Mehdipour 1Mehdipour 1

Melod Mehdipour
Professor Shannon Steen, GSI Caitlin S. Marshall
Theater 25AC/American Studies 1AC
1! "ecem#er 21$

Heres to the Dirty Hand that Started this Mess: The
Introduction
I %ill search for concerns re&ardin& 'illiam (ratton as )a*land+s police
commissioner for the si, months that he has #een contracted to. -as stop
and fris* #een implemented in )a*land in a .nicer. manner that (ratton
noted a#out/ 'hat are the lin*s #et%een stop and fris* and racial pro0lin&/
In order to understand racial pro0lin& in the Cit1 of )a*land, CA, I must loo*
into the ori&in of )a*land+s social memor1 of #ein& a 2iolent crime to%n. I
must also loo* at the practice of racial pro0lin&, namel1 the stop and fris*
policies that ha2e ori&inated in 3e% 4or* and see ho% that ma1 #e applied to
racial pro0lin& in )a*land toda1. 5iolence, &entri0cation, and tar&etin& of
particular racial &roups such as #lac* indi2iduals %ill #e carefull1 accounted
for at the same time. The main &oal of the pro6ect is to anal17e ho% those
listed factors are related to each other and ho% )a*land #ecame %hat it is
percei2ed to #e. The anal1sis %ill #e carried out #1 e,aminin& institutional
histor1, namel1 post8ci2il ri&hts po%er structures, that has led to t%o thin&s9
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1: An inherent raciali7ation of )a*land as a 2iolence hot8spot, speci0call1 a
#lac* 2iolence hot8spot %hich includes police 2iolence a&ainst #lac* people;
somethin& that happens to #e e,cluded from this social memor1. 2: -o%
policin& policies ha2e #een constructed in response such 2iolence and their
impact on racial formation o2er all. To aid m1 research, I %ill consult #oo*s
and 2er1 recent primar18source ne%s articles to &ain a #etter understandin&
of the &i2en situation. At the same time, the color#lindness in post8race
California is of #i& <uestion. =nderstandin& the apparent contradiction of
post8race applied to )a*land %ill also #e part of the focus pertainin& to racial
pro0lin&. This %ill #e done #1 e2aluatin& (ratton>s policies in )a*land. 'hat
%ere his intent and the impact/ (ased of %hat has #een o#ser2ed from
(ratton>s actions, could it #e possi#le to e2en ha2e post8race policin&/ M1
&oal is to de#un* the social memor1 associated %ith #lac* people as
fundamentall1 criminal in )a*land, CA under the aforementioned
parameters.
1. Billy Bratton, Crime-Fihtin !"traordinaire
For any city to say they dont do stop-and-friskIm sorry, they dont know what the hell
theyre talkin a!out" #$ery police department in %merica does it" &he challene is to do it
constitutionally within the law" &he challene is to do it compassionately' youre dealin with
human !eins" %nd the challene is to do it consistently so you cannot !e accused that youre
only doin it in one neih!orhood in the city or directed aainst one population of the city"(
Mehdipour )Mehdipour )
---*illiam +ratton, former ,ew -ork .ity, +oston, and /os %neles 0olice .ommissioner
reardin his most recent position as 1akland2s crime-fihtin consultant 3.+45"
.ontro$ersial 6uotation or word of the wise from one of %mericas most hihly rearded
crime-fihtin consultants7 In order to answer this 6uestion, !oth stop-and-frisk and racial
profilin must !e defined" &aken straiht out of an online dictionary, stop-and-frisk is the
practice of makin an in$estiatory detention of an indi$idual suspected of some type of
unlawful !eha$ior 3leal"dictionary5" &his policy has !een implemented !y former ,ew -ork
.ity mayor 8udy 9iuliani and former ,-0: commissioner *illiam +ratton in 1;;< 3,+.
,ews5" &his policy is widely practiced !ased on the !roken windows( theory"
&he !roken windows theory is a criminoloy term which maintains that a strict
monitorin of ur!an neih!orhoods must !e carried out in order to maintain low crime le$els"
.onsider a !roken window' one small incidence such as a !roken window on a !uildin poses
$irtually no threat" =owe$er, $andals in the surroundin area can ta the !uildin with spray
paint and perhaps !reak more windows to !reak into the !uildin" More $andals and $aa!onds
can inha!it the !uildin and enae in acti$ities that can slowly destroy the inner desin of the
!uildin" &his !roken window( e>ample represents a chain reaction that can oriinate from an
unattended matter" 4uch e>ample is analoous to crime fihtin' one small crime left without
notice can e>acer!ate into larer-scale criminal acti$ity that is much more difficult to contain
3*ilson ? @ellin A5" &his represents ,-.s efforts to reducin its crime rates on account of it
!ein a lare city where potential crime is seeminly endless" &his is what e>plains the alleed
need for stop-and-frisk therefore"
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1n the other hand, racial profilin is a means of usin ones race !y a particular roup of
indi$iduals such as law enforcement as a decision factor in terms of e>ecutin such enforcement"
8acial profilin oriinated mostly from the Cim .row era when police were allowed to stop and
detain !lack indi$iduals who were suspected to !e escaped sla$es 34taples )15" 1$er time, racial
profilin has resonated into what we see present day" &he connection !etween racial profilin
and stop-and-frisk resides in the notion that indi$iduals of color are more likely to commit
crimes"
In a sur$ey taken !y the ,ew -ork .i$il /i!erties Dnion from 2<<2 up until 2<1) when
stop and frisk was ruled unconstitutional, one can see the correlation !etween police stops and
race" It can !e seen consistently that EE-E;F of the indi$iduals stopped were innocent" *ithin
those who were innocent, appro>imately GG-GHF of them were !lack, 2;-)2F of them /atino,
and appro>imately 1<-1)F white 3,-./D5" %s a matter of fact, D"4" :istrict Cude 4hira
4cheindlin ruled stop-and-frisk unconstitutional on %uust 12, 2<1) on account that it is
indirect racial profilin( 3Iauhan5"
%nd now 1akland, .%s infamous reputation as a crime hot-spot and po$erty-ridden
city has drawn the attention of stop-and-frisk ad$ocator *illiam +ratton" 0erhaps he can work
his maic on 1akland to help him ain his 1G minutes of fame as earned in e$ery town he has
worked in" *hat is more shockin, howe$er is +rattons nelect in implementin a friendly(
type of stop and frisk that he has !een !oastin a!out in his 6uote 3&he +ratton 8eport5" +ut
what was it that influenced him to come up with such ideoloy reardin 1akland7 *hy did
1akland !ecome this apparent crime hotspot that we see it as today7 %t the same time, why did
+ratton decide to not make any stop-and-frisk-related recommendations in his report7 &o
understand these, 1aklands social history must !e considered"
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2. Some History that the Big Kids Dont Want You to See
=p until the core of 'orld 'ar II, )a*land %as a 2er1 a?uent cit1
teemin& %ith su#ur#an nei&h#orhoods. The earl1 1!@>s #rou&ht attracted
African8American indi2iduals to the Aast (a1. (lac* indi2iduals ha2e
mi&rated from Southern states such as Te,as, Ar*ansas, and states
surroundin& the Golf of Bouisiana CDusmer, Trotter 2E@:. The premise of
%or*in& to%ards a #etter future in the Daiser Ship1ards and %eariness of
southern sharecroppin& %ere the main causes of such mi&ration. Mi&ratin&
African8Americans %ere situated in housin& pro6ects that %ere once militar1
#arrac*s in 'estern and 3orthern )a*land. 'hite resentment of this #lac*
e,pansion resulted in man1 forms of social unrest.
Tremendous amounts of housin& pressures due to the e,pansion of an
increasin& #lac* population in )a*land arose from se&re&ation %ithin
)a*land itself. Middle class #lac* people %anted to li2e in an en2ironment
that represents their social status, #ut this %as met %ith %hite opposition
CDusmer, Trotter 2E@82E5:. Prior to the Fair -ousin& Act of 1!GH no e,plicit
enforcement a&ainst preferential real8estate dealin&s e,isted. As a result,
a?uent Aast (a1 su#ur#s %ithin Alameda and Contra Costa counties %ere
2irtuall1 oI limits to the middle class #lac* people. 'hites also Jed from the
&hettoi7ed re&ions %ithin )a*land once the Fair -ousin& Act passed, lea2in&
further mar&inali7ation of #lac* people. Further discrimination led to under8
appraised homes in Aast )a*land %here home 2alues %ere assi&ned lo%er
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2alues than the1 should ha2e #een in the mar*et CDusmer, Trotter 2E@82E5:.
At the same time, the constructions of the I8HH hi&h%a1 and the 'est
)a*land (AKT station led to more displaced #lac* indi2iduals that led to
more po2ert1 and homelessness CSelf $2!:. Social unrest hei&htened %hen
the certain #lac* indi2iduals formulated their retaliation.
In the mid8late 1!G>s -ue1 3e%ton and (o##1 Seale founded the
(lac* Panther Part1 amidst the crossroads of 'est and 3orth )a*land CSelf
22H:. Seale and 3e%ton #elie2ed that social reform must root from Lcreati2e
leaders and the appropriate MsocialN tacticsO CSelf 22H:. To &ain po%er in
num#er, Part1 mem#ers recruited poor African Americans 2ia numerous
#rea*fast pro&rams. This idea came from 3e%ton>s notion to form a
re2olutionar1 proletariat of the coloni7ed indi2iduals CSelf 22!:. The (lac*
Panther Part1 fre<uentl1 rallied in the )a*land streets. These rallies resulted
in 2iolenceP the police and local con2enience stores %ere fre<uentl1 tar&eted.
)ne radical e,ample includes a local store on San Pa#lo A2enue in 3orth
)a*land #ein& 0re#om#ed for refusin& to suppl1 food for one of the Part1>s
#rea*fast pro&rams on Ma1 1, 1!G!. The )a*land Police "epartment
retaliated %ith e<ual ferocit1 CSelf 22H:. )n8&oin& 2iolence and
mar&inali7ation reinforced anti8African American sentiment.
5iolence and po2ert1 from an on8&oin& #attle of #lac* de facto
se&re&ation are most li*el1 the cause of )a*land>s current social memor1. As
mentioned earlier, the alle&ed purpose of racial pro0lin& %ithin stop8and8fris*
is to reduce crime in hea2il1 ur#ani7ed communities none other than
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)a*land. 'illiam (ratton>s o2er all alle&ed intentions are to therefore
increase safet1 %ithin )a*land despite ad2ocatin& a relati2el1 radical la%8
enforcin& ideolo&1.
#. $e are no More %iolent than the Crum&s in a Ba o' Chi(s
Man1 theories re&ardin& race and 2iolence in terms of African8
American racism are deri2ed from southern sla2er1. It is commonl1 ar&ued
that the police force %ithin the =nited States as a %hole is a prominent
s1m#ol of %hite he&emonic po%er. "urin& the da1s of sla2er1, as one mi&ht
*no%, #lac* people %ere forced to li2e in e,tremel1 diQcult circumstances.
(lac* people %ere fre<uent, if not almost a#solute, articles of sla2e8to8
master interactions %ith their %hite counterparts. This represents a
historical su#ordination of #lac* indi2iduals that stren&thened the lin*
#et%een %hiteness and social po%er CGar0eld 1G81E:. At the same time,
#lac* people %ere su#6ected to situations %here stealin& food and clothin&
and escapin& plantations #ecame 2ital. The sla2es %ere then apprehended
#1 none other than %hite police oQcers. To ma*e matters %orse, sla2es
%ere considered $/5 of a person and had a#solutel1 no le&al standin& an1
%hatsoe2er. 'hat this implies o2erall is that the must to meet #asic
ph1siolo&ical needs Lesta#lishes a le&ac1 that came to de0ne #lac* male
presence in America toda1O CGar0eld 1E:. (lac* indi2iduals and %hite
authorit1 ha2e #een more or less cau&ht up in a le&alit1 cat8and8mouse
chase due to lon& 1ears of historical implication.
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Such incidences ser2e as the foundation of these correspondin& #iases
a&ainst #lac* indi2iduals in crime. There is fre<uent speculation that police
e,ercise racial discrimination upon ma*in& arrests and con2ictions. -o%e2er
recentl1, it can #e o#ser2ed that %hites and #lac*s are actuall1 con2icted at
similar rates for 2arious crimes. Scholars Stephan and A#i&ail Thernstrom
su&&est that althou&h crime caused #1 one racial &roup mi&ht seem
pre2alent o2er the other, Lstatistical disparities mi&ht #e su&&esti2e #ut not
de0niti2eO CThernstrom R Thernstrom 2E@: %hen it comes to con2iction and
la% enforcement. Man1 social memories attri#uted to stereot1pes should
conse<uentl1 #e less le&itimate that the1 ori&inall1 appeared to #e. This in
turn renders dramatic statistics re&ardin& crime and race to #e solel1
presented as fact from a purel1 o#6ecti2e standpoint %ith no pre8empti2e
#ias.
In )a*land in particular, appro,imatel1 EES of homicides committed
o2er a 02e81ear a2era&e in2ol2e #lac* indi2iduals C=r#an Strate&ies Council
@:. Parallelin& the Thernstroms> e,ample of #lac* representation in the death
penalt1, a li*el1 con2iction that results from such homicides, could pro2ide
some 6usti0cation of their pre2iousl1 noted statement. The1 maintain that
o#ser2in& the #lac* inmate ma6orit1 on death ro% across the =.S. must #e
percei2ed %ith caution. LThat @S of the seats on "eath Ko% are occupied
#1 #lac*s is thus not a surprisin&l1 hi&h, #ut a surprisin&l1 lo% 0&ure;a#out
a third lo%er than it %ould #e if all con2icted murderers %ere e<uall1 li*el1 to
&et a death sentence... (lac* oIenders o2er the past &eneration ha2e not
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#een sentenced to death at a hi&her rate than %hite oIendersO CThernstrom
R Thernstrom 2E@82E5:.
This is in no form a 2alidation of an1 reoccurrin& 2iolence, #ut
considerin& the statistics and the insi&ht from the Thernstrom duo, it is most
apparent that #lac* people are, as are man1 colored racial &roups, cau&ht in
a historic pli&ht. The o2erall messa&e is that human #ein&s #eha2e
accordin& to the en2ironment that the1 are placed in. As %ith the e,ample
of #lac* people on death ro%, indi2iduals committin& crime are no more
li*el1 to #e a particular race o2er the other. (lac* people ha2e #een
fre<uentl1 su#6ect to forms of institutional racism that %ould su&&est that
#lac*s are intrinsically 2iolent and crime8prone. Such conclusion dra%n from
a crude social memor1 cannot therefore #e politicall1 correct.
). $ho $ill $in the *ost-+ace +ace,
Kecall that 'illiam (ratton stron&l1 praises stop and fris*, a polic1 that
is #ased oI of the #ro*en8%indo%s theor1. Also recall that (ratton>s report
after a si,8month e2aluation o2er )a*land>s la% enforcement policies
included no hint of racial pro0lin& of an1 shape or form. (ratton>s intention
%ith stop8and8fris* is to reduce crime and to stop an1 potential crime at its
root source per #ro*en %indo%s theor1. -e is a 0rm #elie2er of its
implementation and is not eas1 to discard it. There are a fe% ma6or
o#stacles ho%e2erP (ratton himself admits that stop8and8fris* must #e done
in a compassionate and consistent manner such that minorit1 nei&h#orhoods
Mehdipour 1<Mehdipour 1<
are not the onl1 areas tar&eted. Such notion is intuiti2el1 contradictor1 and
ultimatel1 not feasi#le to e,ecute. Stop8and8fris* has also recei2ed a lot of
criticism from man1 )a*land ci2ilians and cit1 oQcials %hen (ratton>s
commission %as appro2ed in Tanuar1 21$. Accordin& to local ne%s %riter
and social acti2ist T. "ou&las Allen8Ta1lor, the cit1 ma1or Tean Uuan deterred
an1 stop8and8fris* policies from #ein& implemented oQciall1. At the same
time, former )a*land Police Chief -o%ard Tordan ensured that (ratton>s role
%as to onl1 pro2ide recommendations and that the implementation of those
recommendations are to #e done at the chief>s discretion. In addition, the
chief %ill %or* closel1 %ith federal court compliance directors to ensure that
all policin& practices are done %ithin the scope of the la% CAllen8Ta1lor:.
)a*land cit1 oQcials> stron& opposition to%ards stop8and8fris* policies
and the follo%in& practices that the1 hope to carr1 out successfull1 are part
of the concept of a post8race societ1. Post8race can #e commonl1 de0ned as
the idea of a racial pre6udice8free societ1. Kace %ill ha2e nothin& to do %ith
thin&s li*e 6o# hirin& and la% enforcement. The underl1in& moti2e #ehind
this concept is that racial pre6udice is morall1 and philosophicall1 Ja%ed.
Accordin& to T. "ou&lass Allen8Ta1lor, )a*land cit1 oQcials> &ood intentions
%ill not #e met %ith the utmost sincerit1 that the1 promise. LI ha$e no idea what
the mayor knows or doesnt know a!out the e$eryday practices of 1akland police, so Ill accept
at face $alue that she is unaware that stop-and-frisk is a already a reular practice of 1akland
police, and has !een oin on for years( 3%llen-&aylor5" %llen-&aylor recalls that stop-and-frisk
is an unofficial part of police conduct in the flatlands" =e also acknowledes that e$en thouh
Mehdipour 11Mehdipour 11
there miht !e reasona!le suspicion aainst indi$iduals of color who act and dress in a particular
way, it is still difficult to decipher the leitimacy of such acts" =e also o!ser$es that officers
incur insinificant conse6uences upon doin stop-and-frisk-like acts 3%llen-&aylor5"
+rattons stop-and-frisk policies will not !e the said-in-stone of 1akland 0olice policy,
!ut will ne$ertheless !e implemented in an inconspicuous power circuit" #$en thouh a post-
race society is the modern day imae, no aspects of post-race can successfuly e>ist" 9i$en the
e$asion of conse6uences faced !y officers cauht in the act of stop-and-frisk %llen-&aylor
suests that the temptation is too reat for the at least some of 1akland cops to do the so-called
random stops of certain citiJens( 3%llen-&aylor5" #$en thouh racism does not appear to !e
nearly as rampant as it used to !e, the idea of hard power in such respect is still implied to this
day" 0olice forces ha$e clearly !ecome di$ersified as many of their officers are not
predominantly white anymore" &his howe$er does not reinforce the post-race cause !ecause the
ne$er-endin racial profilin scheme will always insinuate police forces as white-dominated
power structures" 0ost-race policin is therefore non-e>istent and could well possi!ly ne$er find
its way into aencies"
The Top Dogs Will Never Hide the Truth: The on!lusion
It ma1 seem apparent that &o2ernment a&encies %ill al%a1s %in the
#attle o2er ha2in& the 0nal sa1. 'hat the &o2ernments cannot do is hide the
&ritt1 histor1 that encompasses a particular e2ent. This is not to sa1 that I
encoura&e re#ellion or outri&ht de0ance that can lead someone into harm>s
%a1. The point I am tr1in& to ma*e is that one could o#ser2e ho% colored
indi2iduals ha2e #een at the %ron& end of historical e2ents #1 trul1 ta*in&
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thin&s into perspecti2e. -o% often is it that a %hite person %ould complain
a#out #ein& denied a certain means of con2enience #ecause of their white
comple,ion/ This isn>t an anti8%hite notion either, rather an o#6ecti2e
standpointP %hat is reall1 &oin& on in societ1/ -o% #road of a scope is
racism ta*in&/ 'h1 is racism so prominent in societ1/ I am not sure if there
are ans%ers to those <uestions, #ut I do *no% one thin& for sure. 'e come
into this %orld as indi2iduals %ith &oals and mindsets to assist us %ith li2in&
our indi2idual li2es. Some of our &oals and mindsets %ill not #e performed
as planned #ecause the1 %ill intert%ine %ith other indi2iduals> &oals and
mindsets. 'hat separates one indi2idual from the ne,t is intention. 'h1 is
intention so important/ It la1s the &round for impact to ta*e its ri&htful place
in a s1stematic succession. Impact is %hat forms our percei2ed realit1. )ne
should #e careful to understand that realit1 is not al%a1s as it is, for intent
and impact do not al%a1s share a clear connection. As part of doin& this
pro6ect, I ha2e seen ho% intent and impact #et%een #oth sides of racial
de#acle mold societ1 and the indi2iduals %ho li2e %ithin it. Intent and
impact %ill al%a1s #e passed do%n and %ill ne2er #e erased.
Mehdipour 1)Mehdipour 1)
'or*s Cited
%llen-&aylor, C" :oulas" K.ounter0ointsL% 0rofile 1f Mr" +ratton2s 4top-%nd-Frisk"K
CounterPointsA Profile Of Mr. Bratton's Stop-And-Frisk" ,"p", 2) Can" 2<1)" *e!" 1;
:ec" 2<1)"
&his source aided me in my discussion reardin post-race societies and how that applies to the
.ity of 1akland directly" It includes some $alua!le first-person insiht and o!ser$ation reardin
the issue"
Mehdipour 1BMehdipour 1B
+ratton, *Illiam" K1akland .rime 8eduction 0roMect"K
http://www.!ssanfran.files.wordpress.o"" ,"p", E May 2<1)" *e!" 1; :ec" 2<1)"
&his report was referenced to del$e further into *illiam +ratton2s application to his !eliefs on
stop-and-frisk" &houh he is a firm !elie$er of such law enforcement practice, he ne$er formally
mentioned any stop and frisk tactics in this report" 4uch e$ent has !een in$estiated in the paper"
Gar0eld, Gail. Through Our Eyes: African American Men's Experiences of
Race, Gender, and iolence. 3e% (runs%ic*, 3T9 Kut&ers =P, 21.
Print.
This #oo* mostl1 details the e,perience of #ein& an African8American male in
the =nited States. At the end of the #oo* is a section that del2es into post8
race societies and ho% such societies can #e more of a 2ice than #ene0t. I
plan on appl1in& this information to California>s post8race sti&ma and ho%
California>s racial tensions are not often ac*no%led&ed.
Dusmer, Denneth B., and Toe 'illiam Trotter. African American !r"an #istory
since $orld $ar %%. Chica&o9 =ni2ersit1 of Chica&o, 2!. Print.
This #oo* contains a comprehensi2e histor1 of ur#an cities in California since
'orld 'ar II, as the title mentions. This #oo* %ill #e most helpful #ecause it
%ill detail man1 of the socioeconomic e2ents that ha2e occurred. I can use
these facts to help e,plain %h1 thin&s are the %a1 the1 are in terms of
pro0lin& certain racial &roups.
Mehdipour 1GMehdipour 1G
K/atest ,ews"K Oakland Cri"e Fi#htin# Consultant $efends %Stop-And-Frisk&" .+4 4an
Francisco, 1B Can" 2<1)" *e!" 11 :ec" 2<1)"
&his site hihlihts *illiam +ratton2s insihts on his stop-and-frisk !eliefs" It is the news article
with which I ha$e disco$ered the pro$ocati$e 6uote in" *illiam +ratton2s 6uote in this whole
article is the main reason as to why I am writin this research proMect"
4elf, 8o!ert 1" A"erian Ba!'lon: (ae and the Stru##le for Postwar Oakland" 0rinceton, ,CN
0rinceton D0, 2<<)" 0rint"
1ne of my intents for this proMect is to identify a historical incidence or e$ent that led into the
$iolent uprisin of 1akland, .%" &his !ook del$es into the history of the +lack 0anther 0arty in
1akland" &his !ook has hih potential to correlate the actionsO!eliefs of the +lack 0anther 0arty
alon with the social memory of 1aklands $iolence !ein attri!uted mostly !y !lack people"
4piker, 4te$e, +ill =eiser, 8achel :is, ,ic Cay %ulston, and Cunious *illiams" K=omicides in
1akland"K )r!anstrate#ies.or#" Dr!an 4trateies .ouncil, 2<<A" *e!" 2<1)"
&his source only contains some statistics that I ha$e used in this paper" I used these statistics to
help me illustrate some points"
4taples, 8o!ert" K*hite 0ower, +lack .rime, and 8acial 0olitics"K
http://www"ault'.washin#ton.edu" +lack 4cholar, n"d" *e!" 1; :ec" 2<1)"
4ome !rief history of stop-and-frisk practices on racial roups has !een utiliJed from this article"
K4top and Frisk"K http://www.theFree$itionar'.o"" ,"p", n"d" *e!" 1; :ec" 2<1)"
Mehdipour 1HMehdipour 1H
&his source was used only to o!tain a $ery !asic definition of stop-and-frisk at the !einnin of
this paper"
K4top-and-Frisk :ata P ,ew -ork .i$il /i!erties Dnion 3,-./D5 - %merican .i$il /i!erties
Dnion of ,ew -ork 4tate"K Stop-and-Frisk $ata * +ew ,ork Ci-il .i!erties )nion
/+,C.)0 - A"erian Ci-il .i!erties )nion of +ew ,ork State" ,"p", n"d" *e!" 1; :ec"
2<1)"
&his article contains a lot of useful statistics that I ha$e used in an earlier section of the paper"
&he statistics were used to illustrate a point that I was makin reardin the correlation !etween
racial profilin and stop-and-frisk"
&hernstrom, 4tephan, and %!iail M" &hernstrom" A"eria in Blak and 1hite: One +ation2
3ndi-isi!le" ,ew -ork, ,-N 4imon ? 4chuster, 1;;A" 0rint"
8ele$ant insihts and statistics ha$e !een used from this !ook to help illustrate my point
reardin crime and !lack indi$iduals in$ol$ed" I paralleled some facts from this !ook facts
taken from other sources to illustrate well"
Iauhan, +ernard" K,-0:2s 2stop-and-frisk2 0ractice Dnconstitutional, Cude 8ules"K (euters"
&homson 8euters, <H %u" <<12" *e!" 1; :ec" 2<1)"
I used this source to find out when stop-and-frisk has !een ruled unconstitutional" &his was also
useful to my paper !ecause I wanted to timeline the history of such law enforcement policy"
Mehdipour 1AMehdipour 1A
*ilson, Cames Q", and 9eore /" @ellin" K&he 0olice and ,eih!orhood 4afetyN +roken
*indows"K http://www."anhattan-institute.or#" Cohn F" @ennedy 4chool of 9o$ernment
=ar$ard, n"d" *e!" 1; :ec" 2<1)"
&his article details the !roken windows theory" &his theory is what stop-and-frisk is !ased off of
and is what *illiam +ratton centers his law enforcement !eliefs on"