conducted a 1 week test on each of the 3 aforementioned water closets. I gathered data

from the specification sheets on each water closet and usage data from my household which I

assume to represent a standard house hold of 3 people. With the 3 water closets installed at my

house, I tested one water closet per week. In my data I tracked the frequency of use and how

many flushes were required per use. After testing each water closet for a full week, I compiled

the data into a table and graphed the results (See Figures 8 and 9). The testing produced the

following comments and results:

1. The Mansfield 1.6 GPF Standard: upheld near 100% reliable flushing
a. Leak detecting dye exposed a small seep at the flapper mechanism
2. The Niagara 1.28 GPF Flapperless: performed poorly, requiring frequent
double flushes
a. The double flushes in essences turned the 1.28 to a 2.56 GPF for solids
3. The Niagara .8 GPF Stealth: performed near perfect.
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a. The single documented double flush was noted to be marginally
“unwarranted”

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Mansfield Standard Niagara Cons. Flapperless Niagara Cons. Stealth

1.6 GPF 1.28 GPF .8 GPF
Date # of Flushes Date # of Flushes Date # of Flushes
10/23/2009 1 10/30/2009 2 11/13/2009 1
10/23/2009 1 10/30/2009 1 11/13/2009 1
10/23/2009 1 10/30/2009 2 11/13/2009 1
10/23/2009 1 10/30/2009 1 11/13/2009 1
10/23/2009 1 10/30/2009 1 11/13/2009 1
10/30/2009 1 11/13/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 11/13/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 10/31/2009 1
10/24/2009 2 10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/25/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/25/2009 1 11/1/2009 1
10/25/2009 1 11/2/2009 2 11/15/2009 1
10/25/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/15/2009 1
11/4/2009 1 11/15/2009 1
10/26/2009 1 11/5/2009 1 11/15/2009 1
10/26/2009 1 11/6/2009 1 11/15/2009 1
10/26/2009 1
10/26/2009 1 11/2/2009 1 11/16/2009 1
10/26/2009 1 11/2/2009 2 11/16/2009 1
10/26/2009 1 11/2/2009 1 11/16/2009 1
11/2/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/2/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/2/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
11/3/2009 1
10/28/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/18/2009 1
10/28/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/18/2009 2
10/28/2009 1 11/18/2009 1
10/28/2009 1 11/4/2009 1 11/18/2009 1
10/28/2009 1 11/4/2009 1 11/18/2009 1
10/28/2009 1 11/4/2009 2
10/28/2009 1 11/4/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
11/19/2009 1
10/29/2009 1 11/5/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
10/29/2009 1 11/5/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
10/29/2009 1 11/5/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
10/29/2009 1 11/5/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
11/5/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
Avg. Flush: 1.025 Avg. Flush: 1.12195122 Avg. Flush: 1.024390244

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Figure 8. Chart Data Collected From Tejeda Household WC Usage 10/09 – 11/09

Figure 9. Graphical Representation of Data Collected From Tejeda Household WC Usage

10/09 – 11/09

9. The Current Path and What Lies in the Future:

The results of my personal studies are yet another reminder of what is to be expected in

the advancement of technologies. We see, in just the span of a decade, a product that became

standard and widely accepted (the 1.6), an attempt to incorporate new technologies to reduce

water waste with unanticipated effects (the 1.28), and an ancillary improvement upon a concept

that eventually produced a well designed and effective product (the .8). There will continue to

be a cycle of refinement in the future that will undoubtedly produce some poor products all with

the aim of solving the world’s water crisis. The struggle between competing “green

technologies” should be a major focus of the scientists and innovators who at times seem to be

solving problems with blinders on. Solving one crisis at the expense of another makes no sense

and should be closely monitored in the development of future technologies.

Future Regulation, as we have seen in the past decade, will continue to be geared toward

sustainability and high efficiency. Through the states copious 2020, 2030, and LEED integrated

plans, the near future will continue to undergo steadfast changes in local ordinances and

development regulations all in an attempt to attain the essential stringent goals put forth. The

high goals of aforesaid plans coupled with the reality of today’s usage data will continue to put a

great deal of pressure on the developers and builders of tomorrow.

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Works Cited

1. NOAA: National Weather service Drought map 2009; http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/

2. The San Diego Union 2009, History Threatens to repeat itself;
http://www.carryingcapacity.org/ancienthistory.html
3. Water.org, Water Facts 2009; http://www.water.org
4. Plumbing and Mechanical, The history of water conservation in American Toilets 2004;
http://www.pmmag.com/CDA/Archives/964140b2520d7010VgnVCM100000f932a8c0
5. Real Estate Development, Principles and Process Third Edition; Mike E. Miles, Gayle Berens, Marc A.
Weiss; Urban Land Institute 2003
6. The United States Environmental Protection Agency; http://www.epa.gov/nps/chap3.html
7. Earth Easy, 25 Ways to Conserve Water at Home and Yard2009;
http://eartheasy.com/live_water_saving.htm
8. Alliance for Water Efficiency, The White House Sets Sustainability Goals for Federal Agencies 2009;
http://www.allianceforwaterefficiency.org/obama-exec-order.aspx
9. The United States Department of the Interior, Water Conservation Initiative2009; http://www.usbr.gov/wci/
10. Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington, Water Conservation Measures 2008;
http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Environment/water/wc-measures.aspx
11. Simi Vally Acorn, Water Conservation Laws Trickle Down 2009;
http://www.simivalleyacorn.com/news/2009-03-
13/Front_Page/Water_conservation_laws_trickle_down.html
12. California’s green building code seen as a good balance for builders, Jennifer Goodman; Ecohome 2009,
august 17, 2009
13. California Green Building Code Harbinger for the Future, Debra Hazel; GlobeST.com, august 2, 2009.
14. Green Building Standards Code, California code of regulations title 24 part 11, California building
standards commission 2008.
15. My Green home blog, The low down on low flow 2007; http://mygreenhomeblog.com/2007/11/30/the-
down-low-on-low-flow/
16. Niagara Conservation, Ecologic water closet 2009; http://www.niagaraconservation.com/Ecologic.html
17. Ferguson Enterprises, Product Offerings 2009; http://www.ferguson.com

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