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Coasts

Specification:

2.2.3 Marine processes
Candidates should be able to:
Demonstrate an understanding of wave processes in eroding a coastline and re-sorting and depositing
materials removed through erosion. Candidates should understand the types of waves and the components of
waves, swash and backwash. The erosional processes of wave action should include an understanding of
corrasion, hydraulic action, corrosion and attrition. Transport of material along a coastline should be
appreciated; onshore and offshore movements together with an understanding of movement along a
coastline (longshore drift). The action of wind in shaping coastal sand dunes should also be understood.
Describe and explain the landforms associated with these processes.
Describe the conditions required for the development of coral reefs.
Describe fringing and barrier reefs and atolls.
A study should be made of the following coastal landforms: Cliffs, wave-cut platforms, caves, arches, stacks,
bay and headland coastlines, beaches, spits and bars, coastal sand dunes and marsh.

2.4 Interrelationships between the natural environment and human activities
Candidates should be able to:
Demonstrate an understanding that the natural environment presents hazards and offers opportunities for
human activities. Reference should be made to the hazards posed by volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
tropical storms, flooding and drought.

The coast or the coastline is the border between the land and the sea. The coasts are very important because they
have many uses for humans, but they are also under threat because of humans.



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WHY ARE COASTS IMPORTANT AND HOW ARE THEY
USED?
WHY ARE COASTS UNDER THREAT?
Tourism. There are many resorts along coasts and
tourists enjoy using the coast e.g. swimming and
sunbathing.
Sport. Many sport use the coast e.g. sailing, surfing,
diving, kite surfing and links golf.
Ecosystems. There are many unique ecosystems along
the coast like mangroves, sand dunes and estuarine.
Also the biodiversity along the coast is varied and
unique.
Fishing. Oceans are full of fish (although supplies are
declining). Many people make their living from catching
and selling fish. Aquaculture (seafood farming), also
takes place along the coast.
Oil and gas reserves. Much of the world's oil and gas is
found under the oceans. Ownership of these reserves is
very important.
Housing. Many people choose to live along the coast
because of its beauty and the relaxing lifestyle
Industry. Many industries like to locate near the coast
because it is easy to trade.
Transport. The oceans are used to transport people and
goods. Many ports are found in coastal areas and help
allow trade between countries.
Walkers. Many people enjoy walking, cycling or riding
along coastal paths and coastal areas.
Sea level rises caused by global warming. Low lying
countries like Bangladesh will be particularly
vulnerable.
Pollution from sewage discharge , but also
accidents like the recent BP oil spill in the Gulf of
Mexico.
Litter. Litter thrown into the sea can also kill
animals. Turtles often mistake plastic bags for
jellyfish.
Overfishing. Many fish stocks around the world are
being over fished to dangerous levels.
Erosion. Many coastlines are being eroded by
stronger storms and also rising seal levels.
Tropical storms. Because of rising sea levels, the
frequency of storms and magnitude (strength) are
increasing causing flooding, storm surges and wind
damage.
Privatisation. More and more stretches of the
beach are privately owned (houses, hotels, etc.).
This is making it increasingly hard for locals to
access previously open areas. The privatisation of
areas is also increasing the cost of land, making it
less affordable for many residents.



Waves

Waves are formed because of friction between the wind
and the sea. Although it appears that water particles in
waves are moving forward, in reality it is only the shape and
the energy of the wave that is moving. Water particles tend
to move up and down in a circular motion. When waves
near the coast, the bottom of the wave is slowed by friction
with the sea bed. Because the top of the wave is
experiencing less friction, it moves faster and eventually
topples over the bottom of the wave and breaks. The size of
the wave is effected by three factors:
Duration of wind
Strength of wind
Fetch (the distance that a wave travels)



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Wave Terminology

Crest: The top of the wave.
Trough: The low area in between two waves.
Wavelength: The distance between two crests or two
troughs.

Wave height: The distance between the crest and the trough.
Wave Frequency: The number of waves per minute.
Velocity: The speed that a wave is traveling. It is influenced by the wind, fetch and depth of water.
Swash: The movement of water and load up the beach.
Backwash: The movement of water and load back down the beach.
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Wave Refraction

Coastlines are very rarely perfectly straight. Coastlines normally have a series of bays and headlands. As you already
know, as waves reach shallower water, the bottom of the waves experience greater friction with sea bed. This
greater friction causes the waves to slow down.
If you have a series of bays and headland, waves will start to slow down around the headland where the water is
shallower, but continue to travel more quickly into the bay area where the water is deeper. Because the section of
the wave centred on the headland is travelling slowly and the sections either side are travelling more quickly the
wave begins to refract (bend) around the headland. This concentrates the wave energy on the headland and
disperses the energy across the bay.
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Destructive waves: Destructive waves have a fairly weak
swash because the wave breaks almost vertically.
However, it does have a much stronger backwash.
Because the backwash is stronger than the swash,
destructive waves erode and transport material away
from beaches.

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.
Constructive waves: Constructive waves have a strong
swash and a much weaker backwash. Because the swash is
stronger than the backwash they tend to deposit material
and build beaches up.
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Coastal Erosion (types of erosion)

Coasts being at the boundary of the land
and the sea are extremely vulnerable to
erosion. They are attacked by the
immense power of the sea and the
weather. Later you will look at one of the
fastest eroding coastlines in the world;
the Holderness coastline in NE England
which is eroding at over 2 metres a year.
The main ways that the sea erodes the
coast are:

Hydraulic Pressure: This is when sea
water and air get trapped in cracks. The
increasing pressure of the water and air
cause the rocks to crack.

Corrasion (abrasion): Rocks been thrown
into the cliffs by waves and breaking off
bits of the cliff.
Corrosion (solution): The slight acidity of sea water causing bits of the cliff to dissolve.

Attrition: Rocks, sand and stones being thrown into each other by the sea current and waves.

Wave Pounding: This is the immense power of waves crashing into cliffs that causing them to weaken.

Sub aerial weathering: This is the top of cliffs being attacked by the weather, making the cliffs weaker and less
stable. Wind, rain, the heat and the cold can all cause the cliffs to be weathered.
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Watch video on: (i) What is coastal erosion (ii) Deposition & Erosion
https://greenfieldgeography.wikispaces.com/IGCSE+Coasts+and+GCSE+Coasts
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Bays and Headlands

Bays and headlands are formed in a very similar way to rapids (rivers
topic). They are formed when you get alternate layers of hard and soft
rock. The sea is able to erode the soft rock a lot quicker than the hard
rock making a bay. The harder rock forms a headland.

Bay: An indented area of land normally found between two headlands.
Bays are usually more sheltered so there is less erosive power, meaning
you often find beaches in bays.

Headland: A piece of land that sticks out into the sea. Waves refract
around headlands so they experience a lot of erosion forming features
like arches and stacks (see below).

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Wave Cut Notch and Wave Cut Platform

Wave cut platforms are made in a similar ways to waterfalls and gorges
(rivers topic). At high tide the power of the sea attacks and erodes the
bottom of the cliff. Over time this erosion creates a wave cut notch
(basically an eroded hole at the bottom of the cliff). As the wave cut
notch gets bigger, the weight of rock above the notch gets greater.
Eventually the cliff can not support its own weight and it collapses. The
process then starts again, with the erosion of the sea making a new
wave cut notch. As the process continues the cliff starts to move
backwards (retreat). Because the cliff is moving backwards a wave cut
platform (an expanse of bare rock) is created. Wave cut platforms are
only visible at low tide.










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Caves, Arches, Stacks and Stumps

Caves, arches, stacks and stumps are usually found on headlands, where wave refraction is causing erosion on three
sides. The waves always look for weaknesses in the headland (cracks and joints). If they find a crack or a joint they
will start attacking it. Hydraulic pressure will be the main type of erosion. Overtime the crack may turn into a cave.
Slowly the cave will get bigger and cut all the way through the headland, making an arch. As the arch gets bigger the
weight of the arch roof gets too great and it collapses, leaving a stack. The stack is then eroded by the sea and
weathered from the air leaving a stump.
Blowhole: Sometimes the sea may erode through to the top of the headland (following a large crack). If this happens
a blowhole is created.
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Transportation (longshore drift)

Longshore Drift: This is the process of waves moving (transporting) material (load) along a coastline.
Swash: The waves breaking and traveling up the beach carrying load. Waves will break and the swash will travel in
the direction of the wind.
Backwash: The waves returning to the sea with load. Waves will take the shortest possible route back to the sea
(gravity).
Longshore drift only happens when the waves hit the beach at an angle. It is the process of the swash transporting
material up the beach at an angle and the backwash returning directly under the force of gravity that causes material
to be transported along the beach.
Prevailing (or dominant) Wind: This is the direction that the wind normally hits a coastline.
Groynes: Groynes are wooden or concrete fences (walls) placed out into the sea to stop longshore drift happening.
Sea currents: Currents are the movement of water caused by differences in temperature, changes in wind or tides.
Currents can be extremely strong and can transport large amount of material.
Saltation: The wind can also transport sand and even small stones across a beach. The process of the wind bouncing
sand and small stones across a beach is known as saltation.
Watch Video: Longshore Drift:
https://greenfieldgeography.wikispaces.com/IGCSE+Coasts+and+GCSE+Coasts
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Tides

Tides: Tides are the twice daily movement of the sea in and
out. Tides are constant and are caused by the gravitational
pull of the moon. Some tidal ranges can only be a few
metres, others can be several kilometres.
Tidal Range (or intertidal zone): The difference or area
between high tide and low tide.

Spring Tides: When the moon and the sun are in complete
alignment you get particularly high and low tides.

Neap Tides: When the moon and sun are aligned at right
angles to each other so the gravitational pull of the moon
and the sun are pulling in different directions. This makes
for lower high and low tides.



Depositional Landforms

Spits, bars and tombolos are all made by a combination of longshore drift and deposition. They are collectively
known as depositional landforms.
Spits: A spit is a long thin stretch of sand connected to the mainland but stretching out into the sea. Spits are formed
in areas of calmer water where the sea has less energy. They are normally found near the mouths of rivers where
the coastline changes direction creating some protection. Longshore drift happens in the direction of the prevailing
(dominant) wind. When the direction of the coast changes, longshore drift does not stop, but continues out into the
sea. If the sea has less energy (because it is protected), material is deposited instead of transported. If deposition is
greater than erosion, then overtime a spit will build up. The end of the spit is usually hooked because of occasional
winds and storms that blow in the opposite direction of the prevailing wind.
Salt marsh: A low energy, intertidal ecosystem that develops behind a spit. The salt marsh will have some salt
resistant vegetation.
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Tombolo: A spit that joins the mainland with an island.
Mainland: The main land mass of an area. Strangely the UK is described as an island within Europe and the world.
However, when you just talk about the UK you would describe the main island as the mainland.
Island: A small body of land found in oceans and seas.
Bar: A spit that connects two headlands or runs across the face of a small cove (bay).
Lagoon: The salt water lake that develops behind the bar. Overtime the lagoon will become smaller as deposition
takes place.

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Changing Sea Levels: Sea levels are not constant. Over millions of years sea levels have moved up and down. Millions
of years ago the sea levels were so low that the UK was attached to Europe by land. Although you don't need to
know the exact causes and effects, there are two types of sea level change.
Eustatic Changes: These are global changes when the whole level of the sea either rises or falls. Generally speaking,
during ice ages, sea levels will fall and during warmer periods, like today, sea level will rise. The changes are all to do
with the amount of ice held in glaciers and ice shelves.
Isostatic Changes: These are local changes, when the level of the land changes relative to the level of the sea. The
most common cause is land rebounding after the pressure release of melting ice after the last ice age. Scotland in
the UK is rebounding after 2 kilometres of ice melted after the last age, removing a huge amount of weight.
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Beaches and Sand Dunes

Beach: The beach is the accumulation of
sand between the lowest spring tides and the
highest spring tides. Beaches can be made out
of sand, shingle and/or pebbles. Beaches
receive their material from longshore drift,
constructive waves, cliff erosion and river
discharge. Beaches cane be divided into
backshore, offshore and foreshore. The
backshore is the area above the normal high
tide level, the foreshore is the area in between
normal high and low tide and offshore is the
area below the normal low tide.


Berm: The berm is a ridge (long thin hill) that forms at the top of the beach. It is the highest section of the
beach and is basically sand accumulated on the strand line (twigs, litter, seaweed, etc. deposited at high tide).
Intertidal zone: The area of land between high tide and low tide.
Strand line: The material (seaweed, driftwood) that is deposited by the sea at furthest point of the high tide
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Sand Dunes are very dynamic, which means they are constantly changing. Sand dunes are found behind berms and
are basically an extension of the beach. They are formed by dry sand being blown up the beach.
Embryo Dune: Embryo dunes are the starting dunes of sand dunes. They form in the sheltered area behind the berm
and strand line.
Foredunes: Small embryo dunes can join to make foredunes. Foredunes tend to be very yellow because they only
have limited vegetation so no real humus layer develops.
Yellow Dunes: Sea couch and marram grass begin to grow on the foredunes so they become more stable and grow.
As the dune grows and the vegetation develops a humus layer develops.
Grey Dunes: A developing humus layers starts changing the colour of the dune from yellow to grey.
Mature dunes: As the humus layers grows more, the dunes can sustain more plants, flowers and even trees.
Dune slack: As the size of the dunes develop water can collect between the dunes. Marsh plants can grow in these
wet areas.
Blowout: A blowout is a depression or hole in the dune caused by the wind.
Humus: Is the layer of decaying plant and animal matter that adds nutrients to the ground.
Succession: The changing types of plants from basic sea couch to trees is known as succession.
Water table: The line between saturated and unsaturated ground.

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Saltmarshes

Saltmarshes are usually found behind spits, in
estuaries or on low energy coastlines. Because
there areas tend to have low levels of energy,
deposition exceeds erosion. The continued
deposition means mudbanks are formed and
they are exposed at low tide. Salt and water
resistant grass is able to grow on these
mudbanks, forming saltmarshes.

The salt resistant vegetation (halophytic) means more sediment (load) is trapped and water is restricted to channels,
rather than the whole saltmarsh. As the height of the saltmarsh increases more types of vegetation are able to
colonise (move in) and grow.
The area of land that is inundated (covered) by sea water only at high tides and sometimes only spring tides is called
the sward zone. Plants in the sward zone can only survive being under sea water for a maximum of four hours a day.
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Coastal Defences

Coasts are vulnerable locations that need protecting. They need protecting because of the economic value they bring
to areas e.g. fishing, tourism and transport. Coastal erosion is mainly caused by hydraulic pressure, corrosion,
corrasion and wave pounding. However, sub-aerial erosion can also play an important role. Areas that are near to
sea level and are made from soft rock are particularly vulnerable. If coastal erosion is allowed to happen, coastal
roads, ports, holiday resorts, farmland and even whole villages may be lost.
Hard Engineering: This building a physical structure, usually out of wood or concrete to protect the coast. Hard
engineering is usually more effective, but it can be very expensive and ugly to look at.



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Rip-rap: Rip-rap is basically giant boulders placed at the foot
(bottom) of cliffs. Rip-rap is designed to absorb the waves
energy and protect the cliffs behind. Rip-rap can be effective,
but does look ugly, may reduce access to the beach and can
be expensive.
Gabion: Gabion also uses large boulders, but this
time the boulders are placed in cages. This means
that gabion can be installed quickly and again is fairly
effective. However, it also looks ugly, reduces access
and can be expensive.


Groynes: Groynes are designed to stop longshore drift
transporting away beach material. They can be effective in
maintaining a beach, but need replacing regularly, look ugly
and can cause problems down the coast, because they are
not receiving beach material.
Sea wall: Sea walls are made out of concrete are
aimed to absorb the waves energy. Sometimes they
are recurved to direct the waves energy back out to
sea. They can be very effective, but again are
expensive, ugly and reduce access.


Breakwater: Breakwaters are built out into the sea. They are
a coats first line of defence. Instead of breaking on the coast,
waves, break on the breakwater. They are often found
around the mouths of rivers and ports. They are expensive
and can disrupt shipping and animals.
Revetments: They are similar to sea walls, but often
built out of wood. Often found at the foot of cliffs
they are designed at absorb the waves energy. Again
they need replacing regularly and do not protect
against big storms.



Soft Engineering: Rather than building physical structures made out of wood and concrete, soft engineering is
working with nature. The results of soft engineering look much more natural and may not even be noticed. The
advantage with sot engineering is that it does not ruin the look of the coastline and it can be cheaper. However, the
main problem is that most forms of soft engineering cannot withstand strong storms. In fact a hurricane can strip a
recently replenished beach of all of its sand.
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Dune Stabalisation: Dune stabalisation is planting
vegetation on the berm of the beach or on the dunes.
By planting vegetation you should be making them
more stable (roots) and reducing the moisture content
(root uptake).
Cliff Regrading: This means make cliffs less steep. Cliffs
often become unstable because of undercutting. By
reducing the angle you should reduce the undercutting
and the risk of the cliff collapsing.


Beach Nourishment: This is simply
adding more sand to the beach. Beaches
are natural defences, so by making them
bigger, you are creating a natural
defence. Sand is sometimes taken from
the sea bed or dunes inland.

Beach Drainage: Cliffs often collapse
because they become saturated and
the increased stress causes them to
collapse. By removing some of the
excess water you should reduce stress
on the cliff.

Managed Retreat: This is not
always a popular solution, because
it is basically allowing the sea to
take back land. Low value land is
often chosen to be flooded by the
sea. By allowing this you are
changing some inland ecosystems
by adding salt water.


Cost Benefit Analysis: It is not possible to protect the entire coastline of every country. Therefore, cost-benefit
analysis is often carried out to see if the coast is worth protecting. The economic benefit of a coast will be looked at
e.g. how many jobs are in the area, how much tax the area pays, the value of the buildings in the area. Then the cost
of protecting the area will be looked at e.g. how much a sea wall or rip-rap will cost. If the benefits the area
generates are greater than the costs of protecting the area, then it will be protected. However, if the costs of
protecting the area are greater than the benefits that it generates, then it probably won't be protected.
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Holderness Coast (Location and Background)

The Holderness coast is a 61km stretch of coast running from Flamborough Head in the north to Spurn Head (a spit)
in the south. The Holderness coast is located in the NE of England. The Holderness coast is one of the fastest eroding
coastlines in the world and the fastest eroding in Europe. On average the coast erodes at about 2 metres a year. This
might not sound much, but if you multiply 2 metres by 1000 years, then that is 2 km of coastal erosion.
The reason the Holderness coast is eroding so quickly because of the local geology. 18,000 years ago the north of
England was covered in ice (last ice age). As the ice melted it deposited huge amounts of glacial deposits. These
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glacial deposits actually extended the Holderness coast out into the sea. However, the glacial deposits (known as
boulder clay) that make up the coast are extremely weak and vulnerable to erosion. Since Roman times, the coast
has eroded by about 4km and around 30 villages have been washed into the sea, along with hundreds of square
kilometres of farmland.


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Watch the following video:
Holderness Erosion - BBC video clip
Dairy farm threatened with erosion - BBC video clip
Farm threatened with erosion - BBC video clip

Because the Holderness coast is eroding so quickly, it
has become necessary to try and protect the coast from
further erosion.
Hornsea: Hornsea is the main settlement on the
Holderness coasts. It has a population of around 8,500
and is an important holiday destination. Because it
generates a large income through tourism, it was
decided to protect Hornsea. On the sea front a 3 metre
high recurved sea wall was built to absorb and reflect
wave energy. Groynes were also placed along the beach
to try and prevent longshore drift and keep Hornsea's
beach intact. On top of the sea wall, the cliff was also
strengthened by building a concrete promenade. The
promenade has a road on it, small cafes and shops and
seating areas.

Mappleton: Mappleton is a small settlement south of
Hornsea. It only has a small number of houses, a
church, a farm and a small caravan park. Because
Mappleton was so small it was decided not to protect
it. With no coastal defences, Mappleton was quickly
disappearing into the sea. The residents of Mappleton
were not happy and protested to the local government,
blaming Hornsea's defences on Mappleton's
accelerating erosion.


The main blame was placed on Hornsea's groynes. Because groynes stop longshore drift, Mappleton was receiving
no sediment from up the coast, so its beach was disappearing. The prevailing wind on the Holderness coast, is from
the NE so longshore drift goes from north to south. The local government was forced to agree with the finding, so
Mappleton was protected with a rock groyne, some rip-rap and the cliff was regraded.
Withernsea: Because Hornsea and Mappleton were protected it also became necessary to protect Withernsea
further south. Withernsea has been protected with a sea wall, rip-rap and groynes.
Easington: With Hornsea, Mappleton and Withernsea all protected, Easington is the next settlement along the coast.
Because of defences north of it, its coastline is eroding an accelerating rate. Easington is home to a large natural gas
terminal, so decisions on its defence will have to be made soon.
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Possible Conflict on the Holderness Coast
Because coastlines are in demand, conflicts can often take place. For example the Holderness coast is used a holiday
destination, it is used for walking, bird watching, farming, playing golf, living (private residences), transport, farming,
fishing, refining oil/gas, Geography fieldtrips, etc. When you have so many groups of people wanting to use the coast,
conflict is going to happen occasionally. Conflicts can be looked at, by using a conflict matrix. Download the
attachment to see an example of a conflict matrix. A conflict matrix works very simply. You look at each group of
players (actors) e.g. fishermen and oil/gas works and decide if they have a conflict of interests. In this case they
probably will because oil/gas works may pollute the sea which will effect fish stocks. If they have a conflict you put a
tick in the appropriate box, if they don't you put a cross. You may be asked to justify your decisions.
Refer to: Holderness Conflict Matrix.docx
Watch Video on: (i) Holderness Erosion (ii) Holderness: Sustainable management of a coastline
https://greenfieldgeography.wikispaces.com/IGCSE+Coasts+and+GCSE+Coasts
Coral Reefs
A coral reef is a line of coral polyp found in warm shallow seas. Polyp are tiny carnivorous (meat eating) animals.
Polyps live in groups called colonies. A polyp has a mouth at one end. The mouth is surrounded by a number of
tentacles. These tentacles resemble feet, which is how they get their name ('polyp' is a Greek word meaning 'many
feet'). Polyps cannot move from their limestone homes. They mostly feed at night.
A polyp reproduces by dividing its own body to form two polyps, or by producing sperm and eggs. Each polyp builds
a case of limestone around itself, using calcium from the water. It is like a house, with a floor and walls. This remains
after it has died and forms a foundation for another polyp to build a house on, putting a floor on the roof of the old
one. When these limestone formations increase, they are called a coral reefs.
Coral reefs are very delicate and need the following conditions to form:
Tropical sea conditions (between the two tropics)
Warm waters (must be over 18 degrees centigrade year round)
Clear water ( no sediment)
No pollution
Sunlight
Water less than 60 metres deep
Fringing Reef: Fringing reefs circle or fringe the coastline or islands. They are often
protected by barrier reefs further out to sea, so the plants and animals that live in
fringing reefs are suited to low wave energy environments.

Barrier Reef: These occur further from the sea and are commonly separated from the
mainland or island by a deep lagoon. Barrier reefs are normally older and wider than
fringing reefs. The Great Barrier reef in Eastern Australia is a barrier reef and stretches
for 1600km.

Atoll: They rise from submerged volcanoes. They are similar to barrier reefs in terms of
biodiversity and form. However, they are confined to submerged oceanic islands, unlike
barrier islands which can follow continental coastlines e.g. Great Barrier Reef.

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BENEFITS OF CORAL REEFS
They support 25% of marine species (about 1 million species of plants and animals)
They protect coastlines from erosion
They form as a natural barrier against tropical storms and even tsunamis (they can absorb energy).
Act as natural recycling agent for carbon dioxide from sea and atmosphere
They contribute material to the formation of beaches (eroded coral reef)
They are source of raw material (coral for jewelery and ornaments)
Many species are being found to contain compounds useful in medicine.
They benefit the tourism industry because many people like to dive and snorkel over coral reefs
They provide important fishing grounds
The global value of coral reefs in terms of coastal protection, fishing and tourism has been estimated at
$375 billion.
HOW CORAL REEFS ARE BEING DAMAGED
Rising sea levels mean that the depth of water above coral reefs is increasing. This means that in the
future many coral reefs will not receive enough sunlight to survive.
Increases in the global climate means that many corals are being bleached. Coral reefs are extremely
sensitive to changes in temperature and can bleach (die and turn white) even with only small increases.
Hurricanes. Although coral reefs act as a natural defence against tropical storms, they can be severely
damaged during tropical storms.
Fishing techniques like dynamite, cyanide and trawling can damage corals. Corals are sensitive and take
hundreds and thousands of years to grow. Damaging fishing techniques therefore can cause long term
damage.
Deforestation. As areas of land are deforested, especially in the tropics (Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines)
there is greater surface run-off and more sediment enters the rivers and is ultimately discharged into the
sea. The increased sediment reduces visibility and means less sunlight reaches the coral.
Overfishing. Not only do damaging fishing techniques damage the coral but also overfishing. Coral reefs
have very delicate food webs and if you remove elements of the food web, it can upset the balance of the
reefs.
Pollution. The growth of urban settlements and tourist developments, as well as increased coastal traffic
can also cause pollution to reefs.
Tourism. Tourism can damage reefs in many ways. Anchors from tourist boats can damage reefs. Motor
boat engines can kill animals. Divers can touch and damage coral and tourist developments can release
pollution.
Marine trade. There are many products, like coral, turtle shells, star fish and sea shells that get removed
from corals and sold. This removal of coral and animals damage the reefs.
Coral Reef Management

Damaging fishing practices like dynamiting can be banned. It is important that this is enforced or the
practices will carry on.
Conservation zones where tourists arent allowed or there numbers are restricted can be created.
Areas where coral reef cannot be farmed can be created
Fish stocks can be enhanced and quotas imposed on amount being caught
Sewage outlets can be moved downstream of coral reefs
Banning the dropping of anchors on coral reef.
Reduce the use of fertilisers near coral reefs
Finally one of the most important is educating people about why coral reefs are important and how we
can protect them.