From Call To Mall

TESL-EJ 16.
4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 1

Tbe Flectronic }ournol for Fnqlisb os o SeconJ lonquoqe

From Computer Assisted Language Learning {CALL] to Mobile
Assisted Language Use {MALU]
Marcb 2013-Volume 1, Number 4
Buw }aivis
0niveisity of Salfoiu, 0K
<h.a.jaivissalfoiu.ac.uk>
Naiianna Achilleos
Fieelance EFL tutoi, Cypius
<uoiantellohotmail.com>
Abstract
This aiticle begins by ciitiquing the long-establisheu acionym CALL (Computei Assisteu
Language Leaining). We then go on to iepoit on a small-scale stuuy which examines
how stuuent non-native speakeis of English use a iange of uigital uevices beyonu the
classioom in both theii fiist (L1) anu seconu (L2) languages. We look also at the extent
to which they believe that theii L2-baseu activity helps consciously anu
oi unconsciously with theii language leaining, piactice, anu acquisition. We aigue that
these uata, combineu with othei iecent tienus in the fielu, suggest a neeu to move fiom
CALL towaius a moie accuiate acionym: mobile assisteu language use (NAL0). We
concluue with a uefinition of NAL0 togethei with a biief uiscussion of a potential
alignment of NAL0 with the notion of the uigital iesiuent anu a newly emeiging
euucational theoiy of connectivism.
Introduction
The teim Computei Assisteu Language Leaining (CALL) became establisheu in
language euucation in the eaily 198us (Chapelle, 2uu1). Aiguably, piactitioneis anu
ieseaicheis in Teaching English to Speakeis of 0thei Languages (TES0L) have been at
the foiefiont of innovation, theoiy, anu piactice. Levy (1997) comments, "|Wjithin the
fielu of computeis in Euucation, especially within humanities computing, it is teacheis
in the aiea of English as a Foieign Language (EFL).that have been in the vanguaiu" (p.
S). TES0L has uone much to shape the uiiection of CALL; the acionym has seiveu as a
useful fiame of iefeience. In the eaily uays, CALL ieflecteu a fielu that was heavily
baseu on piogiammeu instiuction anu on the behaviouiist piemises of language
leaining. The uiscipline has of couise come a long way since then, with a combination
of euucation theoiy anu technology being the two inteiielateu piimaiy uiiveis of
change. Language euucation theoiy has moveu away fiom what Stein (198S) usefully
chaiacteiises as "peuagogically auuiolingualism, psychologically behaviouiism anu
linguistically stiuctuialism" (p. 169) towaius iecognizing the significance of social

TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 2
constiuctivism that emeigeu out of vygotsky's woik (1978). When applieu to CALL, this
manifests itself in what might be chaiacteiiseu unuei the umbiella teim "technology
anu task-baseu peuagogy." Theie is a wiue iange of piactical classioom iueas unuei
this umbiella teim, as well as an emeiging theoietical founuation (Thomas & Reinueis,
2u1u). The eia of limiteu access to uesktop computeis with a few basic mechanical
"uiill anu kill" softwaie piogiams is long gone in many contexts. CALL has giown to
incluue online blogs, use of apps, viitual leaining enviionments, computei-meuiate-
communication, among otheis. Bowevei, uespite iecognition that the uominant
acionym CALL is "anachionistic" (Thoine & Smith, 2u11, p. 268) it neveitheless
iemains with us. The ciitique of CALL illustiates how alteinative acionyms began to
emeige with the aiiival of the Inteinet. Bowevei, CALL continues to uominate anu it is
faii to asseit that to uate a viable long-lasting alteinative is yet to emeige. Attempts to
move away fiom CALL at the time when the Inteinet began have effectively become off-
shoots of CALL - a viable long-lasting alteinative, it is ieasonable to aigue, is yet to
emeige.
In this aiticle, we begin by uefining anu ciitiquing CALL. We then iepoit on a small-
scale stuuy which examines the piactices anu peiceptions of non-native speakeis of
English (NNSoE) when using a iange of computei notebooks anu laptops as well as
0thei Nobile Bevices (0NBs) outsiue foimal classioom leaining contexts. We aigue
that this woik, togethei with othei tienus within the fielu, suggests that we aie now in a
post-CALL eia anu that the acionym no longei suits its puipose.
A critique of CALL
A numbei of scholais have pioviueu us with now well-establisheu uefinitions. Foi Levy,
CALL is "the seaich foi anu stuuy of applications of the computei in language teaching
anu leaining" (1997, p. 1). Beatty iefeis to CALL as "any piocess in which a leainei
uses a computei anu, as a iesult, impioves his oi hei language.. |Thisj encompasses a
bioau spectium of cuiient piactices in teaching anu leaining at the computei" (2uuS, p.
7), whilst Egbeit states that CALL is "leaineis leaining language in any context with,
thiough, anu aiounu computei technologies" (2uuS, p. 4). As noteu, alteinative
acionyms to CALL emeigeu in iecognition of the iise of the Inteinet. Bush anu Teiiy
(1997) pioposeu Technology Enhanceu Language Leaining (TELL), which emphasises
the technology the computei pioviues iathei than the computei itself. Web-enhanceu
Language Leaining (WELL) was coineu to iefei to the Inteinet as a meuium foi
instiuction, whilst Waischauei anu Kein (2uuu) pioposeu Netwoik-baseu Language
Leaining (NBLL), which stiesses computeis connecteu to one anothei with human-to-
human communication as the focus. Impoitantly, these uefinitions anu acionyms have
at theii coie the notion of stuuents woiking on a uesktop oi laptop computei, usually in
oiuei to consciously piactise oi leain a language. With the computei at the coie anu
applications usually centeieu on consciously piacticing languages, it is not uifficult to
see how these alteinative acionyms effectively became no moie than off-shoots of
CALL, as they uiu not challenge its uefining chaiacteiistics.
We have in iecent yeais seen a iecognition of 0NBs such as smaitphones anu eBook
ieaueis, such as Amazon.com's Kinule. The wiuespieau availability anu use of such
uevices has leu to the acionym Nobile Assisteu Language Leaining (NALL), which

"uiffeis fiom CALL in its use of peisonal, poitable uevices that enable new ways of
leaining, emphasising continuity oi spontaneity of access acioss uiffeient contexts of
use" (Kukulska-Bulme & Shielus, 2uu8, p. 27S). A numbei of stuuies iepoit favouiably
on the iole of a vaiiety of 0NBs in assisting language leaining, these incluue mobile
phones (Kieinan & Aizawa, 2uu4; Nah et al., 2uu8), tablet PCs (Lan et al., 2uu7) anu
NPS playeis anu Poucasting (0' Biyan & Begelheimei, 2uu7; N'hammeu et al., 2uu9).
With NALL comes an awaieness that 0NBs allow foi a ciossing of bounuaiies between
foimal leaining insiue the classioom anu infoimal leaining outsiue the classioom
(Kukulska-Bulme, 2uu9). Bowevei, whilst NALL iecognises a ciossing of bounuaiies
anu changes in technology fiom computei uesktops anu laptops, it neveitheless shaies
with CALL an emphasis on the "assisteu language leaining" components of the
acionym. With this comes an emphasis on the iole anu value of usually a single
softwaie piogiam in the conscious leaining oi piactising of language. Such an
emphasis is not without its limitations.
In teims of euucation theoiy, a numbei of scholais incluuing Bax (2uuS)
anu Waischauei anu Kein (2uuu) have uocumenteu how CALL moveu out of its eaily
phase anu into a cognitive view that challengeu stuuents to think anu woik things
out. This was then followeu by a socio-cognitive view wheieby leaining is vieweu as
taking place not just thiough thinking, but also thiough inteiaction anu negotiation
with otheis. Beie leaining is socially constiucteu, typically involving stuuents
communicating with each othei via computeis. With these changing phases of CALL
has come a shift fiom viewing the computei as a tutoi oi a tool to a meuium. The teim
technology anu task-baseu peuagogy is paiticulaily useful to uesciibe such pievalent
thinking. To uate, howevei, whilst CALL cannot be sepaiateu fiom the bioauei
euucation theoiy of social constiuctivism, such theoiy is fiequently ueiiveu fiom woik
outsiue of CALLCALL, in othei woius, has ieflecteu cuiient euucational thinking.
Whethei CALL, oi technology moie geneially, can continue to uo no moie than simply
ieflect cuiient thinking in euucational theoiy is, as we will uiscuss in oui conclusion,
but one potential point of uepaituie foi NAL0.
Tbe Study
This stuuy is motivateu by the ciitique that we have uocumenteu, togethei with on-
going inteiest in the liteiatuie on technology anu self-stuuy oi leainei tiaining
(uouwin-}ones, 2u11; }aivis, 2uu8; }aivis & Szymczyk, 2u1u; }aivis, 2u12; Schmenk,
2uuS). In an eia of continuous access with a wiue iange of uigital uevices anu
piogiammes, what happens outsiue the classioom in less foimal contexts is an aiea of
incieasing impoitance; the peiceptions piactices anu beliefs of the useis aie
significant. As Kein (2uu6) notes, it is impoitant to "unueistanu the effectiveness of
technology in teims of the specifics of what people uo with computeis, how they uo it,
anu what it means to them" (p. 189). Allowing the leaineis' voices to contiibute to the
valiuity of the CALL acionym is, in this aiticle, the biiuge between the ciitique that we
offei anu the pioposeu NAL0 alteinative. The voice of the leainei is paiticulaily
impoitant given the global availability anu use of computeis anu 0NBs by many
millions of NNSoE in theii eveiyuay lives, outsiue the foimal settings of the language
classioom.

In this stuuy, we builu on the woik of }aivis (2u12), which founu that NNSoE in home
countiy contexts of the 0niteu Aiab Emiiates anu Thailanu make use of a wiue vaiiety
of computei-baseu mateiials (CBNs) beyonu the classioom in both L1 anu L2. They
view such mateiial as helping with theii language leaining iiiespective of whethei oi
not it was the explicit intention of the mateiial. Watching viueos in English oi posting
on Facebook, foi example, weie seen by many paiticipants as helping with language
leaining almost as much as using online uictionaiies oi piacticing giammai on the web.
0ui stuuy attempts to both ieplicate anu fuithei builu on this woik, but in a host
countiy context. An acknowleugeu limitation of the pievious stuuy was its focus on the
computei uesktop oi laptop anu the consequential use of CBNs to fiame the ieseaich
questions. A failuie to iecognise the significance of 0NBs was a significant shoitfall
that this stuuy attempts to auuiess.
Aims
The stuuy examines the piactices anu peiceptions of NNSoE auult leaineis in theii use
of computeis anu 0NBs. We ask the following questions:
1. Which uevices anu applications uo leaineis use. What uo they use them foi.
2. To what extent uo leaineis use the English language as an L2 when using the
vaiious technologies foi puiposes beyonu theii language stuuies, anu why.
S. To what extent uo stuuents believe theii language leaining is enhanceu by the
use of these technologies.
4. To what extent uo leaineis use these technologies to consciously leain English.
S. To what extent uo leaineis believe that thiough exposuie to the language
'unconscious acquisition' may occui.
In answeiing these questions we aigue that the acionym CALL is no longei the most
valiu teim foi unueistanuing the fielu.
Metbodology
0ui uata collection combineu quantitative anu qualitative techniques, which as with
many liteiatuie souices (see, foi example, Newman & Benz, 1998), we view not as polai
opposites oi uichotomies, but iathei as iepiesenting two enus on a continuum. The
quantitative element involveu asking closeu-enueu questions anu eliciting iesponses to
statements via a papei-baseu questionnaiie (piloteu anu amenueu as iequiieu). We
ieuuceu the numbei of questions, as pilot stuuy paiticipants iepoiteu that the
instiument was too long. We auueu heauings in italics so that paiticipants coulu see the
classification of questions. The Appenuix shows the final questionnaiie; foi convenience
anu space puiposes, this has been amenueu to incluue the collateu uata as well.
The qualitative component consisteu of one-to-one, semi-stiuctuieu inteiviews,
conuucteu by one of the co-authois whose age categoiy (18-24) was aligneu with the
paiticipants'. We felt that paiticipants woulu be moie at ease being inteivieweu by a
fellow stuuent (a teachei-tiainee, completing a uisseitation on an NA TES0L
piogiamme). These sessions weie usually 2u to Su minutes long, anu weie conuucteu
in a iange of campus locations (usually the canteen oi an empty

classioom). Paiticipants weie inviteu to talk fuithei about theii iesponses, allowing
the possibility to uiscovei new anu impoitant iealities unintentionally (Aulei & Aulei,
1998). In shoit, we favouieu a mixeu methous appioach, which "attempts to consiuei
multiple viewpoints, peispectives, positions anu stanupoints" (}ohnson et al., 2uu7, p.
11S). We acknowleuge the inheient limitations of self-iepoiting, but feel that oui small
scale-stuuy with its questionnaiies anu inteiviews neveitheless pioviues insights into
the piactices anu peiceptions of NNSoE. Fuithei woik in this aiea using a bioauei
iange of techniques, incluuing obseivational uata togethei with a laigei qualitative
sample anu statistical analysis woulu be a welcomeu auuition to the ieseaich.
Participants
The paiticipants weie NNSoE who weie stuuents ageu 18-24 at a univeisity in the 0K
with an uppei inteimeuiate level of English equating to an oveiall IELTS scoie of at
least banu 6 oi a T0EFLiBT of 8u. A total of 7u questionnaiies weie auministeieu. The
ietuin iate was 64, of which S6 coulu be useu. Eight questionnaiies weie uisiegaiueu
because of incomplete oi inconsistent answeis. A total of S2 paiticipants weie on a pie-
sessional English language summei couise piepaiing to entei eithei an unueigiauuate
oi postgiauuate couise. The iemaining 24 paiticipants weie alieauy eniolleu on an
unueigiauuate oi postgiauuate couise. Paiticipants on the pie-sessional couise weie
new to the 0K, whilst those who weie alieauy eniolleu on a uegiee couise hau been in
the 0K foi at least ten months. The collateu uata, howevei, ievealeu no significant
uiffeiences between these two gioups. Foi iepoiting puiposes, we uo not uiffeientiate
between them. Fiom the questionnaiies, 2S stuuents inuicateu a willingness to
paiticipate in the seconu qualitative phase of oui stuuy. Fiom these, 7 stuuents weie
chosen baseu on a both a spieau of iesponses anu a vaiiety of countiy of oiigin. 0ui
inteiviews weie iecoiueu anu tiansciibeu.
In line with institutional policy anu liteiatuie-baseu iecommenuations (see, foi
example, Seligei & Shohamy, 1989) all piecautions anu pioceuuies weie put in place
fiom the stait, anu maintaineu uuiing anu aftei uata collection anu analysis, in oiuei to
ensuie that eveiy effoit was maue to minimize any iisk to the paiticipants. Foi
iepoiting puiposes, we combine quantitative anu qualitative uata. With the agieement
of the paiticipants, we have coueu inteiview comments as follows: SAN = Sauui Aiabian
Nale; SAF = Sauui Aiabian Female; uF = uieek Female; CBN = Chinese Nale; P0F =
Polish Female; CYF = Cypiiot Female; PAN = Pakistani Nale. In iepoiting what stuuents
saiu, italics aie useu;, the English has not been coiiecteu, as theii meaning is cleai
uespite some language eiiois. 0ui stuuy geneiateu a laige amount of uata, anu oui
questionnaiie was uesigneu to ievisit anu ciosscheck answeis to the key questions in
oui aims. Such an appioach biings some inevitable iepetition, but this iepetition in the
questionnaiie, when combineu with oui inteiview uata, also allows foi a uegiee of
tiiangulation.
Results and discussion
We have synthesiseu oui uiscussion unuei two heauings, "0se of Jevices," onJ
"Applicotions onJ tbe role of Fnqlisb." Full statistics foi the questionnaiie uata aie
available in the Appenuix.

Use of devices
All paiticipants use computeis anu othei 0NBs, anu view them as essential to theii
uaily lives, as inuicateu in Question 2.7 (Q2.7). A P0F explaineu, "l believe tbot l coulJ
not Jo onytbinq witbout tecbnoloqy, l feel lost wben l Jont bove internet," a view
enuoiseu by a PAN who saiu "[l]t just mokes life eosier, so l neeJ it." They make
fiequent use of computeis with a cleai piefeience foi laptops ovei uesktops (Qs2.1, 2.2,
2.S, 2.4). "Besktops ore olJ now, everyboJy now bos o loptop if you qo to sbop o computer
usuolly you see only loptops onJ it is cbeoper" (CBN). 0thei ieasons foi a piefeience of
laptops ovei uesktops suggest that the mobility factoi is an impoitant one: "l con toke it
witb me onywbere l wont" (SAN), "l om not ot my bome so l neeJ to toke my computer
witb me bome onJ brinq it bere to tbe 0K wben l come to stuJy" (CYF).
Responses to Q2.S show that 87.S% of paiticipants use 0NBs, with the vast majoiity
(8S.7%) uoing so on a uaily basis (Q2.6). A significant majoiity of paiticipants view both
computeis anu 0NBs as essential in theii uaily lives (Q2.7), with the ieasons coveiing
both social anu acauemic puiposes: "l listen to music, You Tube etcetero. l wotcb some
viJeos, movies, series l JownlooJ. Hony times l moke some reseorcb for my stuJies, l look
for orticles, l olso reoJ news, look weotber, l communicote Iocebook, Twitter oll tbis stuff"
(uF). Whilst SAF noteu, "l use my loptop onJ my ipbone oll Joy, l listen music olso l tolk
on Iocebook witb my frienJs onJ l senJ text messoqes olso l seorcb tbe internet moybe for
informotion l neeJ or use Jictionory . wben l om out onJ wont to fiqure sometbinq out,
eitber informotion or tbe meoninq of o worJ or sometbinq l will use my smortpbone, l
bove it witb me oll tbe time onJ it is eosy to toke witb me." The anywheieanytime
convenience of such uevices can be fuithei seen fiom the answei to Q6A, with 87.S%
agieeing with the statement: "I think that Nobile uevices aie convenient because I can
have them with me all the time anu use them in the same way as my
computei." 0veiall, the uata suggest a neeu to iecognise that the fielu is no longei
iestiicteu to computeis, anu that mobility-togethei with a wiue vaiiety of uses-aie a
uefining chaiacteiistic of NNSoE piactices. The English language is of majoi impoitance
to such useis.
Applications and tbe role of Englisb
Answeis to questions S, 4, S anu 6, when taken in totality, point to the impoitance of
both computeis anu othei 0NBs as useu foi both social anu acauemic puiposes in both
L1 anu L2. In iesponse to Q4, 8S.7% of paiticipants iecognise the uominant iole of the
English language on the Inteinet (Q4A); "[H]ost informotion on internet is in Fnqlisb"
(PAN); "l cont finJ os mony tbinq os l neeJ in 6reek" (uF); "Sometimes, l miqbt finJ
sometbinq in my lonquoqe obout tbe topic l om seorcbinq to qet o qenerol iJeo of wbot it
is obout becouse it is more eosy for me to unJerstonJ onJ tben l will look for it in Fnqlisb
becouse tbere is more informotion. Fnqlisb in tbe internotionol lonquoqe so it is mucb
eosier to finJ tbinqs." (SAN).
A total of 91.1% agieeu that they use English when using electionic uevices because it
is a way to piactise theii language skills (Q4B). As might be expecteu with a veiy
similai statement in QS.1 91.1% agieeu (Su.4%) oi stiongly agieeu (6u.7%) that the
vaiious uevices help them to piactise anu\oi leain English. Noie specifically 69.6% use

English to communicate with otheis (Q4C). English leaining anu piactice, it woulu
seem, is not only an enu in itself foi many paiticipants, but is also a means to an
enu. The enu coulu be chaiacteiiseu as engaging in social netwoiking sites, accessing
infoimation fiom the web, online gaming, anu so foith; in such cases, English is the
means to uo so. "Fnqlisb is everywbere onJ it bos everytbinq in Fnqlisb so if l finJ
sometbinq onJ l miqbt tronslote in my lonquoqe, but l Jont use it exclusively to leorn
Fnqlisb but l leorn mony tbinqs in tbis woy" (P0F).
When askeu in QS.S to ueciue which helpeu most with language leaining-naiiowly
uefineu tutoiial packages as specifieu in QS.SA, oi using English without explicitly
leaining it as in Q S.SB- 71.4% opteu foi the lattei. 0ui inteiview paiticipants
elaboiateu as follows: "[R]eoJinq vorious orticles, news, etcetero belps me to moke my
Fnqlisb better olso communicotinq tbrouqb Iocebook witb my frienJs in Fnqlisb olso
belps me becouse l speok in Fnqlisb onJ sometimes l moke mistokes onJ olso l see bow
otber people {l om tolkinq obout people wbo lonquoqe is Fnqlisb) speok onJ tbis belps me"
(P0F); "l believe tbot reoJinq onJ communicotinq in qenerol onJ Joinq otber tbinqs belps
me more becouse l see onJ use reol lonquoqe everyJoy, wben l proctice only qrommor it is
very specific tbe lonquoqe use in tenses" (SAN); "So mony yeor we ore leorninq qrommor
rules onJ we proctice mony times, it is not tbe some wben you use lonquoqe in reol life it is
more Jifficult so l tbink for my level now it is better to reoJ some orticle newspopers"
(SAF); "l Jont intentionolly use Fnqlisb to communicote or to reoJ sometbinq so l con
leorn tbinq but l Jefinitely believe l leorn mony tbinqs like vocobulory onJ new
expressions pbroses etc. (SAN)"; "[H]ony times wben l wotcb films or viJeos on You Tube
l leorn Jifferent tbinqs, moybe not immeJiotely but if l wotcb Jifferent tbinqs oll tbe time l
om sure l leornt mony tbinqs from tbis" (CYF).
None of the paiticipants inuicateu that they ieau e-books in only theii L1; out of the
ielatively small sample of 2u paiticipants that ieau e-books, 6u% (N=12) uo so mostly
in English anu only less fiequently in theii L1. Thiity peicent (N=6) use only English.
When I askeu why, a typical ieply was "[T]be e-books l reoJ ore for my stuJies so l use
Fnqlisb" (P0F).
Taken in combination, we believe that the uata on what is peiceiveu as helping with
paiticipants' English is significant. In the eia befoie global Inteinet usage, Kiashen
(1982) uistinguisheu between ocquisition as a "a subconscious piocess; language
acquiieis aie not usually awaie of the fact that they aie acquiiing language, but aie only
awaie of the fact that they aie using the language foi communication." anu leaining "to
iefei to the conscious knowleuge of a seconu language" (p. 1u), which means knowing
the iules, being awaie of them, anu being able to talk about them. In nontechnical
teims, leaining is "knowing about a language." 0ui uata suggest that thiity yeais on,
anu with a pievalence of uigitalizeu uevices anu piogiammes, such uistinctions aie
possibly even moie ielevant foi oui leaineis than befoie. }aivis (2uu8, p. S8u) has
aigueu that now we neeu specifically to apply such uistinctions to an electionic
enviionment with notions of e-leaining anu e-acquisition: this stuuy suppoits the
suggestion that stuuents believe that they aie "picking-up" language thiough using
it. This aiea iemains unueiexploieu; we auvocate a NAL0 fiamewoik as moie
appiopiiate foi auuiessing such issues than CALL, which is still laigely locateu within

anu iestiicteu by what might be chaiacteiizeu as "conscious e-leaining." It is
inteiesting to note that only 16.1% iepoiteu a changing of theii piactice because they
weie stuuying in the 0K. Paiticipants iecognise the significance of English, iiiespective
of location when using laptops anu 0NBs (Q4B anu QS.2), as typifieu by the following:
"[l]n my bome country l Jont beor mony everyJoy expressions becouse not mony people
speok Fnqlisb so l tbink tbot l leornt mony tbinqs from wotcbinq viJeos on You Tube or
reoJinq Jifferent tbinqs on tbe internet" (uF). Inueeu, we woulu aigue that one of the
auvantages of shifting fiom CALL to NAL0 is that it allows us to bettei iecognise that
NNSoE have unpieceuenteu continuous access not only "anytime" but also
"anywheie". In such less foimal leaining contexts, the "host countiy" oi location-
specific "self-access language leaining centies" aie piobably not as significant as they
once weie in a pie-NAL0 enviionment, when access to English was moie iestiicteu.
In iesponse to QS, which attempts to iuentify piefeiences foi uevices when applieu to
specific activities, we shoulu note that theie is veiy little to sepaiate uiffeient
applications being useu eithei on laptops oi on 0NBs-paiticipants use both of these
uevices foi a iange of activities. We have alieauy noteu the uecline in the use of
uesktops, which is confiimeu heie. Nost notewoithy with this uata is that wheie theie
aie uiffeiences between computei laptops anu 0NBs, paiticipants piefeiieu laptops
significantly to 0NBs in two specific applications: using the web to access acauemic
infoimation (76.8% compaieu to 21.4%), anu to piactice theii English (S8.9%
compaieu to 26.8%). 0f all the listeu applications, these two involve conscious
leaining; it seems that 0NBs aie not the vast majoiity's piefeience foi such
activities. Theiefoie, whilst all kinus of uevices aie valueu as assisting with
unconscious acquisition, in contiast, uesktop computeis anu laptops aie piefeiieu foi
conscious leaining.
With a moie uetaileu analysis of the language useu foi each of the applications (QS), we
shoulu note low peicentages foi all applications in column A ("only my fiist language"):
paiticipants uo not appeai to be making exclusive use of theii L1. Theie is some
vaiiation between applications anu paiticipants' use piimaiily of mainly L1 (column B)
oi mainly L2 (column C). As might be expecteu, the laigest peicentage of mainly L1 use
is "accessing peisonal infoimation on the WWW" (48.2%). Bowevei, even with this
application, 41% useu mainly L2 anu 7.2% useu only L2. The iole of using applications
mainly in L2 (column C) oi only L2 (column B) is geneially high foi all applications. The
iole of English, as we have alieauy noteu, is of a majoi significance to these NNSoE foi
whatevei applications they happen to be using. It is of even highei significance when
useu to access acauemic infoimation, with 46.4% using mainly L2 anu S2.1% using only
L2. Bowevei, even with social netwoiking sites such as Facebook anu Twittei, among
otheis, English iemains impoitant-41.1% inuicateu that they useu mostly English anu
some of theii L1, 21.S% use mostly theii L1 anu some English, S1.S% use only English,
anu only S.8% use only theii L1. English is useu not only foi accessing infoimation but
also foi communicating infoimation of a social natuie: "l Jont bove mony Fnqlisb
frienJs, but l bove frienJs from Jifferent countries so we tolk in Fnqlisb" (CYF). With
enteitainment, as might be expecteu, we see a slightly highei use of L1, wheie
paiticipants aie moie likely to be just accessing infoimation iathei than accessing anu
communicating, as with social netwoiking. Bowevei, a uF wanteu to uiffeientiate

between oui listeu items: "ln my lonquoqe l listen to music onJ olso reoJ news etc. but in
Fnqlisb l ploy qomes, tbere ore nice qomes in Fnqlisb onJ olso Fnqlisb music is very
populor so l listen to it becouse l like it l olso wotcb Fnqlisb films onJ series."
Finally, iesponses to Q6E point to the significance of multi-tasking foi these NNSoE:
87.S% iepoiteu using moie than one application at the same time. Paiticipants uo not
iestiict themselves to one application in eithei L1 oi L2; in all likelihoou they use both
L1 anu L2 on Facebook anu Twittei, whilst also woiking on an assignment anuoi
listening to music. Again, we aigue that such piactices challenge tiauitional CALL
fiamewoiks, which tenu to focus on one softwaie piogiam useu to piactice English in
contiolleu location specific contexts.
Conclusions
We acknowleuge that CALL iemains ielevant, to the extent that theie will still be a iole
foi it to play in stuuents woiking on a computei uesktop oi laptop. 0ui uata suggests
that they aie the piefeiieu tools foi conscious leaining activities, foi now at
least. Bowevei, as we have seen, theie is a neeu to take a moie compiehensive view. In
this stuuy, NNSoE use a iange of uevices foi a vaiiety of social anu acauemic puiposes.
These incluue conscious leaining, but also covei othei activities which allow foi the
possibility of "picking up language" oi unconscious acquisition. Whilst we have not
attempteu to measuie leaining outcomes fiom such activities, theie is neveitheless a
newly emeiging liteiatuie pointing favouiably to the impact of such piactices on
language leaining. In ielation to online gaming foi example Kuuie (2u11) suggests that
"|Ajctivities aiounu such games may pioviue impoitant affoiuances foi language
leaining, not as an objective as such, but as means of nuituiing social ielationships anu
paiticipating in collaboiative pioblem-solving anu netwoiking among peeis" (p. SS).
The piactices of NNSoE useis uo, we feel, now necessitate a shift fiom CALL to
NAL0. We uefine NAL0 as non-native speakeis using of a vaiiety of mobile uevices in
oiuei to access anuoi communicate infoimation on an anywheieanytime basis anu
foi a iange of social anuoi acauemic puiposes in an L2. Such a uefinition encompasses
all the featuies of CALL anu even NALL, in that it allows foi conscious stuuy puiposes
on uesktops, laptops anu 0NBs, but is not constiaineu by the limitations anu also
iecognises social uses in the L2 in both foimal anu less foimal leaining situations. It
iecognises that uevices can be useu not only as a means to an enu, wheie the enu is
language leaining, but also wheie the enu is accessing anu posting infoimation as
globally netwoikeu citizens with English (as the L2) as well as L1 being the means to uo
so. We take issue with the view that the umbiella teim CALL iemains the most
appiopiiate, as is still explicitly stateu in some of the liteiatuie. Such a view has, foi
example, been iecently aiticulateu by uaiiet (2u11, p. 72S) who states, "What is
changing most iauically in the complex factois that uefine CALL touay is the laigei
context of language euucation in touay's woilu.". It is howevei piecisely this laigei
context, uiiven in significant measuie by the piactices anu peiceptions of NNSoE who
access anu communicate infoimation in both theii L1 anu L2 with a wiue iange of
uevices which make such uefinitions pioblematic anu suggest a neeu foi an
alteinative. Accoiuing to Inteinet Woilu Stats (http:www.inteinetwoilustats.com) in
2u1u, 82S.1 million weie locateu in Asia. Euiope has 47S.1 million useis anu Noith

Ameiica has 266.2 million. The English language has an estimateu SS6.S million
speakeis, followeu by Chinese (444.9) anu Spanish (1SS.S). It is cleai that useis
thioughout the globe aie accessing anu communicating infoimation in theii L1 anu L2
(with English uominating L2 use), anu they aie uoing so foi stuuy, business, anu social
puiposes. Nany of these useis, incluuing those who paiticipateu in this stuuy aie
uigital iesiuents in that "A piopoition of theii lives is actually liveu out online." (White
& Coinu, 2u11), anu significantly, some of theii time is spent iesiuing in a seconu
language. As we have seen, some of this time may be spent leaining, but it is not the
pievailing activity. As such, CALL is no longei an auequate point of iefeience. We aie in
a post-CALL eia because the fielu is not "just" about the computei, noi is it "just" about
assisteu language leaining, it is about NAL0.
Finally, oui suggesteu shift to NAL0 has the potential to bettei complement a newly
emeiging euucational theoiy of connectivism than CALL is evei able to. Siemens
(2uuS) aigues, "Bow people woik anu function is alteieu when new tools aie utilizeu"
anu that "|wje can no longei peisonally expeiience anu acquiie leaining that we neeu
to act. We ueiive oui competence fiom foiming connections." Such a view sees ".
foimal euucation as no longei compiising the majoiity of oui leaining" (n.p). Aiguably
we uon't "neeu to know" in the same way because the answeis to many of oui questions
aie now within easy ieach on a wiieless laptop oi 0NB, anu significantly, aie usually in
English as an L2. Whethei this alteinative iepiesents a new theoiy foi the uigital age is,
as might be expecteu, much contesteu. Bell (2u11) foi example, aigues that this is moie
of a phenomenon than a theoiy. Theoiy oi phenomenon, fuithei woik in this aiea is
neeueu anu in language euucation, iiiespective of the answeis, aiguably NAL0 now
neeus to be oui uefining point of iefeience in keeping TES0L at the vanguaiu.
About tbe Autbors
Huw )arvis is a Senioi Lectuiei in TES0L at the 0niveisity of Salfoiu in the 0K anu is
the founuei anu euitoi of http:www.TES0Lacauemic.oig, which uisseminates
ieseaich thiough a seiies of fieely accessible viueo talks.
Marinna Acbilleos has iecently completeu hei NA TES0L at the 0niveisity of Salfoiu,
0K anu is cuiiently woiking as a fieelance EFLESL tutoi in Cypius.
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Appendix 1- Questionnaire witb collected data
Notes
(1) This uocument is amenueu foi uata piesentation puiposes fiom the oiiginal
questionnaiie which was uistiibuteu to paiticipants. We have excluueu the pie-amble
consent page, togethei with the section inuicating whethei paiticipants weie agieeable
to paiticipate in inteiviews anu the thank you at the enu.

(2) All the uata is piesenteu in peicentages (%). The total numbei of each iesponse is
also shown in biackets (N=S6, wheie applicable).

1. What aie you stuuying.
English on pie-sessional summei couises = S2
Cuiiently on an unueigiauuate oi postgiauuate couises at the 0niveisity = 24
Wheie aie you fiom.
Country total Country Total
Sauui Aiabia 2S% (14) Polanu S.4% (S)
China 2S.2% (1S) Pakistan S.4% (S)
Iiaq 1u.7% (6) Syiia S.4% (S)
Cypius 8.9% (S) }oiuan S.6% (2)
Tunisia S.4% (S) Spain 1.8% (1)
uieece S.4% (S)
0se of computers onJ otber Jevices
2.1 Bo you usually use a uesktop computei.
Yes = 2S.2% (1S) - continue to 2.2 anu then 2.S
No = 76.8% (4S) - skip 2.2 go to 2.S
2.2 Bow often uo you use it. (tick only one answei)
Eveiyuay Nost uays 2 oi S times a week Baiuly evei Nevei
84.6% (111S) 1S.4% (21S) u% (u) u% (u) u% (u)
2.S Bo you usually use a laptop.
Yes = 76.8% (4S) - continue to 2.4 anu then 2.S
No = S2.2% (1S) - skip 2.4 go to 2.S
2.4 Bow often uo you use it (tick only one answei)

9u.7% (S94S) 16.S% (849) u% (u) u% (u) u% (u)

2.S Bo you use any othei mobile uevices. (smaitphones, tablet computeis, ipaus,
iphones, ipous, netbook, notebook, uigital pocket uictionaiies)
Yes = 87.S% (49) - continue to 2.4 anu then 2.7
No = 12.S% (7) - skip 2.6 go to 2.7
2.6 Bow often uo you use them. (tick only one answei)
8S.7% (4149) 16.S% (849) u% (u) u% (u) u% (u)

2.7 Bo you consiuei the use of computeis anu othei uigital mobile as an essential tool in
youi eveiyuay life.
Yes = 1uu% (S7) - continue to auu ieasons anu then on to S
No = u% (u) - please give ieasons anu then ietuin the questionnaiie. Theie aie no
fuithei questions. Thank you foi pioviuing this infoimation.
Some commonly noteJ reosons incluJeJ: uaily living ielies on them; it is easy to finu
infoimation about eveiything veiy quickly; it connects me to the whole woilu because
eveiything now is uone with computeis; it helps me in my stuuies; ieauing news; to
keep in touch with my family anu fiienus; it makes my life easiei; to inciease
knowleuge; the most convenient way to finu infoimation; to make fiienu thiough social
netwoiks.
lonquoqe - computers onJ otber Jevices
S. The following section is uiviueu into two paits, follow the instiuctions anu complete
the table below.
S.1 Which electionic uevices uo you use foi the puiposes listeu in the table below
Please tick the box if you use electionic uevices foi this puipose oi if you uo not use
them foi this puipose.
S.2 Which language uo you use when using electionic uevices. tick only one answei
(A, B, C oi B) foi this
A = 0nly youi fiist language
B = Nainly youi fiist language anu some English
C = Nainly English anu some of youi fiist language
B = 0nly English


Computei
uesktop
Laptop
0thei mobile
uevices
A B C B
Applications
Please fill in all boxes in this section
Eithei oi cioss each box
Please tick only one box
2S.2%
(1S)
76.8%
(4S)
8u.4 % (4S)
S.6%
(2)
48.2%
(27)
41.1%
(2S)
7.1%
(4)
access the WWW
(inteinet) foi
peisonal
infoimation
{my interests)
76.8%
(4S)
2S.2%
(1S)
19.6% (11)
A totol of S6 porticiponts use
electronic Jevices for tbis
purpose
2S.2%
(1S)
76.8%
(4S)
21.4% (12)
S.4%
(S)
16.1%
(9)
46.4%
(26)
S2.1%
(18)
access the WWW
(inteinet) foi
acauemic
infoimation
{informotion for my
stuJies)
76.8%
(4S)
2S.2%
(1S)
78.6%(44)
purpose
8.9%
(S)
26.8%
(1S)
28.6%(16)
u%
(u)
1u%
(2)
6u%
(12)
Su%
(6)
ieau e-books
91.1%
(S1)
7S.2%
(41)
71.4%(4u)
A totol of 20 porticiponts use
purpose
19.6%
(11)
71.4%
(4u)
67.9%(S8)
S.8%
(S)
21.S%
(11)
41.1%
(21)
S1.S%
(16)
access social
netwoiking sites
{Iocebook, Twitter,
Hyspoce, etc.)
8u.4%
(4S)
28.6%
(16)
S2.1%(18)
purpose
2S.2%
(1S)

76.8%(4S)
84% (47)
S.6%
(2)
S9.S%
(22)
SS.9%
(21)
19.6%
(11)
Enteitainment
{qomes, You Tube,
films, music etc.)
76.8%
(4S)
2S.2%
(1S)
16% (9)
purpose


4. Think about the ieasons foi which you use English when using electionic uevices, anu
tick oi the appiopiiate boxes (you can oi moie than one statement)

A: Nost infoimation available on the inteinet is in English
8S.7%
(48)
14.S%
(8)
B: I use English because it is a way to piactice anu impiove my language
skills
91.1%
(S1)
8.9%
(S)
C: I use English to communicate with othei people because it is a
language useu by many people
69.6%
(S9)
Su.4%
(17)
B: I have to use English because I am stuuying in the 0K, if I weie in my
home countiy I woulu use my native language
16.1%
(9)
8S.9%
(47)
Some commonly noteJ reosons incluJeJ: I like using English; it is easiei to wiite in
English foi example on social netwoiking sites; it is uifficult to finu a lot of infoimation
about eveiything in my fiist language; I have fiienus that uo not speak my fiist
language.
S. Fuithei infoimation
S.1 I believe that using English foi vaiious puiposes thiough electionic uevices helps
me piactice anuoi leain English. (tick only one answei)
Stiongly Agiee Agiee Bisagiee Stiongly Bisagiee
2S.2%
(1S)

76.8%(4S)
41.1%(2S)
u%
(u)
S7.S%
(21)
42.9%
(24)
19.6%
(11)
E- mail
76.8%
(4S)
2S.2%
(1S)
S8.9%(SS)
purpose
21.4
(12)
7S% (42) 92.9%(S2)
online Bictionaiies
78.6%
(44)
2S% (14) 7.1%(4)
NA
14.S%
(8)
S8.9%
(SS)
26.8% (1S)
Inteinet sites with
English piactice
exeicises
8S.7%
(48)
41.1%(2S) 7S.2% (41)
NA

6u.7% (S4) Su.4% (17) 8.9 % (S) u% (u)

S.2 I useu English in the same way befoie coming to stuuy in the 0K. (tick only one
answei)
Stiongly Agiee Agiee Bisagiee Stiongly Bisagiee
28.6% (16) S7.1% (S2) 8.9% (S) S.4% (S)

S.S Between A anu B inuicate which you believe helps you moie with youi language
leaining
A: 0sing Web pages that aie uesigneu foi English language leaining
(http:www.onestopenglish.com, www.englishpiactice.com,
www.manythings.oig)
28.6%
(16)
B: Boing vaiious othei things but using the English language to uo so (such as
accessing infoimation on the WWW, communicating with
fiienusfamily,listening to music etc.)
71.4%
(4u)

Some commonly noteJ reosons incluJeJ: Foi A: "on the inteinet when communicating we
use othei English, not coiiect English"; "using web pages with exeicises gives you
answei if coiiect oi not what you use." Foi B: "uoing uiffeient things helps you see anu
use ieal language"; "many times to know only giammai but uon't use uoes not help."
6. Please inuicate whethei the following aie tiue oi not tiue foi you ( tiue oi foi not
tiue)

Tiue

Not
tiue
A: I think that mobile uevices aie convenient because I can have them
with me all the time anu use them in the same way as my computei
8S.7%
(48)
14.S%
(8)
B: I piefei using books to seaich foi infoimation iathei than the inteinet
S.4%
(S)
94.6%
(SS)
C: I communicate thiough social netwoiking sites (Facebook, Twittei
etc.) with people whose fiist language is English.
78.6%
(44)
21.4%
(12)
B: If I uon't know something the fiist thing I will uo is seaich it on the
inteinet
91.1%
(S1)
8.9%
(S)
E: When using electionic uevices I use moie than one application at the 87.S% 12.S%

same time. (ex: listen to music, seaich the WWW, chat on social
netwoiking sites)
(49) (7)
F: When I uo not unueistanu a woiu oi phiase I look it up in online
uictionaiy
92.9%
(S2)
7.1%
(4)
u: If I have a small poitable uevice with me at uiffeient times I have
moie chances of using the English language in vaiious ways iathei than
only using my computei.
87.S%
(49)
12.S%
(7)
B: 0sing new technologies in English helps me with my language
leaining
91.1%
(S1)
8.9%
(S)
I: I uiu not use the English language when using technology befoie
coming to stuuy in the 0K
14.S%
(8)
8S.7%
(48)

Thank you foi completing this questionnaiie.

Copyiight 1994 - 2u1S TESL-E}, ISSN 1u72-4SuS
Copyiight iests with the authois.

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TESL-EJ 16.

4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 1

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