FG 9 Science SA-I All Chapters

1 Matter in Our
Surroundings
Everything in this universe is made up of material which scientists have named matter. The air we breathe, the
food we eat, stones, clouds, stars, plants and animals, even a small drop of water or a particle of sand each thing
is matter. We can also see as we look around that all the things mentioned above occupy space, that is, volume and
have mass.
ince early times, human beings have been trying to understand their surroundings. Early !ndian philosophers
classified matter in the form of five basic elements the Panch Tatva air, earth, fire, sky and water.
"ccording to them everything, living or nonliving, was made up of these five basic elements. "ncient #reek
philosophers had arrived at a similar classification of matter. $odern day scientists have evolved two types of
classification of matter based on their physical properties and chemical nature.
Physical Nature of Matter
MATTER IS MADE UP OF PARTICES
%or a long time, two schools of thought prevailed regarding the nature of matter. &ne school believed matter to be
continuous like a block of wood, whereas, the other thought that matter was made up of particles like sand. There
must be millions of tiny particles in 'ust one crystal of potassium permanganate, which keep on dividing
themselves into smaller and smaller particles. (ltimately a stage is reached when the particles cannot divide
further into smaller particles.
Characteristics of Particles of Matter
PARTICES OF MATTER !A"E SPACE #ET$EEN T!EM
)articles of sugar, salt, *ettol, or potassium permanganate get evenly distributed in water when dissolved.
imilarly, when we make tea, coffee or lemonade +nimbu paani ,, particles of one type of matter get into the spaces
between particles of the other. This shows that there is enough space between particles of matter.
PARTICES OF MATTER ARE CONTINUOUS% MO"IN&
)articles of matter are continuously moving, that is, they possess what we call the kinetic energy. "s the
temperature rises, particles move faster. o, we can say that with increase in temperature the kinetic energy of the
particles also increases.
When we dissolve sugar or salt in water we observe that particles of matter intermi- on their own with each other.
They do so by getting into the spaces between the particles. This intermi-ing of particles of two different types of
matter on their own is called diffusion. We also observe that on heating, diffusion becomes faster.
PARTICES OF MATTER ATTRACT EAC! OT!ER
IX/SCIRNCE/C.P.VERMA
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)articles of matter have force acting between them. This force keeps the particles together. The strength of this
force of attraction varies from one kind of matter to another.
States of Matter
&bserve different types of matter around you. What are its different states. We can see that matter around us
e-ists in three different states solid, li/uid and gas. These states of matter arise due to the variation in the
characteristics of the particles of matter.
T!E SOID STATE
olids have a definite shape, distinct boundaries and fi-ed volumes, that is, have negligible compressibility. olids
have a tendency to maintain their shape when sub'ected to outside force. olids may break under force but it is
difficult to change their shape, so they are rigid. " rubber band changes shape under force and regains the same
shape when the force is removed. !f e-cessive force is applied, it breaks. The shape of each individual sugar or salt
crystal remains fi-ed, whether we take it in our hand, put it in a plate or in a 'ar. " sponge has minute holes, in
which air is trapped, when we press it, the air is e-pelled out and we are able to compress it.
T!E I'UID STATE
We observe that li/uids have no fi-ed shape but have a fi-ed volume. They take up the shape of the container in
which they are kept. 0i/uids flow and change shape, so they are not rigid but can be called fluid. olids and li/uids
can diffuse into li/uids. The gases from the atmosphere diffuse and dissolve in water. These gases, especially
o-ygen and carbon dio-ide, are essential for the survival of a/uatic animals and plants.
"ll living creatures need to breathe for survival. The a/uatic animals can breathe under water due to the presence
of dissolved o-ygen in water. Thus, we may conclude that solids, li/uids and gases can diffuse into li/uids. The
rate of diffusion of li/uids is higher than that of solids. This is due to the fact that in the li/uid state, particles
move freely and have greater space between each other as compared to particles in the solid state.
T!E &ASEOUS STATE
1ave you ever observed a balloon seller filling a large number of balloons from a single cylinder of gas. En/uire
from him how many balloons is he able to fill from one cylinder. "sk him which gas does he have in the cylinder.
We have observed that gases are highly compressible as compared to solids and li/uids. The li/uefied petroleum
gas +0)#, cylinder that we get in our home for cooking or the o-ygen supplied to hospitals in cylinders is
compressed gas. 2ompressed natural gas +23#, is used as fuel these days in vehicles. *ue to its high
compressibility, large volumes of a gas can be compressed into a small cylinder and transported easily.
We come to know of what is being cooked in the kitchen without even entering there, by the smell that reaches our
nostrils. 1ow does this smell reach us. The particles of the aroma of food mi- with the particles of air spread from
the kitchen, reach us and even farther away. The smell of hot cooked food reaches us in seconds4 compare this
with the rate of diffusion of solids and li/uids. *ue to high speed of particles and large space between them, gases
show the property of diffusing very fast into other gases.
!n the gaseous state, the particles move about randomly at high speed. *ue to this random movement, the
particles hit each other and also the walls of the container. The pressure e-erted by the gas is because of this force
e-erted by gas particles per unit area on the walls of the container.
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Can Matter Change its State(
We all know from our observation that water can e-ist in three states of matter
solid, as ice,
li/uid, as the familiar water, and
gas, as water vapour.
What happens inside the matter during this change of state. What happens to the particles of matter during the
change of states. 1ow does this change of state take place.
EFFECT OF C!AN&E OF TEMPERATURE
&n increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases. *ue to the increase in kinetic
energy, the particles start vibrating with greater speed. The energy supplied by heat overcomes the forces of
attraction between the particles. The particles leave their fi-ed positions and start moving more freely. " stage is
reached when the solid melts and is converted to a li/uid. The temperature at which a solid melts to become a
li/uid at the atmospheric pressure is called its melting point.
The )elting *oint of a solid is an indication of the strength of the force of attraction +et,een its
*articles-
The melting point of ice is 567.89 :. The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into li/uid state is also
known as fusion.
$hen a solid )elts. its te)*erature re)ains the sa)e. so ,here does the heat energy go( ;ou must
have observed, during the e-periment of melting, that the temperature of the system does not change after the
melting point is reached, till all the ice melts. This happens even though we continue to heat the beaker, that is, we
continue to supply heat. This heat gets used up in changing the state by overcoming the forces of attraction
between the particles. "s this heat energy is absorbed by ice without showing any rise in temperature, it is
considered that it gets hidden into the contents of the beaker and is known as the latent heat. The word latent
means hidden. The amount of heat energy that is re/uired to change 8 kg of a solid into li/uid at atmospheric
pressure at its melting point is known as the latent heat of fusion. o, particles in water at <=2 +567 :, have
more energy as compared to particles in ice at the same temperature.
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When we supply heat energy to water, particles start moving even faster. "t a certain temperature, a point is
reached when the particles have enough energy to break free from the forces of attraction of each other. "t this
temperature the li/uid starts changing into gas. The temperature at which a li/uid starts boiling at the
atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling point. >oiling is a bulk phenomenon. )articles from the bulk of the
li/uid gain enough energy to change into the vapour state.%or water this temperature is 767 : +8<<=2 ? 567 @ 8<<
? 767 :,.
)articles in steam, that is, water vapour at 767 : +8<<< 2, have more energy than water at the same temperature.
This is because particles in steam have absorbed e-tra energy in the form of latent heat of vaporisation.
o, we infer that the state of matter can be changed into another state by changing the temperature.
We have learnt that substances around us change state from solid to li/uid and from li/uid to gas on application
of heat. >ut there are some that change directly from solid state to gaseous state and vice versa without changing
into the li/uid state.
" change of state directly from solid to gas without changing into li/uid state +or vice versa, is called
su+li)ation.
EFFECT OF C!AN&E OF PRESSURE
We have already learnt that the difference in various states of matter is due to the difference in the distances
between the constituent particles. What will happen when we start putting pressure and compress a gas enclosed
in a cylinder. Will the particles come closer. *o you think that increasing or decreasing the pressure can change
the state of matter.
"pplying pressure and reducing temperature can li/uefy gases. 1ave you heard of solid carbon dio-ide +2&5,. !t is
stored under high pressure. olid 2&5 gets converted directly to gaseous state on decrease of pressure to 8
atmosphere without coming into li/uid state. This is the reason that solid carbon dio-ide is also known as dry ice.
Thus, we can say that pressure and temperature determine the state of a substance, whether it will be solid, li/uid
or gas.
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E/a*oration
We always do not need to heat or change pressure for changing the state of matter. We see some e-amples from
everyday life where change of state from li/uid to vapour takes place without the li/uid reaching the boiling point.
Water, when left uncovered, slowly changes into vapour. Wet clothes dry up. What happens to water in the above
two e-amples. We know that particles of matter are always moving and are never at rest. "t a given temperature
in any gas, li/uid or solid, there are particles with different amounts of kinetic energy. !n the case of li/uids, a
small fraction of particles at the surface, having higher kinetic energy, is able to break away from the forces of
attraction of other particles and gets converted into vapour. This phenomenon of change of a li/uid into vapours
at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.
FACTORS AFFECTIN& E"APORATION
Aate of evaporation increases with
"n increase of surface areaB We know that evaporation is a surface phenomenon. !f the surface area is
increased, the rate of evaporation increases. %or e-ample, while putting clothes for drying up we spread
them out.
"n increase of temperatureB With the increase of temperature, more number of particles get enough
kinetic energy to go into the vapour state.
" decrease in humidityB 1umidity is the amount of water vapour present in air. The air around us cannot
hold more than a definite amount of water vapour at a given temperature. !f the amount of water in air is
already high, the rate of evaporation decreases.
"n increase in wind speedB !t is a common observation that clothes dry faster on a windy day. With the
increase in wind speed, the particles of water vapour move away with the wind, decreasing the amount of
water vapour in the surrounding.
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!O$ DOES E"APORATION CAUSE COOIN&(
!n an open vessel, the li/uid keeps on evaporating. The particles of li/uid absorb energy from the surrounding to
regain the energy lost during evaporation. This absorption of energy from the surroundings make the
surroundings cold.
What happens when you pour some acetone +nail polish remover, on your palm. The particles gain energy from
your palm or surroundings and evaporate causing the palm to feel cool.
"fter a hot sunny day, people sprinkle water on the roof or open ground because the large latent heat of
vaporisation of water helps to cool the hot surface.
$hy should ,e ,ear cotton clothes in su))er(
*uring summer, we perspire more because of the mechanism of our body which keeps us cool. We know that
during evaporation, the particles at the surface of the li/uid gain energy from the surroundings or body surface
and change into vapour. The heat energy e/ual to the latent heat of vaporisation is absorbed from the body leaving
the body cool. 2otton, being a good absorber of water helps in absorbing the sweat and e-posing it to the
atmosphere for easy evaporation.
$hy do ,e see ,ater dro*lets on the outer surface of a glass containing ice0cold ,ater(
0et us take some iceCcold water in a tumbler. oon we will see water droplets on the outer surface of the tumbler.
The water vapour present in air, on coming in contact with the cold glass of water, loses energy and gets converted
to li/uid state, which we see as water droplets.
3ow scientists are talking of five states of matterB olid, 0i/uid, #as, )lasma and >oseCEinstein 2ondensate.
Plas)a1 The state consists of super energetic and super e-cited particles. These particles are in the form of
ionised gases. The fluorescent tube and neon sign bulbs consist of plasma. !nside a neon sign bulb there is neon
gas and inside a fluorescent tube there is helium gas or some other gas. The gas gets ionised, that is, gets charged
when electrical energy flows through it. This charging up creates a plasma glowing inside the tube or bulb. The
plasma glows with a special colour depending on the nature of gas. The un and the stars glow because of the
presence of plasma in them. The plasma is created in stars because of very high temperature.
#ose0Einstein Condensate1 !n 8D5<, !ndian physicist atyendra 3ath >ose had done some calculations for a
fifth state of matter. >uilding on his calculations, "lbert Einstein predicted a new state of matter the >oseC
Einstein 2ondensate +>E2,. !n 5<<8, Eric ". 2ornell, Wolfgang :etterle and 2arl E. Wieman of (" received the
3obel priEe in physics for achieving >oseCEinstein condensation. The >E2 is formed by cooling a gas of
e-tremely low density, about oneChundredCthousandth the density of normal air, to super low temperatures.
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2 Is Matter Around us Pure
1ave you ever noticed the word FpureG written on the packs of milk, ghee, butter, salt, spices, mineral water or
'uice. %or a common person pure means having no adulteration. >ut, for a scientist all these things are actually
mi-tures of different substances and hence not pure. %or e-ample, milk is actually a mi-ture of water, fat, proteins
etc. When a scientist says that something is pure, it means that all the constituent particles of that substance are
the same in their chemical nature. " pure substance consists of a single type of particles.
"s we look around, we can see that most of the matter around us e-ist as mi-tures of two or more pure
components, for e-ample, sea water, minerals, soil etc. are all mi-tures.
$hat is a Mi3ture(
$i-tures are constituted by more than one kind of pure form of matter, known as a substance. " substance cannot
be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical process. We know that dissolved sodium chloride can be
separated from water by the physical process of evaporation. 1owever, sodium chloride is itself a substance and
cannot be separated by physical process into its chemical constituents. imilarly, sugar is a substance because it
contains only one kind of pure matter and its composition is the same throughout.
oft drink and soil are not single substances. Whatever the source of a substance may be, it will always have the
same characteristic properties. Therefore, we can say that a mi-ture contains more than one substance.
T%PES OF MI4TURES
*epending upon the nature of the components that form a mi-ture, we can have different types of mi-tures.
$hat is a Solution(
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Alloys1 "lloys are homogeneous
mi-tures of metals and cannot be
separated into their components by
physical methods. >ut still, an alloy
is considered as a mi-ture because it
shows the properties of its
constituents and can have variable
composition. %or e-ample, brass is a
mi-ture of appro-imately 7<H Einc
and 6<H copper.
" solution is a homogeneous mi-ture of two or more substances. ;ou
come across various types of solutions in your daily life. 0emonade,
soda water etc. are all e-amples of solutions. (sually we think of a
solution as a li/uid that contains either a solid, li/uid or a gas
dissolved in it. >ut, we can also have solid solutions +alloys, and
gaseous solutions +air,. !n a solution there is homogeneity at the
particle level. %or e-ample, lemonade tastes the same throughout.
This shows that particles of sugar or salt are evenly distributed in the
solution.

" solution has a solvent and a solute as its components. The component of the solution that dissolves the other
component in it +usually the component present in larger amount, is called the solvent. The component of the
solution that is dissolved in the solvent +usually present in lesser /uantity, is called the solute.
Pro*erties of a solution
" solution is a homogeneous mi-ture.
The particles of a solution are smaller than 8 nm +8<CD metre, in diameter. o, they cannot be seen by
naked eyes.
>ecause of very small particle siEe, they do not scatter a beam of light passing through the solution. o, the
path of light is not visible in a solution.
The solute particles cannot be separated from the mi-ture by the process of filtration. The solute particles
do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a solution is stable.
Concentration of a Solution
!n activity 5.5, we observed that groups " and > obtained different shades of solutions. o, we understand
that in a solution the relative proportion of the solute and solvent can be varied. *epending upon the
amount of solute present in a solution, it can be called a dilute, concentrated or a saturated solution.
*ilute and concentrated are comparative terms. !n activity 5.5, the solution obtained by group " is dilute
as compared to that obtained by group >.
!s the amount of salt and sugar or barium chloride, that can be dissolved in water at a given temperature,
the same. "t any particular temperature, a solution that has dissolved as much solute as it is capable of
dissolving, is said to be a saturated solution. !n other words, when no more solute can be dissolved in a
solution at a given temperature, it is called a saturated solution. The amount of the solute present in the
saturated solution at this temperature is called its solubility.
!f the amount of solute contained in a solution is less than the saturation level, it is called an unsaturated
solution.
What would happen if you were to take a saturated solution at a certain temperature and cool it slowly.
We can infer from the above activity that different substances in a given solvent have different solubilities
at the same temperature.
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given amount +mass or volume, of
solution, or the amount of solute dissolved in a given mass or volume of solvent.
Concentration of solution ? Amount of solute / Amount of solution
&r
Amount of solute /Amount of solvent
There are various ways of e-pressing the concentration of a solution, but here we will learn only two
methods.
$hat is a Sus*ension(
3onChomogeneous systems, like those in which solids are dispersed in li/uids, are called suspensions. "
suspension is a heterogeneous mi-ture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain suspended
throughout the bulk of the medium. )articles of a suspension are visible to the naked eye.
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Pro*erties of a Sus*ension
uspension is a heterogeneous mi-ture.
The particles of a suspension can be seen by the naked eye.
The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible.
The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left undisturbed, that is, a suspension is unstable.
They can be separated from the mi-ture by the process of filtration.
$hat is a Colloidal Solution(
The mi-ture obtained by group * in activity 5.5 is called a colloid or a colloidal solution. The particles of a colloid
are uniformly spread throughout the solution. *ue to the relatively smaller siEe of particles, as compared to that of
a suspension, the mi-ture appears to be homogeneous. >ut actually, a colloidal solution is a heterogeneous
mi-ture, for e-ample, milk.
>ecause of the small siEe of colloidal particles, we cannot see them with naked eyes. >ut, these particles can easily
scatter a beam of visible light as observed in activity 5.5. This scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall
effect after the name of the scientist who discovered this effect.
Tyndall effect can also be observed when a fine beam of light enters a room through a small hole. This happens
due to the scattering of light by the particles of dust and smoke in the air.
Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest. !n the forest, mist
contains tiny droplets of water, which act as particles of colloid dispersed in air.
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Pro*erties of a colloid
8. " colloid is a heterogeneous mi-ture.
5. The siEe of particles of a colloid is too small to be individually seen by naked eyes.
7. 2olloids are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible.
I. They do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a colloid is /uite stable.
J. They cannot be separated from the mi-ture by the process of filtration. >ut, a special techni/ue of
separation known as centrifugation, can be used to separate the colloidal particles.
The components of a colloidal solution are the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium. The soluteClike
component or the dispersed particles in a colloid form the dispersed phase, and the component in which the
dispersed phase is suspended is known as the dispersing medium. 2olloids are classified according to the state
+solid, li/uid or gas, of the dispersing medium and the dispersed phase. " few common e-amples are given in
Table 8. %rom this table you can see that they are very common everyday life.
Table 1: Common examples of colloids
Dispersed phase Dispersing Medium Type Example
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream
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Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud
Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice
Liquid Solid Gel ell!, cheese, butter
Solid Solid Solid Sol "oloured gemstone, milk! glass
Se*arating the Co)*onents of a Mi3ture
We have learnt that most of the natural substances are not chemically pure. *ifferent methods of separation are
used to get individual components from a mi-ture. eparation makes it possible to study and use the individual
components of a mi-ture. 1eterogeneous mi-tures can be separated into their respective constituents by simple
physical methods like handpicking, sieving, filtration that we use in our dayCtoCday life. ometimes special
techni/ues have to be used for the separation of the components of a mi-ture.
!o, can $e O+tain Coloured Co)*onent 5Dye6 fro) #lue 7 #lac8 In8(
%ill half a beaker with water.
)ut a watch glass on the mouth of the beaker +%ig. J,.
)ut few drops of ink on the watch glass.
3ow start heating the beaker. We do not want to heat the ink directly. ;ou will see that evaporation is
taking place from the watch glass.
2ontinue heating as the evaporation goes on and stop heating when you do not see any further change on
the watch glass.
&bserve carefully and record your observations.
We find that ink is a mi-ture of a dye in water. Thus, we can separate the volatile component +solvent, from its
nonCvolatile solute by the method of evaporation
!o, can $e Se*arate Crea) Fro) Mil8(
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3owCaCdays, we get fullCcream, toned and doubleCtoned varieties of milk packed in polypacks or tetra packs in the
market. These varieties of milk contain different amounts of fat.
Take some fullCcream milk in a test tube.
2entrifuge it by using a centrifuging machine for two minutes. !f a centrifuging machine is not available in
the school, you can do this activity at home by using a milk churner, used in the kitchen.
ometimes the solid particles in a li/uid are very small and pass through a filter paper. %or such particles the
filtration techni/ue cannot be used for separation. uch mi-tures are separated by centrifugation. The principle is
that the denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles stay at the top when spun rapidly.
!o, can $e Se*arate a Mi3ture of T,o I))isci+le i9uids(
0et us try to separate kerosene oil from water using a separating funnel.
)our the mi-ture of kerosene oil and water in a separating funnel +%ig. 9,.
0et it stand undisturbed for sometime so that separate layers of oil and water are formed.
&pen the stopcock of the separating funnel and pour out the lower layer of water carefully.
2lose the stopcock of the separating funnel as the oil reaches the stopCcock.
A**lications
To separate mi-ture of oil and water.
!n the e-traction of iron from its ore, the lighter slag is removed from the top by this method to leave the
molten iron at the bottom in the furnace.
The principle is that immiscible li/uids separate out in layers depending on their densities.
!o, can $e Se*arate a Mi3ture of Salt and A))oniu) Chloride(
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We have learnt that ammonium chloride changes directly from solid to gaseous state on heating. o, to separate
such mi-tures that contain a sublimable volatile component from a nonCsublimable impurity +salt in this case,, the
sublimation process is used +%ig.6,. ome e-amples of solids which sublime are ammonium chloride, camphor,
naphthalene and anthracene.
Is the Dye in #lac8 In8 a Single Colour(
Take a thin strip of filter paper.
*raw a line on it using a pencil, appro-imately 7 cm above the lower edge K%ig.L +a,M.
)ut a small drop of ink +water soluble, that is, from a sketch pen or fountain pen, at the centre of the line.
0et it dry.
0ower the filter paper into a 'arNglassN beakerNtest tube containing water so that the drop of ink on the
paper is 'ust above the water level, as shown in %ig. L+b, and leave it undisturbed.
Watch carefully, as the water rises up on the filter paper. Aecord your observations.
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The ink that we use has water as the solvent and the dye is soluble in it. "s the water rises on the filter paper it
takes along with it the dye particles. (sually, a dye is a mi-ture of two or more colours. The coloured component
that is more soluble in water, rises faster and in this way the colours get separated.
This process of separation of components of a mi-ture is known as chromatography. :roma in #reek means
colour. This techni/ue was first used for separation of colours, so this name was given. 2hromatography is the
techni/ue used for separation of those solutes that dissolve in the same solvent. With the advancement in
technology, newer techni/ues of chromatography have been developed.
A**lications
To separate
colours in a dye
pigments from natural colours
drugs from blood
!o, can $e Se*arate a Mi3ture of T,o Misci+le i9uids(
0et us try to separate acetone and water from their mi-ture.
Take the mi-ture in a distillation flask. %it it with a thermometer.
"rrange the apparatus as shown in %ig. D.
1eat the mi-ture slowly keeping a close watch at the thermometer.
The acetone vaporises, condenses in the condenser and can be collected from the condenser outlet.
Water is left behind in the distillation flask.
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This method is called distillation. !t is used for the separation of components of a mi-ture containing two miscible
li/uids that boil without decomposition and have sufficient difference in their boiling points.
To separate a mi-ture of two or more miscible li/uids for which the difference in boiling points is less than 5J :,
fractional distillation process is used, for e-ample, for the separation of different gases from air, different factions
from petroleum products etc. The apparatus is similar to that for simple distillation, e-cept that a fractionating
column is fitted in between the distillation flask and the condenser.
" simple fractionating column is a tube packed with glass beads. The beads provide surface for the vapours to cool
and condense repeatedly, as shown in %ig. 8<.
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!o, can $e O+tain Different &ases fro) Air(
"ir is a homogeneous mi-ture and can be separated into its components by fractional distillation. The flow
diagram +%ig. 88, shows the steps of the process.
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!f we want o-ygen gas from air +%ig.85,, we have to separate out all the other gases present in the air. The air is
compressed by increasing the pressure and is then cooled by decreasing the temperature to get li/uid air. This
li/uid air is allowed to warmCup slowly in a fractional distillation column, where gases get separated at different
heights depending upon their boiling points.
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!o, can $e O+tain Pure Co**er Sul*hate fro) an I)*ure Sa)*le(
Take some +appro-imately J g, impure sample of copper sulphate in a china dish.
*issolve it in minimum amount of water.
%ilter the impurities out.
Evaporate water from the copper sulphate solution so as to get a saturated solution.
2over the solution with a filter paper and leave it undisturbed at room temperature to cool slowly for a
day.
;ou will obtain the crystals of copper sulphate in the china dish.
This process is called crystallisation.
The crystallisation method is used to purify solids. %or e-ample, the salt we get from sea water can have many
impurities in it. To remove these impurities, the process of crystallisation is used. 2rystallisation is a process that
separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a solution. 2rystallisation techni/ue is better than simple
evaporation techni/ue as
some solids decompose or some, like sugar, may get charred on heating to dryness.
some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution even after filtration. &n evaporation these
contaminate the solid.
A**lications
)urification of salt that we get from sea water.
eparation of crystals of alum +phitkari, from impure samples.
Thus, by choosing one of the above methods according to the nature of the components of a mi-ture, we get a pure
substance. With advancements in technology many more methods of separation techni/ues have been devised. !n
cities, drinking water is supplied from water works. " flow diagram of a typical water works is shown in %ig. 87.
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Physical and Che)ical Changes
To understand the difference between a pure substance and a mi-ture, let us understand the difference between a
physical and a chemical change. We have learnt about a few physical properties of matter. The properties that can
be observed and specified like colour, hardness, rigidity, fluidity, density, melting point, boiling point etc. are the
physical properties.
The interCconversion of states is a physical change because these changes occur without a change in composition
and no change in the chemical nature of the substance. "lthough ice, water and water vapour all look different and
display different physical properties, they are chemically the same.
>oth water and cooking oil are li/uid but their chemical characteristics are different. They differ in odour and
inflammability. We know that oil burns in air whereas water e-tinguishes fire. !t is this chemical property of oil
that makes it different from water. >urning is a chemical change. *uring this process one substance reacts with
another to undergo a change in chemical composition. 2hemical change brings change in the chemical properties
of matter and we get new substances. " chemical change is also called a chemical reaction. *uring burning of a
candle, both physical and chemical changes take place.
$hat are the Ty*es of Pure Su+stances(
&n the basis of their chemical composition, substances can be classified either as elements or compounds.
EEMENTS
Aobert >oyle was the first scientist to use the term element in 8998. "ntoine 0aurent 0avoisier +86I7CDI,, a %rench
chemist, was the first to establish an e-perimentally useful definition of an element. 1e defined an element as a
basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions.
Elements can be normally divided into metals, nonCmetals and metalloids.
$etals usually show some or all of the following propertiesB
They have a lustre +shine,.
They have silveryCgrey or goldenCyellow colour.
They conduct heat and electricity.
They are ductile +can be drawn into wires,.
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They are malleable +can be hammered into thin sheets,.
They are sonorous +make a ringing sound when hit,.
E-amples of metals are gold, silver, copper, iron, sodium, potassium etc. $ercury is the only metal that is li/uid at
room temperature.
3onCmetals usually show some or all of the following propertiesB
They display a variety of colours.
They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
They are not lustrous, sonorous or malleable.
E-amples of nonCmetals are hydrogen, o-ygen, iodine, carbon +coal, coke,, bromine, chlorine etc. ome elements
have intermediate properties between those of metals and nonCmetals, they are called metalloids4 e-amples are
boron, silicon, germanium etc.
The number of elements known at present are more than 8<<. 3inetyCtwo elements are naturally
occurring and the rest are manmade.
$a'ority of the elements are solid.
Eleven elements are in gaseous state at room temperature.
Two elements are li/uid at room temperaturemercury and bromine.
Elements, gallium and cesium become li/uid at a temperature slightly above room temperature +7<7 :,.
COMPOUNDS
" compound is a substance composed of two or more elements, chemically combined with one another in a fi-ed
proportion.
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: The Funda)ental Unit of ife
While e-amining a thin slice of cork, Aobert 1ooke saw that the cork resembled the structure of a honeycomb
consisting of many little compartments. 2ork is a substance which comes from the bark of a tree. This was in the
year 899J when 1ooke made this chance observation through a selfCdesigned microscope. Aobert 1ooke called
these bo-es cells. 2ell is a 0atin word for Fa little roomG.
This may seem to be a very small and insignificant incident but it is very important in the history of science. This
was the very first time that someone had observed that living things appear to consist of separate units. The use of
the word FcellG to describe these units is used till this day in biology.
Cell in i/ing Organis)s
Take a small piece from an onion bulb. With the help of a pair of forceps, we can peel off the skin +called
epidermis, from the concave side +inner layer, of the onion. This layer can be put immediately in a watchCglass
containing water. This will prevent the peel from getting folded or getting dry. Take a glass slide, put a drop of
water on it and transfer a small piece of the peel from the watch glass to the slide. $ake sure that the peel is
perfectly flat on the slide. " thin camel hair paintbrush might be necessary to help transfer the peel. 3ow put a
drop of iodine solution on this piece followed by a cover slip. Take care to avoid air bubbles while putting the cover
slip with the help of a mounting needle. "sk your teacher for help. We have prepared a temporary mount of onion
peel. We can observe this slide under low power followed by high powers of a compound microscope.
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We draw the structures that we are able to see through the microscope, on an observation sheet it looks like %ig.5.
These structures look similar to each other. Together they form a big structure like an onion bulbO We find from
this activity that onion bulbs of different siEes have similar small structures visible under a microscope. The cells
of the onion peel will all look the same, regardless of the siEe of the onion they came from.
These small structures that we see are the basic building units of the onion bulb. These structures are called cells.
3ot only onions, but all organisms that we observe around are made up of cells. 1owever, there are also single
cells that live on their own.
2ells were first discovered by Aobert 1ooke in 899J. 1e observed the cells in a cork slice with the help of a
primitive microscope. 0eeuwenhoek +896I,, with the improved microscope, discovered the free living cells in pond
water for the first time. !t was Aobert >rown in 8L78 who discovered the nucleus in the cell. )urkin'e in 8L7D
coined the term FprotoplasmG for the fluid substance of the cell. The cell theory, that all the plants and animals are
composed of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of life, was presented by two biologists, chleiden +8L7L, and
chwann +8L7D,. The cell theory was further e-panded by Pirchow +8LJJ, by suggesting that all cells arise from
preCe-isting cells. With the discovery of the electron microscope in 8DI<, it was possible to observe and
understand the comple- structure of the cell and its various organelles.
The invention of magnifying lenses led to the discovery of the microscopic world. !t is now known that a single cell
may constitute a whole organism as in "moeba, 2hlamydomonas, )aramoecium and bacteria. These organisms
are called unicellular organisms +uni ? single,. &n the other hand, many cells group together in a single body and
assume different functions in it to form various body parts in multicellular organisms +multi ? many, such as
some fungi, plants and animals.
Every multiCcellular organism has come from a single cell. 2ells divide to produce cells of their own kind. "ll cells
thus come from preCe-isting cells. ome organisms can also have cells of different kinds. 0ook at the following
picture. !t depicts some cells from the human body.
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The shape and siEe of cells are related to the specific function they perform. ome cells like "moeba have changing
shapes. !n some cases the cell shape could be more or less fi-ed and peculiar for a particular type of cell4 for
e-ample, nerve cells have a typical shape.
Each living cell has the capacity to perform certain basic functions that are characteristic of all living forms. We
know that there is a division of labour in multicellular organisms such as human beings. This means that different
parts of the human body perform different functions. The human body has a heart to pump blood, a stomach to
digest food and so on. imilarly, division of labour is also seen within a single cell in many cases. !n fact, each such
cell has got certain specific components within it known as cell organelles. Each kind of cell organelle performs a
special function, such as making new material in the cell, clearing up the waste material from the cell and so on. "
cell is able to live and perform all its functions because of these organelles. These organelles together constitute
the basic unit called the cell. !t is interesting that all cells are found to have the same organelles, no matter what
their function is or what organism they are found in.
Structural Organisation of a Cell
We saw above that the cell has special components called organelles. !f we study a cell under a microscope, we
would come across three features in almost every cell4 plasma membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm. "ll activities
inside the cell and interactions of the cell with its environment are possible due to these features.
Plas)a Me)+rane or Cell Me)+rane
This is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its e-ternal environment. The
plasma membrane allows or permits the entry and e-it of some materials in and out of the cell. !t also prevents
movement of some other materials. The cell membrane, therefore, is called a selectively permeable membrane.
ome substances like carbon dio-ide or o-ygen can move across the cell membrane by a process called diffusion.
We have studied the process of diffusion before. We saw that there is spontaneous movement of a substance from
a region of high concentration to a region where its concentration is low.
omething similar to this happens in cells when, for e-ample, some substance like 2&5 +which is cellular waste
and re/uires to be e-creted out by the cell, accumulates in high concentrations inside the cell. !n the cellGs e-ternal
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environment, the concentration of 2&5 is low as compared to that inside the cell. "s soon as there is a difference of
concentration of 2&5 inside and outside a cell, 2&5 moves out of the cell, from a region of high concentration, to a
region of low concentration outside the cell by the process of diffusion. imilarly, &5 enters the cell by the process
of diffusion when the level or concentration of &5 inside the cell decreases. Thus, diffusion plays an important role
in gaseous e-change between the cells as well as the cell and its e-ternal environment.
Water also obeys the law of diffusion. The movement of water molecules through such a selectively permeable
membrane is called osmosis. The movement of water across the plasma membrane is also affected by the amount
of substance dissolved in water. Thus, osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water concentration
through a semiCpermeable membrane to a region of low water concentration.
&ne of the following three things could happen if we put an animal cell or a plant cell into a solution of sugar or
salt in waterB
8. !f the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than the cell, meaning that the
outside solution is very dilute, the cell will gain water by osmosis. uch a solution is known as a hypotonic
solution.
Water molecules are free to pass across the cell membrane in both directions, but more water will come
into the cell than will leave. The net +overall, result is that water enters the cell. The cell is likely to swell
up.
5. !f the medium has e-actly the same water concentration as the cell, there will be no net movement of
water across the cell membrane. uch a solution is known as an isotonic solution.
Water crosses the cell membrane in both directions, but the amount going in is the same as the amount
going out, so there is no overall movement of water. The cell will stay the same siEe.
7. !f the medium has a lower concentration of water than the cell, meaning that it is a very concentrated
solution, the cell will lose water by osmosis. uch a solution is known as a hypertonic solution.
"gain, water crosses the cell membrane in both directions, but this time more water leaves the cell than
enters it. Therefore the cell will shrink.
Thus, osmosis is a special case of diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane.
(nicellular freshwater organisms and most plant cells tend to gain water through osmosis. "bsorption of water by
plant roots is also an e-ample of osmosis. Thus, diffusion is important in e-change of gases and water in the life of
a cell. !n additions to this, the cell also obtains nutrition from its environment. *ifferent molecules move in and
out of the cell through a type of transport re/uiring use of energy in the form of "T).
The plasma membrane is fle-ible and is made up of organic molecules called lipids and proteins. 1owever, we can
observe the structure of the plasma membrane only through an electron microscope. The fle-ibility of the cell
membrane also enables the cell to engulf in food and other material from its e-ternal environment. uch processes
are known as endocytosis. "moeba ac/uires its food through such processes.
Cell $all
)lant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another rigid outer covering called the cell wall. The cell
wall lies outside the plasma membrane. The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. 2ellulose is a comple-
substance and provides structural strength to plants. When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is
shrinkage or contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is known as
plasmolysis.
2ell walls permit the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand very dilute +hypotonic, e-ternal media without
bursting. !n such media the cells tend to take up water by osmosis. The cell swells, building up pressure against
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the cell wall. The wall e-erts an e/ual pressure against the swollen cell. >ecause of their walls, such cells can
withstand much greater changes in the surrounding medium than animal cells
Nucleus
Aemember the temporary mount of onion peel we prepared. We had put iodine solution on the peel. %urther,
when we put iodine solution on the peel, each cell did not get evenly coloured. "ccording to their chemical
composition different regions of cells get coloured differentially. ome regions appear darker than other regions.
"part from iodine solution we could also use safranin solution or methylene blue solution to stain the cells.
There was a darkly coloured, spherical or oval, dotClike structure near the centre of each cell. This structure is
called nucleus. The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane. The nuclear membrane has
pores which allow the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to its outside, that is, to the cytoplasm.
The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rodCshaped structures only when the cell is about to
divide. 2hromosomes contain information for inheritance of features from parents to ne-t generation in the form
of *3" +*eo-yribo 3ucleic "cid, molecules. 2hromosomes are composed of *3" and protein. *3" molecules
contain the information necessary for constructing and organising cells. %unctional segments of *3" are called
genes. !n a cell which is not dividing, this *3" is present as part of chromatin material. 2hromatin material is
visible as entangled mass of thread like structures. Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material
gets organised into chromosomes. The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction, the process by which a
single cell divides and forms two new cells. !t also plays a crucial part, along with the environment, in determining
the way the cell will develop and what form it will e-hibit at maturity, by directing the chemical activities of the
cell.
!n some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear region of the cell may be poorly defined due to the absence of a
nuclear membrane. uch an undefined nuclear region containing only nucleic acids is called a nucleoid. uch
organisms, whose cells lack a nuclear membrane, are called prokaryotes +)ro ? primitive or primary4 karyote Q
karyon ? nucleus,. &rganisms with cells having a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes.

Cyto*las)
When we look at the temporary mounts of onion peel as well as human cheek cells, we can see a large region of
each cell enclosed by the cell membrane. This region takes up very little stain. !t is called the cytoplasm. The
cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane. !t also contains many specialised cell organelles. Each
of these organelles performs a specific function for the cell.
2ell organelles are enclosed by membranes. !n prokaryotes, beside the absence of a defined nuclear region, the
membraneCbound cells organelles are also absent. &n the other hand, the eukaryotic cells have nuclear membrane
as well as membraneCenclosed organelles. The significance of membranes can be illustrated with the e-ample of
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)rokaryotic cells +see %ig. I, also lack most of the
other cytoplasmic organelles present in eukaryotic
cells. $any of the functions of such organelles are
also performed by poorly organised parts of the
cytoplasm. The chlorophyll in photosynthetic
prokaryotic bacteria is associated with membranous
vesicles +bag like structures, but not with plastids as
in eukaryotic cells

viruses. Piruses lack any membranes and hence do not show characteristics of life until they enter a living body
and use its cell machinery to multiply.
Cell Organelles
Every cell has a membrane around it to keep its own contents separate from the e-ternal environment. 0arge and
comple- cells, including cells from multicellular organisms, need a lot of chemical activities to support their
complicated structure and function. To keep these activities of different kinds separate from each other, these cells
use membraneCbound little structures +or ForganellesG, within themselves. This is one of the features of the
eukaryotic cells that distinguish them from prokaryotic cells. ome of these organelles are visible only with an
electron microscope.
ome important e-amples of cell organelles which we will discuss now areB endoplasmic reticulum, #olgi
apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids and vacuoles. They are important because they carry out some very
crucial functions in cells.
5i6 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
The endoplasmic reticulum +EA, is a large network of membraneCbound tubes and sheets. !t looks like long
tubules or round or oblong bags +vesicles,. The EA membrane is similar in structure to the plasma membrane.
There are two types of EA rough endoplasmic reticulum +AEA, and smooth endoplasmic reticulum +EA,. AEA
looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosomes attached to its surface. The ribosomes,
which are present in all active cells, are the sites of protein manufacture. The manufactured proteins are then sent
to various places in the cell depending on need, using the EA. The EA helps in the manufacture of fat molecules,
or lipids, important for cell function. ome of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This
process is known as membrane biogenesis. ome other proteins and lipids function as enEymes and hormones.
"lthough the EA varies greatly in appearance in different cells, it always forms a network system.
Thus, one function of the EA is to serve as channels for the transport of materials +especially proteins, between
various regions of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The EA also functions as a
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cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for some of the biochemical activities of the cell. !n the liver cells of
the group of animals called vertebrates, EA plays a crucial role in deto-ifying many poisons and drugs.
5ii6 GOLGI APPARATUS
The #olgi apparatus, first described by 2amillo #olgi, consists of a system of membraneCbound vesicles arranged
appro-imately parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns. These membranes often have connections with the
membranes of EA and therefore constitute another portion of a comple- cellular membrane system. The material
synthesised near the EA is packaged and dispatched to various targets inside and outside the cell through the
#olgi apparatus. !ts functions include the storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles. !n some
cases, comple- sugars may be made from simple sugars in the #olgi apparatus. The #olgi apparatus is also
involved in the formation of lysosomes.
5iii6 LYSOSOMES
0ysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell. 0ysosomes help to keep the cell clean by digesting any
foreign material as well as wornCout cell organelles. %oreign materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or food, as
well as old organelles end up in the lysosomes, which break them up into small pieces. 0ysosomes are able to do
this because they contain powerful digestive enEymes capable of breaking down all organic material. *uring the
disturbance in cellular metabolism, for e-ample, when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the
enEymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the Fsuicide bagsG of a cell. tructurally,
lysosomes are membraneCbound sacs filled with digestive enEymes. These enEymes are made by AEA.
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5i/6 MITOCHONDRIA
$itochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. The energy re/uired for various chemical activities
needed for life is released by mitochondria in the form of "T) +"denosine triphopshate, molecules. "T) is known
as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses energy stored in "T) for making new chemical compounds and
for mechanical work. $itochondria have two membrane coverings instead of 'ust one. The outer membrane is
very porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded. These folds create a large surface area for "T)Cgenerating
chemical reactions.
$itochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have their own *3" and ribosomes. Therefore,
mitochondria are able to make some of their own proteins.
5/6 PLASTIDS
)lastids are present only in plant cells. There are two types of plastids chromoplasts +coloured plastids, and
leucoplasts +white or colourless plastids,. )lastids containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts.
2hloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants. 2hloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange
pigments in addition to chlorophyll. 0eucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils
and protein granules are stored.
The internal organisation of the plastids consists of numerous membrane layers embedded in a material called the
stroma. )lastids are similar to mitochondria in e-ternal structure. 0ike the mitochondria, plastids also have their
own *3" and ribosomes.
5/i6 VACUOLES
Pacuoles are storage sacs for solid or li/uid contents. Pacuoles are small siEed in animal cells while plant cells
have very large vacuoles. The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy J<CD<H of the cell volume. !n plant
cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell. $any substances of importance in
the life of the plant cell are stored in vacuoles. These include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some
proteins. !n singleCcelled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items that the Amoeba has
consumed. !n some unicellular organisms, specialised vacuoles also play important roles in e-pelling e-cess water
and some wastes from the cell.
Each cell thus ac/uires its structure and ability to function because of the organisation of its membrane and
organelles in specific ways. The cell thus has a basic structural organisation. This helps the cells to perform
functions like respiration, obtaining nutrition, and clearing of waste material, or forming new proteins. Thus, the
cell is the fundamental structural unit of living organisms. !t is also the basic functional unit of life
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; Motion
!n everyday life, we see some ob'ects at rest and others in motion. >irds fly, fish swim, blood flows through veins
and arteries and cars move. "toms, molecules, planets, stars and gala-ies are all in motion. We often perceive an
ob'ect to be in motion when its position changes with time. 1owever, there are situations where the motion is
inferred through indirect evidences.
%or e-ample, we infer the motion of air by observing the movement of dust and the movement of leaves and
branches of trees. "n ob'ect may appear to be moving for one person and stationary for some other. %or the
passengers in a moving bus, the roadside trees appear to be moving backwards. " person standing on the road
side perceives the bus alongwith the passengers as moving. 1owever, a passenger inside the bus sees his fellow
passengers to be at rest. $ost motions are comple-. ome ob'ects may move in a straight line, others may take a
circular path. ome may rotate and a few others may vibrate. There may be situations involving a combination of
these.
Descri+ing Motion
We describe the location of an ob'ect by specifying a reference point. 0et us understand this by an e-ample. 0et us
assume that a school in a village is 5 km north of the railway station. We have specified the position of the school
with respect to the railway station. !n this e-ample, the railway station is the reference point. We could have also
chosen other reference points according to our convenience. Therefore, to describe the position of an ob'ect we
need to specify a reference point called the origin.
MOTION AON& A STRAI&!T INE
The simplest type of motion is the motion along a straight line. We shall first learn to describe this by an e-ample.
2onsider the motion of an ob'ect moving along a straight path. The ob'ect starts its 'ourney from & which is
treated as its reference point +%ig.8,. 0et ", > and 2 represents the position of the ob'ect at different instants. "t
first, the ob'ect moves through 2 and > and reaches ". Then it moves back along the same path and reaches 2
through >.
The total path length covered by the ob'ect is &" @ "2, that is 9< km @ 7J km ? DJ km. This is the distance
covered by the ob'ect. To describe distance we need to specify only the numerical value and not the direction of
motion. There are certain /uantities which are described by specifying only their numerical values. The numerical
value of a physical /uantity is its )agnitude. This difference will give you the numerical value of the
displacement of the ob'ect from & to 2 through ". The shortest distance measured from the initial to the final
position of an ob'ect is known as the dis*lace)ent. 2onsider the e-ample given in +%ig. 8,. %or motion of the
ob'ect from & to ", the distance covered is 9< km and the magnitude of displacement is also 9< km. *uring its
motion from & to " and back to >, the distance covered ? 9< km @ 5J km ? LJ km while the magnitude of
displacement ? 7J km.
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Thus, the magnitude of displacement +7J km, is not e/ual to the path length +LJ km,. %urther, we will notice that
the magnitude of the displacement for a course of motion may be Eero but the corresponding distance covered is
not Eero. !f we consider the ob'ect to travel back to &, the final position coincides with the initial position, and
therefore, the displacement is Eero. 1owever, the distance covered in this 'ourney is &" @ "& ? 9< km @ 9< km ?
85< km. Thus, two different physical /uantities R the distance and the displacement, are used to describe the
overall motion of an ob'ect and to locate its final position with reference to its initial position at a given time.
UNIFORM MOTION AND NON0UNIFORM MOTION
2onsider an ob'ect moving along a straight line. 0et it travel J< km in the first hour, J< km more in the second
hour, J< km in the third hour and J< km in the fourth hour. !n this case, the ob'ect covers J< km in each hour. "s
the ob'ect covers e/ual distances in e/ual intervals of time, it is said to be in uniform motion. The time interval in
this motion may be small or big. !n our dayCtoCday life, we come across motions where ob'ects cover une/ual
distances in e/ual intervals of time, for e-ample, when a car is moving on a crowded street or a person is 'ogging
in a park. These are some instances of nonCuniform motion.
Measuring the Rate of Motion
*ifferent ob'ects may take different amounts of time to cover a given distance. ome of them move fast and some
move slowly. The rate at which ob'ects move can be different. "lso, different ob'ects can move at the same rate.
&ne of the ways of measuring the rate of motion of an ob'ect is to find out the distance travelled by the ob'ect in
unit time. This /uantity is referred to as speed. The ! unit of speed is metre per second. This is represented by the
symbol m s
8
or mNs. The other units of speed include centimetre per second +cm s
8
, and kilometre per hour +km
h
8
,. To specify the speed of an ob'ect, we re/uire only its magnitude. The speed of an ob'ect need not be constant.
!n most cases, ob'ects will be in nonCuniform motion. Therefore, we describe the rate of motion of such ob'ects in
terms of their average speed. The average speed of an ob'ect is obtained by dividing the total distance travelled by
the total time taken. That is,
!f an ob'ect travels a distance s in time t then its speed v is,
0et us understand this by an e-ample. " car travels a distance of 8<< km in 5 h. !ts average speed is J< km h
8
. The
car might not have travelled at J< km h
8
all the time. ometimes it might have travelled faster and sometimes
slower than this.
E-ample 8 "n ob'ect travels 89 m in I s and then another 89 m in 5 s. What is the average speed of the ob'ect.
olution
Total distance travelled by the ob'ect ? 89 m @ 89 m ? 75 m
Total time taken ? I s @ 5 s ? 9 s
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Therefore, the average speed of the ob'ect is J.77 m s
S*eed ,ith Direction

The rate of motion of an ob'ect can be more comprehensive if we specify its direction of motion along with its
speed. The /uantity that specifies both these aspects is called velocity. Pelocity is the speed of an ob'ect moving in
a definite direction. The velocity of an ob'ect can be uniform or variable. !t can be changed by changing the
ob'ectGs speed, direction of motion or both. When an ob'ect is moving along a straight line at a variable speed, we
can e-press the magnitude of its rate of motion in terms of average velocity. !t is calculated in the same way as we
calculate average speed.
!n case the velocity of the ob'ect is changing at a uniform rate, then average velocity is given by the arithmetic
mean of initial velocity and final velocity for a given period of time. That is,
where vav is the average velocity, u is the initial velocity and v is the final velocity of the ob'ect.
peed and velocity have the same units, that is, m s
C8
or mNs.
E-ample 5 The odometer of a car reads 5<<< km at the start of a trip and 5I<< km at the end of the trip. !f the trip
took L h, calculate the average speed of the car in km h
C8
and m s
C8
.
olution
*istance covered by the car,
s ? 5I<< km 5<<< km ? I<< km
Time elapsed, t ? L h
"verage speed of the car is,
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The average speed of the car is J< km h
C8
or 87.D m s
C8
.
E-ample 7 (sha swims in a D< m long pool. he covers 8L< m in one minute by swimming from one end to the
other and back along the same straight path. %ind the average speed and average velocity of (sha.
olution
Total distance covered by (sha in 8 min is 8L< m.
*isplacement of (sha in 8 min ? < m
The average speed of (sha is 7 m s
C8
and her average velocity is < m s
C8
.
Rate of Change of "elocity
*uring uniform motion of an ob'ect along a straight line, the velocity remains constant with time. !n this case, the
change in velocity of the ob'ect for any time interval is Eero. 1owever, in nonCuniform motion, velocity varies with
Page 33
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time. !t has different values at different instants and at different points of the path. Thus, the change in velocity of
the ob'ect during any time interval is not Eero.
To e-press the change in velocity of an ob'ect we have to introduce another physical /uantity called acceleration,
which is a measure of the change in the velocity of an ob'ect per unit time. That is,
!f the velocity of an ob'ect changes from an initial value u to the final value v in time t, the acceleration a is,
This kind of motion is known as accelerated motion. The acceleration is taken to be positive if it is in the direction
of velocity and negative when it is opposite to the direction of velocity. The ! unit of acceleration is m s
C5
. !f an
ob'ect travels in a straight line and its velocity increases or decreases by e/ual amounts in e/ual intervals of time,
then the acceleration of the ob'ect is said to be uniform. The motion of a freely falling body is an e-ample of
uniformly accelerated motion. &n the other hand, an ob'ect can travel with nonCuniform acceleration if its velocity
changes at a nonCuniform rate. %or e-ample, if a car travelling along a straight road increases its speed by une/ual
amounts in e/ual intervals of time, then the car is said to be moving with nonCuniform acceleration.
E-ample I tarting from a stationary position, Aahul paddles his bicycle to attain a velocity of 9 m s
C8
in 7< s. Then
he applies brakes such that the velocity of the bicycle comes down to I m s
C8
in the ne-t J s. 2alculate the
acceleration of the bicycle in both the cases.
olution
!n the first caseB
initial velocity, u ? < 4
final velocity, v ? 9 m s8 4
time, t ? 7< s .
%rom E/. +L.7,, we have
ubstituting the given values of u,v and t in the above e/uation, we get
!n the second caseB
initial velocity, u ? 9 m s
C8
4
final velocity, v ? I m s
C8
4
time, t ? J s.
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The acceleration of the bicycle in the first case is <.5 m s
C5
and in the second case, it is <.
&ra*hical Re*resentation of Motion
#raphs provide a convenient method to present basic information about a variety of events. %or e-ample, in the
telecast of a oneCday cricket match, vertical bar graphs show the run rate of a team in each over. "s you have
studied in mathematics, a straight line graph helps in solving a linear e/uation having two variables. To describe
the motion of an ob'ect, we can use line graphs. !n this case, line graphs show dependence of one physical
/uantity, such as distance or velocity, on another /uantity, such as time.
Distance0Ti)e &ra*hs
The change in the position of an ob'ect with time can be represented on the distanceCtime graph adopting a
convenient scale of choice. !n this graph, time is taken along the -a-is and distance is taken along the yCa-is.
*istanceCtime graphs can be employed under various conditions where ob'ects move with uniform speed, nonC
uniform speed, remain at rest etc.
We know that when an ob'ect travels e/ual distances in e/ual intervals of time, it moves with uniform speed. This
shows that the distance travelled by the ob'ect is directly proportional to time taken. Thus, for uniform speed, a
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graph of distance travelled against time is a straight line, as shown in %ig. 7. The portion &> of the graph shows
that the distance is increasing at a uniform rate. 3ote that, you can also use the term uniform velocity in place of
uniform speed if you take the magnitude of displacement e/ual to the distance travelled by the ob'ect along the yC
a-is.
We can use the distanceCtime graph to determine the speed of an ob'ect. To do so, consider a small part "> of the
distanceCtime graph shown in %ig 7. *raw a line parallel to the -Ca-is from point " and another line parallel to the
yCa-is from point >. These two lines meet each other at point 2 to form a triangle ">2. 3ow, on the graph, "2
denotes the time interval +t5 t8, while >2 corresponds to the distance +s5 s8,. We can see from the graph that as
the ob'ect moves from the point " to >, it covers a distance +s5 s8, in time +t5 t8,. The speed, v of the ob'ect,
therefore can be represented as
We can also plot the distanceCtime graph for accelerated motion. Table shows the distance travelled by a car in a
time interval of two seconds.
The distanceCtime graph for the motion of the car is shown in %ig. I. 3ote that the shape of this graph is different
from the earlier distanceCtime graph +%ig. 7, for uniform motion. The nature of this graph shows nonlinear
variation of the distance travelled by the car with time. Thus, the graph shown in %ig I represents motion with
nonCuniform speed.
Page 36
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&ra*hical Re*resentation of Motion
"elocity0Ti)e &ra*hs
The variation in velocity with time for an ob'ect moving in a straight line can be represented by a velocityCtime
graph. !n this graph, time is represented along the -Ca-is and the velocity is represented along the yCa-is. !f the
ob'ect moves at uniform velocity, the height of its velocityCtime graph will not change with time +%ig. J,. !t will be
a straight line parallel to the -Ca-is. %ig. J shows the velocityCtime graph for a car moving with uniform velocity of
I< km h
C8
.
We know that the product of velocity and time give displacement of an ob'ect moving with uniform velocity. The
area enclosed by velocityCtime graph and the time a-is will be e/ual to the magnitude of the displacement. To
Page 37
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know the distance moved by the car between time t8 and t5 using %ig. J, draw perpendiculars from the points
corresponding to the time t8 and t5 on the graph. The velocity of I< km h
C8
is represented by the height "2 or >*
and the time +t5 t8, is represented by the length ">.
o, the distance s moved by the car in time +t5 t8, can be e-pressed as
s ? "2 S 2*
? K+I< km h
C8
, S +t5 t8, hM
? I< +t5 t8, km
? area of the rectangle ">*2 +shaded in %ig. J,.
We can also study about uniformly accelerated motion by plotting its velocity time graph. 2onsider a car being
driven along a straight road for testing its engine. uppose a person sitting ne-t to the driver records its velocity
after every J seconds by noting the reading of the speedometer of the car. The velocity of the car, in km h
C8
as well
as in m s
C8
, at different instants of time is shown in table.
!n this case, the velocityCtime graph for the motion of the car is shown in %ig. 9. The nature of the graph shows
that velocity changes by e/ual amounts in e/ual intervals of time. Thus, for all uniformly accelerated motion, the
velocityCtime graph is a straight line.
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We can also determine the distance moved by the car from its velocityCtime graph. The area under the velocityC
time graph gives the distance +magnitude of displacement, moved by the car in a given interval of time. !f the car
would have been moving with uniform velocity, the distance travelled by it would be represented by the area
">2* under the graph +%ig. 9,. ince the magnitude of the velocity of the car is changing due to acceleration, the
distance s travelled by the car will be given by the area ">2*E under the velocityCtime graph +%ig. 9,. That is,
s ? area ">2*E
? area of the rectangle ">2* @ area of the triangle "*E
? "> S >2 @ T +"* S *E,
!n the case of nonCuniformly accelerated motion, velocityCtime graphs can have any shape.
%ig. 6+a, shows a velocityCtime graph that represents the motion of an ob'ect whose velocity is decreasing with
time while %ig. 6 +b, shows the velocityCtime graph representing the nonCuniform variation of velocity of the ob'ect
with time. Try to interpret these graphs.
E9uations of Motion +y &ra*hical Method
Page 39
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When an ob'ect moves along a straight line with uniform acceleration, it is possible to relate its velocity,
acceleration during motion and the distance covered by it in a certain time interval by a set of e/uations known as
the e/uations of motion. There are three such e/uations. These areB
Where u is the initial velocity of the ob'ect which moves with uniform acceleration a for time t, v is the final
velocity, and s is the distance travelled by the ob'ect in time t. E/. +J, describes the velocityCtime relation and E/.
+9, represents the positionCtime relation. E/. +6,, which represents the relation between the position and the
velocity, can be obtained from E/s. +J, and +9, by eliminating t. These three e/uations can be derived by graphical
method.
E9uation for "elocity0Ti)e Relation
2onsider the velocityCtime graph of an ob'ect that moves under uniform acceleration as shown in %ig. L +similar to
%ig. 9, but now with u U <,. %rom this graph, you can see that initial velocity of the ob'ect is u +at point ", and then
it increases to v +at point >, in time t. The velocity changes at a uniform rate a. !n %ig. L, the perpendicular lines
>2 and >E are drawn from point > on the time and the velocity a-es respectively, so that the initial velocity is
represented by &", the final velocity is represented by >2 and the time interval t is represented by &2. >* ? >2
2*, represents the change in velocity in time interval t.
0et us draw "* parallel to &2. %rom the graph, we observe that
>2 ? >* @ *2 ? >* @ &"
Page 40
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ubstituting >2 ? v and &" ? u,
We getv ? >* @ u
&r>* ? v u+L,
%rom the velocityCtime graph +%ig. L,, the acceleration of the ob'ect is given by
ubstituting &2 ? t, we get
a ? >*Nt
&r>* ? at+D,
(sing E/s. +L, and +D, we get
v ? u @ at
E9uation for Position0Ti)e Relation
0et us consider that the ob'ect has travelled a distance s in time t under uniform acceleration a. !n %ig. L, the
distance travelled by the ob'ect is obtained by the area enclosed within &">2 under the velocityCtime graph ">.
Thus, the distance s travelled by the ob'ect is given by
s ? area &">2 +which is a trapeEium,
? area of the rectangle &"*2 @ area of the triangle ">*
? &" S &2 @ 8N5 +"* S >*,+8<,
ubstituting &" ? u, &2 ? "* ? t and >* ? at, we get
s ? u S t @ 8N5+t S at,
ors ? u t @ 8N5 a t
5

E9uation for Position0"elocity Relation
%rom the velocityCtime graph shown in %ig. L, the distance s travelled by the ob'ect in time t, moving under
uniform acceleration a is given by the area enclosed within the trapeEium &">2 under the graph. That is,
ubstituting &" ? u, >2 ? v and &2 ? t, we get
Page 41
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%rom the velocityCtime relation +E/. 9,, we get
(sing E/s. +88, and +85, we have
E3a)*le < " train starting from rest attains a velocity of 65 km h
C8
in J minutes. "ssuming that the acceleration
is uniform, find +i, the acceleration and +ii, the distance travelled by the train for attaining this velocity.
Solution
We have been given
u ? < 4 v ? 65 km h
C8
? 5< m sC8 and t ? J minutes ? 7<< s.
+i, %rom E/. +J, we know that
+ii, %rom E/. +6, we have
5as ? v
5
u
5
? v
5
<
Thus,
The acceleration of the train is and the distance travelled is 7 km.
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E3a)*le = " car accelerates uniformly from 8L km h
C8
to 79 km h
C8
in J s. 2alculate +i, the acceleration and +ii,
the distance covered by the car in that time.
Solution
We are given that
u ? 8L km h
C8
? J m s
C8
v ? 79 km h
C8
? 8< m s
C8
and
t ? J s .
+i, %rom E/. +J, we have
+ii, %rom E/. +9, we have
s ? u t @ T at
5
? J m s
C8
S J s @ 8N5 S 8 m s
C5
S +Js,
5
? 5J m @ 85.J m
? 76.J m
The acceleration of the car is 8 m s
C5
and the distance covered is 76.J m.
E3a)*le > The brakes applied to a car produce an acceleration of 9 m s
C5
in the opposite direction to the motion.
!f the car takes 5 s to stop after the application of brakes, calculate the distance it travels during this time.
Solution
We have been given
a ? 9 m s
C5
4 t ? 5 s and v ? < m s
C8
.
%rom E/. +J, we know that
v ? u @ at
< ? u @ + 9 m s
C5
, S 5 s
&ru ? 85 m s
C8
.
%rom E/. +9, we get
s ? u t @ T a t
5
? +85 m s
C8
, S +5 s, @ T +9 m s
C5
, +5 s,
5
? 5I m 85 m
? 85 m
Thus, the car will move 85 m before it stops after the application of brakes
Unifor) Circular Motion
When the velocity of an ob'ect changes, we say that the ob'ect is accelerating. The change in the velocity could be
due to change in its magnitude or the direction of the motion or both.
Page 43
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0et us consider an e-ample of the motion of a body along a closed path. %ig D +a, shows the path of an athlete
along a rectangular track ">2*. 0et us assume that the athlete runs at a uniform speed on the straight parts ">,
>2, 2* and *" of the track. !n order to keep himself on track, he /uickly changes his speed at the corners. !t is
clear that to move in a rectangular track once, the athlete has to change his direction of motion four times.
3ow, suppose instead of a rectangular track, the athlete is running along a he-agonal shaped path ">2*E%, as
shown in %ig. D+b,. !n this situation, the athlete will have to change his direction si- times while he completes one
round. !t is observed that as the number of sides of the track increases the athelete has to take turns more and
more often. !f we go on increasing the number of sides indefinitely, we will notice that the shape of the track
approaches the shape of a circle and the length of each of the sides will decrease to a point. !f the athlete moves
with a velocity of constant magnitude along the circular path, the only change in his velocity is due to the change
in the direction of motion. The motion of the athlete moving along a circular path is, therefore, an e-ample of an
accelerated motion.
We know that the circumference of a circle of radius r is given by 5Vr. !f the athlete takes t seconds to go once
around the circular path of radius r, the velocity v is given by
When an ob'ect moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its motion is called uniform circular motion.
When an athlete throws a hammer or a discus in a sports meet, heNshe holds the hammer or the discus in hisNher
hand and gives it a circular motion by rotating hisNher own body. &nce released in the desired direction, the
hammer or discus moves in the direction in which it was moving at the time it was released, 'ust like the piece of
stone in the activity described above. There are many more familiar e-amples of ob'ects moving under uniform
circular motion, such as the motion of the moon and the earth, a satellite in a circular orbit around the earth, a
cyclist on a circular track at constant speed and so on.
Page 44
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