Charles Edouard Jeanneret, known as Le Corbusier, b.

La Chaux-de-
fonds, Switzerland, Oct. 6, 1887, d. 16!, was a Swiss-"rench architect
who #la$ed a decisi%e role in the de%elo#&ent of &odern architecture.
'e (rst studied )1*8-1*+ in ,aris with -u.ust ,erret, and then worked
)11*+ for se%eral &onths in the /erlin studio of industrial desi.ner
,eter /ehrens, where he &et the future /auhaus leaders Ludwi. 0ies
%an der 1ohe and 2alter 3ro#ius. Shortl$ after 2orld 2ar 4, 5eanneret
turned to #aintin. and founded, with -&edee Ozenfant, the #urist
o6shoot of cubis&. 2ith the #ublication )178+ of his in9uential
collection of #ole&ical essa$s, :ers une architecture );owards a <ew
-rchitecture, =n.. re#r. 17*+, he ado#ted the na&e Le Corbusier and
de%oted his full ener.$ and talent to creatin. a radicall$ &odern for&
of architectural ex#ression.
4n the 17*s and >8*s, Le Corbusier>s &ost si.ni(cant work was in
urban #lannin.. 4n such #ublished #lans as La :ille Conte&#oraine
)177+, the ,lan :oisin de ,aris )17!+, and the se%eral :illes
1adieuses )18*-86+, he ad%anced ideas dra&aticall$ di6erent fro&
the co&fortable, low-rise co&&unities #ro#osed b$ earlier .arden cit$
#lanners. ?urin. this 7*-$ear s#an he also built &an$ %illas and
se%eral s&all a#art&ent co&#lexes and o@ce buildin.s. 4n these hard-
ed.ed, s&ooth-surfaced, .eo&etric %olu&es, he created a lan.ua.e of
what he called A#ure #ris&sA--rectan.ular blocks of concrete, steel,
and .lass, usuall$ raised abo%e the .round on stilts, or #ilotis, and
often endowed with roof .ardens intended to co&#ensate for the loss
of usable 9oor area at .round le%el.
-fter 2orld 2ar 44, Le Corbusier &o%ed awa$ fro& #uris& and toward
the so-called new brutalis&, which utilized rou.h-hewn for&s of
concrete, stone, stucco, and .lass. <ewl$ reco.nized in o@cial art
circles as an i&#ortant 7*th-centur$ inno%ator, he re#resented )1B6+
"rance on the #lannin. tea& for the Cnited <ations 'eadDuarters
buildin. in <ew Eork Cit$--a #articularl$ satisf$in. honor for an
architect whose #rize-winnin. desi.n )177+ for the Lea.ue of <ations
headDuarters had been reFected. Si&ultaneousl$, he was
co&&issioned b$ the "rench .o%ern&ent to #lan and build his
#rotot$#ical :ertical Cit$ in 0arseille. ;he result was the Cnite
d>'abitation )1B6-!7+--a hu.e block of 8B* Asu#eri&#osed %illasA
raised abo%e the .round on &assi%e #ilotis, laced with two ele%ated
thorou.hfares of sho#s and other ser%ices and to##ed b$ a roof-
.arden .$&nasiu& that contained, a&on. other thin.s, a scul#tured
#la$.round of concrete for&s and a #eri#heral track for Fo..ers.
'is worldwide re#utation led to a co&&ission fro& the 4ndian
.o%ern&ent to #lan the cit$ of Chandi.arh, the new ca#ital of the
,unFab, and to desi.n and build the 3o%ern&ent Center )1!*-7*+ and
se%eral of the cit$>s other structures. ;hese #oetic, handcrafted
referat.clopotel.ro
buildin.s re#resented a second, &ore hu&anistic #hase in Le
Corbusier>s work that also was re9ected in his l$rical ,il.ri& Church of
<otre ?a&e du 'aut at 1oncha&# )1!1-!!+ in the :os.es 0ountains
of "ranceG in his ru..ed &onaster$ of La ;ourette, "rance )1!B-!+G
and in the structures he desi.ned )fro& 1!8+ at -h&edabad, in 4ndia.
Le Corbusier accidentall$ drowned in the 0editerranean on -u.. 77,
16!.
Frank Lloyd Wright, b. 1ichland Center, 2is., 5une 8, 1867, d. -#r. ,
1!, was one of the &ost inno%ati%e and in9uential (.ures in &odern
architecture. 4n his radicall$ ori.inal desi.ns as well as in his #roli(c
writin.s he cha&#ioned the %irtues of what he ter&ed or.anic
architecture, a buildin. st$le based on natural for&s.
-fter brie9$ stud$in. ci%il en.ineerin. at the Cni%ersit$ of 2isconsin,
2ri.ht &o%ed to Chica.o, where he went to work )1887+ as a
drafts&an in the o@ce of -dler and Sulli%an. 2hile workin. under
Louis Sulli%an--who& 2ri.ht called ALieber 0eisterA--he be.an
desi.nin. and buildin. on his own a few #ri%ate houses for so&e of
-dler and Sulli%an>s clients. ;hese Abootle..ed houses,A as 2ri.ht
called the&, soon re%ealed an inde#endent talent Duite distinct fro&
that of Sulli%an. 2ri.ht>s houses had low, swee#in. roo9ines han.in.
o%er uninterru#ted walls of windowsG his #lans were centered on
&assi%e brick or stone (re#laces at the heart of the houseG his roo&s
beca&e increasin.l$ o#en to one anotherG and the o%erall
con(.uration of his #lans beca&e &ore and &ore as$&&etrical,
reachin. out toward so&e real or i&a.ined #rairie horizon.
4n contrast to the ex#ansi%e o#enness of those houses which ins#ired
the #rairie school, 2ri.ht>s urban buildin.s )unlike Sulli%an>s, for
instance+ tended to be walled in, so&ewhat inhos#itable to the cit$,
and lit #ri&aril$ throu.h sk$li.hts. 2hereas two of the (nest buildin.s
of 2ri.ht>s earl$ #eriod--the Larkin Co&#an$ -d&inistration /uildin.
)1*BG de&olished 1!*+ in /u6alo, <.E., and the Cnit$ Church )1*6+
in Oak ,ark, 4ll.--see&ed to #roclai& 2ri.ht>s distaste for urban
en%iron&ents, houses he desi.ned in the sa&e #eriod )such as
/u6alo>s 0artin 'ouse, 1*B, and Chica.o>s 1obie 'ouse, 1*+
reached out into the landsca#e with lar.e, .lazed walls, terraces, and
low-slun. roof o%erhan.s.
2ri.ht worked on his own after 188, when the issue of his bootle..ed
houses (nall$ caused a break with -dler and Sulli%an>s o@ce. ?urin.
the 7* $ears that followed he beca&e one of the best-known )and,
because of a te&#estuous #ersonal life, one of the &ost notorious+
architects in the Cnited States. ;wo editions of his work brou.ht out
)11*, 111+ b$ the /erlin #ublisher 2as&uth, alon. with a #arallel
exhibition that tra%eled throu.hout =uro#e, boosted 2ri.ht>s fa&e in
=uro#ean architectural circles and in9uenced such ke$ (.ures in
referat.clopotel.ro
conte&#orar$ architecture as Ludwi. 0ies %an der 1ohe and Le
Corbusier.
'is re#utation assured on both sides of the -tlantic, 2ri.ht be.an to
reinforce the #hiloso#hical under#innin.s of his inno%ati%e buildin.
st$le. 4n kee#in. with his a.rarian bias, 2ri.ht #roclai&ed that the
structural #rinci#les found in natural for&s should .uide &odern
-&erican architecture. 'e #raised the %irtues of an or.anic
architecture that would use reinforced concrete in the con(.urations
found in seashells and snails and would build sk$scra#ers the wa$
trees were AbuiltA--that is, with a central AtrunkA dee#l$ rooted in the
.round and 9oors cantile%ered fro& that trunk like branches. S#aces
within such buildin.s would be ani&ated b$ natural li.ht allowed to
#enetrate the interiors and to tra%el across textured surfaces as the
incidence of sunli.ht and &oonli.ht chan.ed.
'is %iew of architecture was essentiall$ ro&antic. -lthou.h 2ri.ht
often #aid li# ser%ice to the rational s$ste&s called for b$ &ass-
#roduced buildin. )&odular #lannin. and #refabrication+, his e6orts in
those directions see&ed halfhearted at best. ;he &ost s#ectacular
buildin.s of his &ature #eriod--;ok$o>s 4&#erial 'otel )11!-77G
de&olished 168+G "allin.water )Hauf&ann 'ouseG 186+, 0ill 1un, ,a.G
the S. C. 5ohnson and Son 2ax Co&#an$ -d&inistration Center )186-
!*+, 1acine, 2is.G ;aliesin 2est )188-!+G and <ew Eork Cit$>s
3u..enhei& 0useu& )co&#leted 1!+--were based on for&s
borrowed fro& nature, and the intentions were clearl$ ro&antic,
#oetic, and intensel$ #ersonal. -t his death he left a rich herita.e of
co&#leted buildin.s of al&ost unifor& s#lendorG few disci#les,
howe%er, could &atch the s#ecial .enius re9ected in his works. Cnlike
2alter 3ro#ius, 0ies %an der 1ohe, Le Corbusier, and other .iants of
&odern architecture, 2ri.ht was, at heart, an essentiall$ idios$ncratic
architect whose in9uence was i&&ense but whose #u#ils were few.
Modern architecture is a for& of buildin. desi.n characterized b$
the use of unorna&ented industrial &aterials--#rinci#all$ steel, .lass,
and concrete--to &ake si&#le, .eo&etric for&s standin. free in s#ace.
Such buildin.s, which be.an to a##ear around 177 in 3er&an$, the
<etherlands, the CSS1, and "rance, were (rst .rou#ed to.ether under
a sin.le st$listic headin. in a 187 exhibition titled A0odern
-rchitectureA held at the 0useu& of 0odern -rt in <ew Eork Cit$. ;he
exhibition>s or.anizers, the critic 'enr$-1ussell 'itchcock and the
architect C. ,hili# 5ohnson, detected in a %ariet$ of #ost-2orld 2ar 4
buildin.s fro& se%eral countries a shared e&#hasis on %olu&e o%er
for&, as$&&etrical co&#osition, and a%oidance of orna&entation.
;hese ele&ents, 'itchcock and 5ohnson #roclai&ed, constituted an
4nternational St$le--the result of a centur$-lon. search for a st$le
referat.clopotel.ro
suited to &odern &aterials and en.ineerin. techniDues, freed fro&
borrowed for&s.
So&e of the architects cited b$ 'itchcock and 5ohnson as ex#onents of
the 4nternational St$le resisted this narrow, for&al de(nition. ;he
dissenters asserted that their work was onl$ the direct, lo.ical
&anifestation of conte&#orar$ science and societ$, that it would
chan.e as its #reconditions chan.ed, and that architecture had in fact
(nall$ esca#ed the li&itations of st$listic fashions. ;he course of
architecture since 187 has #ro%ed both ca&#s correctI if the
4nternational St$le has been uni%ersall$ acce#ted as the s$&bolic
ex#ression of &odernit$ in buildin., it has also been shown to be
essentiall$ an arti(cial construct that is neither the ine%itable nor
necessaril$ the &ost lo.ical re9ection of 7*th-centur$ conditions.
The Bauhaus
-&on. the architects who de%elo#ed the 4nternational St$le, the
3er&ans for&ed the lar.est and initiall$ the &ost i&#ortant .rou#. /$
118 a .rou# of radical desi.ners, centered in /erlin, had e&er.ed as
the cha&#ions of an architecture featurin. si&#le sha#es in steel and
.lass and based on an industrial and socialist ethic that had as its
#ri&ar$ .oal the o%erthrow of 1th-centur$ eclecticis&. ;he stron.
intuiti%e 9a%or of this so-called ex#ressionis& in turn tri..ered a
reaction led b$ 2alter 3ro#ius and Ludwi. 0ies %an der 1ohe, who
acce#ted steel-and-.lass construction and #ure .eo&etric for&s as
architectural ideals.
;he chief theorist of what its adherents called the <eue Sachlichkeit,
or the new factualis&, was 3ro#ius, who fro& 11 ser%ed as director
of what had for&erl$ been the 2ei&ar -rt School and was now called
the /auhaus. 2hen the /auhaus &o%ed to ?essau in 17!, 3ro#ius
i&#le&ented his theories in the buildin.s that he desi.ned for the new
site. -fter 3ro#ius left the /auhaus to .o into #ri%ate #ractice in 178,
the leadin. li.ht of the &o%e&ent beca&e 0ies %an der 1ohe. 4n his
3er&an ,a%ilion at the /arcelona ;rade "air of 17, 0ies carried the
features of the 4nternational St$le to their furthest li&it of abstraction.
<eo#lasticis& and Constructi%is&
;he /auhaus architects> (nal ste# fro& ex#ressionis& to the <eue
Sachlichkeit is widel$ credited to the in9uence of two conte&#orar$
art &o%e&entsI ?utch neo#lasticis&, usuall$ called de StiFl, and So%iet
constructi%is&. ;he neo#lasticist .rou# was asse&bled )117+ b$ the
#oet-#ainter ;heo %an ?oesbur.. :an ?oesbur. and Cornelius %an
=esteren outlined the neo#lasticist ideal in a 177 ,aris exhibition of a
series of house #roFects whose arran.e&ents of colored #lanes
rese&bled the #aintin.s of abstract artist ,iet 0ondrian &ade three-
di&ensional.
referat.clopotel.ro
Constructi%is& was initiated in the So%iet Cnion with the
nonobFecti%e scul#tor :ladi&ir ;atlin>s execution )118+ of a
&odel for a h$#othetical 0onu&ent to the ;hird 4nternational, in
which a series of .lass %olu&es were to rotate within a s#iralin.
steel tower &eant to ex#ress the triu&#h of the new technolo.$
o%er traditional &asonr$ construction. Once brou.ht )177+ to
3er&an$ b$ e&i.res such as Laszlo 0ohol$-<a.$, the
constructi%ist conce#t of a buildin. as a technical &echanis& in
&otion soon assu&ed a ke$ role in =uro#ean architectural
theor$.
Le Corbusier
;he conte&#oraneous work of the Swiss architect Le Corbusier,
di6ered in its #re&ises, if not in its outward a##earance, fro& that of
the 3er&ans. 'is earl$ buildin.s--for exa&#le, the :illa Sa%o$e )17-
8*+ in ,oiss$--rese&ble those of 3ro#ius and 0ies in their
as$&&etrical and 9owin. s#atial arran.e&ents, as well as in their
unorna&ented .lass and stucco #lanes.
Le Corbusier>s ex#lanation of his art in his i&&ensel$ in9uential :ers
une -rchitecture )178G trans. as ;owards a <ew -rchitecture, 177+
e&#hasized that a new and #urer classical architecture of for&s seen
in li.ht could be created b$ followin. the lo.ical conce#tual #rocesses
of the en.ineer. 'e also insisted that the reor.anization of the cit$ was
the (rst task of &odern architecture. 'is 177 exhibition entitled
A0odern Cit$ for ;hree 0illion 4nhabitantsA led e%entuall$ to a &odel
a#art&ent tower that he called a Cnite d>'abitation, the (rst of which
was erected in 0arseille in 1B6-!7. -n o%erridin. concern for urban
#lannin. &ade hi& one of the ke$ (.ures at a 178 &eetin. of
&odern architects that resulted in the for&ation of the Con.res
4nternationaux d>-rchitecture 0oderne )C4-0+. 3reatl$ in9uenced b$
Le Corbusier, the C4-0 architects o%erruled the aesthetic .oals of the
ex#ressionists b$ settin. urbanis&, rather than desi.n, as the
or.anization>s chief concern.
Frank Lloyd Wright
-lso acti%e at the ti&e of the e#ochal A0odern -rchitectureA exhibition
was another leadin. ex#onent of &odern architecture, the -&erican
"rank Llo$d 2ri.ht. -lthou.h his work was reco.nized in the 187
exhibition, 2ri.ht was set a#art fro& the #ractitioners of the
4nternational St$le because of his Aindi%idualis&A and Aro&anticA
attach&ent to nature. 'e was also a .eneration older than his
=uro#ean counter#arts and had actuall$ in9uenced so&e of their work
throu.h the #ublication )11*+ in /erlin of the 2as&uth ,ortfolio of his
work. 2ri.ht acce#ted the &achine as an aid to architecture and &ade
referat.clopotel.ro
earl$ use of such &odern &aterials as reinforced concrete in his
co&#ositions of cantile%ered roof #lanes, unorna&ented surfaces, and
9owin. s#aces. On the other hand, he belie%ed in what he ter&ed the
Aor.anicA use of buildin. &aterials and in the close relationshi# of a
buildin. to its site--1th-centur$ ideas reFected b$ his =uro#ean
conte&#oraries. 'is idea of &odern or.anicis& is ex#ressed in such
works as the 5ohnson>s 2ax Co&#an$ 'eadDuarters )187-8+ in
1acine, 2is., a .reat s#ace wra##ed with brick and (ber.lass tubin.
whose roof is su##orted b$ slender, &ushroo&-sha#ed colu&nsG and
in the dra&aticall$ cantile%ered concrete-and-.lass Hauf&ann 'ouse,
A"allin.waterA )186-87+, at
Mill Run, Pa.
Triu!h o" the #nternational $tyle
4n 187 the 4nternational St$le e&braced onl$ a s&all #ro#ortion of
recent architectureG outside of #ri%ate houses its in9uence was li&ited
to certain housin. #roFects in 3er&an$, -ustria, and the <etherlands.
?urin. the .reat ?e#ression of the 18*s, howe%er, the si&#licit$ and
econo&$ of the 4nternational St$le #osed a desirable alternati%e to the
extraneous orna&entation and la%ish use of s#ace inherent in eclectic
architecture, and onl$ C4-0 see&ed to ha%e an$ clear solutions to the
#ressin. #roble& of social housin.. ;his new socioecono&ic
en%iron&ent, as &uch as the aesthetics of &odern architecture, #a%ed
the wa$ for the triu&#h of the 4nternational St$le in "rance, 3reat
/ritain, and the Cnited States, #articularl$ after its 3er&an &asters
were forced into exile b$ 'itler.
-fter 2orld 2ar 44 the 4nternational St$le #ro%ided the basis for the
rebuildin. of =uro#ean cities--for exa&#le, %an den /roek and
/ake&a>s 1otterda& rail ter&inal )1!8-!B+. 4n the Cnited States the
architects of the buildin. boo& of the 1!*s and 16*s turned to the
4nternational St$le in desi.nin. technocratic o@ce buildin.s such as
<ew Eork Cit$>s Le%er 'ouse )1!*-!7+, b$ 3ordon /unshaft of the (r&
of Skid&ore, Owin.s, and 0errill )SO0+.
=Duall$ attracted to the #hiloso#h$ and the aesthetics of the new
architecture were institutions that sou.ht to #roFect a &odern i&a.e,
such as the -ir "orce -cade&$, whose Colorado S#rin.s, Colo.,
ca&#us was desi.ned )1!B-!7+ and built )1!6-67+ b$ SO0. =%en the
<ew Eork Cit$ headDuarters of the Cnited <ations )1B7-!*+ was
rendered in the 4nternational St$le b$ a tea& of architects that
included Le Corbusier, who had been #assed o%er )177+ for the
desi.n of the
League o" %ations building.
Liits o" the #nternational $tyle
referat.clopotel.ro
4f the ter& &odern architecture is understood to consist of a #articular
for&-%ocabular$ )the 4nternational St$le+ e&bod$in. a certain
#hiloso#h$ )functionalis&+, then the ter& cannot be used to si.nif$ all
the architecture #roduced in the &odern e#och, but onl$ one
architectural tradition extendin. backward and forward fro& an
acce#ted $ear of conce#tion )177+. "rank Llo$d 2ri.ht>s so-called
,rairie st$le )fro& c.1**G see #rairie school+ clearl$ foretells the
4nternational St$le, as do the conte&#oraneous concrete desi.ns of
-u.uste ,erret and ;on$
&arnier in France.
4n another %ein the -rt <ou%eau &o%e&ent of the 18*s also sou.ht
to #roduce an inno%ati%e &odern st$le usin. the industrial &aterials of
&etal, .lass, and concreteG onl$ its scul#tural, biolo.ical for&-
%ocabular$ se#arates it fro& the buildin.s of 8* $ears later. -rt
nou%eau, in turn, re#resented the cul&ination of a search for a new
st$le ada#ted to new &aterials and new institutions that co&&enced
around 188* with the work of =uro#ean ro&antic rationalist architects.
3oin. back in ti&e e%en further, direct ex#ressions of &aterials and
function in works of en.ineerin. can be discerned in the &ills and iron
brid.es of =n.land datin. fro& the be.innin. of the 4ndustrial
1e%olution )177*s+.
;he fact that such #ioneerin. &o%e&ents of &odern architecture can
be identi(ed as &uch as two centuries a.o indicates that &odern
architecture did not #ri&aril$ e%ol%e out of the conditions and
de&ands of &odern societ$. 4ts aesthetic and #hiloso#hical roots can
actuall$ be traced back throu.h a lon. line of artists and theorists.
0odern architecture clai&ed to be based on a lo.ical ex#ression of the
s#atial and structural facts of buildin., $et its #ractitioners ha%e rarel$
a##roached the structural in.enuit$ of conce#tual technicians such as
1. /uck&inster "uller. Si&ilarl$, althou.h its a#olo.ists clai&ed that
&odern architecture re#resented a de&ocratic st$le ex#ressin. the
taste of the .eneral #ublic, its works often ha%e been seen as aloof
and o%erso#histicated b$ their residents. "inall$, &odern architecture>s
e@cac$ in sol%in. the #roble&s of redesi.nin. cities into (nel$ tuned
social or.anis&s was Duestioned b$ those who saw it as the destro$er
of cohesi%e nei.hborhoods throu.h wholesale urban renewal.
Modi"ying the #nternational $tyle
-s these contradictions in &odern architecture be.an to e&er.e
clearl$ in the 1!*s, &an$ architects sou.ht to &odif$ the codes of
the 4nternational St$le so as to create buildin.s at once &odern and
&onu&ental, as well as functional and res#onsi%e to the needs and
ex#ectations of a wide audience. -n international .rou# of architects
referat.clopotel.ro
for&ed )1!8+ under the na&e ;ea& J succeeded in 1! in
dissol%in. C4-0 and settin. its own .oals for a new, &ore hu&ane
s$ste& of #ublic housin.. ;ea& J &e&bers such as -lison and ,eter
S&ithson and -ldo %an =$ck, workin. fro& the aesthetic basis of the
4nternational St$le, e%ol%ed fro& it &ore %isuall$ co&#lex, texturall$
rich, and #h$sicall$ substantial buildin.s. Late in his career Le
Corbusier hi&self beca&e a &aFor (.ure in this de%elo#&ent,
#articularl$ with his scul#tural concrete cha#el at 1oncha&#, "rance
)1!1-!!+. -nother con%ert was ,hili# 5ohnson, the theorist of the
4nternational St$le, who executed a nu&ber of &onu&ental #ublic
buildin.s in rich &aterials.
4f =ero Saarinen turned the 4nternational St$le to ex#ressionistic ends
in works such as his ;2- ;er&inal )1!6-67+ at 5. ". Henned$ -ir#ort in
<ew Eork Cit$, his buildin.s are scarcel$ &ore extraordinar$ than the
later works of "rank Llo$d 2ri.ht, whose s#iralin., concrete
3u..enhei& 0useu& was concei%ed in 1B7 and co&#leted in 1!.
"inall$, Louis 4. Hahn de%elo#ed a new &onu&entalit$ that was (rst
ex#ressed in his Eale Cni%ersit$ -rt 3aller$ )1!1-!8+ and cul&inated
in such buildin.s as the =xeter Librar$ )167-77+, a s$&&etrical,
al&ost classical co&#osition of brick, wood, concrete, and .lass. Hahn
was #erha#s the last of the .reat &odern architects. ;he full
e&er.ence of #ost&odern architecture took #lace shortl$ after Hahn>s
death )17B+, and &an$ #ro&inent architects are now #ursuin. a
%ariet$ of for&al i&a.es be$ond the doctrinal li&itations of the
4nternational St$le.
;wo o##osite forces ha%e coexisted in -&erican art since the
establish&ent of the (rst colonies. On the one hand, -&erican artists
ha%e been aware of their =uro#ean cultural herita.e and of continuin.
inno%ation in =uro#eG on the other hand, the$ ha%e had to ada#t
=uro#ean for&s to the exi.encies of their nati%e situation. ;his
interaction between ri%al forces is hardl$ uniDue to -&erican art--all
art .rows within a tradition--but what distin.uishes the -&erican
ex#erience is the a&bi%alent attitudes brou.ht to that tradition. ;o
&an$ of the earl$ settlers, the a&bi%alence was clear, since so &an$
of the& were reli.ious and #olitical exiles. Eet des#ite the #ressures of
conscience and con%iction, the =uro#ean traditions #ersisted in
&e&or$, so that the (rst -&erican art and architecture were
ada#tations of =uro#ean st$les and &odes, &odi(ed to suit the
colonists> ur.ent needs in a new and often hostile world. ;he con9ict,
aroused b$ traditions at once alienatin. and indis#ensable, has ser%ed
as the underl$in. d$na&ic for the rise and #ro.ress of art and
architecture in the Cnited States.
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
referat.clopotel.ro
4n a %ir.in land the art for& that de%elo#ed &ost ra#idl$ was the one
for which the need was &ost #ressin.--architecture. ;he earliest
extant buildin.s are the dwellin.s, &eetin.houses, and churches that
&ade u# the nuclei of the (rst colonial settle&ents in :ir.inia and
0assachusetts. ;he dwellin.s, si&#le in #lan and ele%ation, like the
-da& ;horou.h.ood 'ouse, ,rincess -nne Count$, :a. )186-B*+,
rese&bled =n.lish houses of the late &edie%al or ;udor st$le. ;he
&ost inno%ati%e in desi.n were <ew =n.land &eetin.houses, because
the se#aratists sou.ht to a%oid an$ associations with the established
church in =n.land. ;hese handso&e buildin.s, such as the Old Shi#
0eetin. 'ouse, 'in.ha&, 0ass. )1681+, were either sDuare or
rectan.ular in #lan and ser%ed as the focal center for northern towns.
Colonial Buildings
-s the colonies 9ourished, &ore and &ore elaborate structures were
reDuired. /$ the end of the 17th centur$, &ost -&erican #ublic
buildin.s were deri%ed fro& Sir Christo#her 2ren>s desi.ns for the
rebuildin. of London after the 3reat "ire in 1666. ;he best were the so-
called 2ren /uildin. )16!-17*7+ of the Colle.e of 2illia& and 0ar$
and the 3o%ernor>s ,alace )17*6-7*+, both at 2illia&sbur., :a. ;o sta$
the rando& .rowth of cities, the conce#t of urban #lannin. was
introduced, be.innin. with ;ho&as 'ol&e>s .rid #lan of 1687 for
,hiladel#hia, then second in #o#ulation to London within the =n.lish-
s#eakin. world. /$ the &iddle of the 18th centur$, architects were
desi.nin. churches, &ansions, and #ublic buildin.s in the current
=n.lish 3eor.ian st$le, na&ed for Hin. 3eor.e 4.
Post'Re(olutionary )rchitecture
-fter the 1e%olutionar$ 2ar, the (rst atte&#t to create a st$le
ex#ressi%e of the new re#ublic was &ade b$ ;ho&as 5e6erson. 'e
based the desi.n of the new ca#itol buildin. at 1ich&ond, :a., on that
of a 1o&an te&#le, the 0aison Carree at <i&es, "rance. 4n so doin. he
laid down an -&erican #recedent of &odif$in. an ancient buildin.
st$le for &odern use. ;he :ir.inia State Ca#itol )178!-6+, both
buildin. and s$&bol, was &eant to house the kind of .o%ern&ent
en%isioned b$ 5e6erson, and the 0aison Carree beca&e a #aradi.& for
-&erican #ublic structures.
5e6erson was in9uential in settin. forth the st$le of &onu&ental
neoclassicis& that su##lanted 3eor.ian architecture with its taint of
&onarch$ and colonialis&. 0onu&ental neoclassicis& ca&e to
re#resent the new #olitical and social entit$ that was the Cnited States
of -&erica. -rchitects co&&itted to neoclassicis& desi.ned not onl$
the new Ca#itol of the Cnited States in 2ashin.ton, (rst desi.ned
)177+ b$ 2illia& ;hornton and Ste#hen 'allet, and other .o%ern&ent
referat.clopotel.ro
buildin.s, but also factories, schools, banks, railroad stations, and
hos#itals, &odernized b$ the freDuent use of &aterials such as iron,
concrete, and .lass. ;he =n.lish-born /enFa&in Latrobe, who be.an
his -&erican e&#lo$&ent workin. with 5e6erson on the 1ich&ond
Ca#itol, brou.ht -&erican neoclassicis& to &aturit$. Latrobe in%ented
new for&al con(.urations for buildin.s as %aried in function as the
/ank of ,enns$l%ania )178-18**+ and the Centre SDuare ,u&# 'ouse
)18**G both in ,hiladel#hia and both destro$ed+ and /alti&ore>s
1o&an Catholic Cathedral )18*6-71+. Chosen in 181! to su#er%ise the
rebuildin. of the 2ashin.ton Ca#itol, .utted b$ (re durin. the 2ar of
1817, Latrobe set about #roducin. a trul$ &onu&ental -&erican
architecture. 4n 1817 he #rocured the assistance of Charles /ul(nch,
who had Fust co&#leted /oston>s 0assachusetts 3eneral 'os#ital.
;o.ether the two &en co&#leted #lans for the (rst &aFor buildin.
#hase of the Ca#itol.
Re(i(al $tyles
Latrobe and /ul(nch were the #ree&inent architects in the
neoclassical &ode. ;he .eneration followin. #referred 3reek o%er
1o&an for&s and #roduced the 3reek 1e%i%al. - #rinci#al contribution
of this st$le was a &odi(cation of the 3reek #rost$le te&#le )colu&ns
onl$ across the front #ortico+ for do&estic and #ublic buildin.sG the
st$le>s in9uence was ra#idl$ extended north, south, and west. 0aFor
sur%i%in. exa&#les are 2illia& Strickland>s ,hiladel#hia 0erchants>
=xchan.e )1887-8B+ and -lexander 5ackson ?a%is>s La 3ran.e
)Lafa$ette+ ;errace )1887-86+ in <ew Eork. C# to the 18!*s classical
re%i%al st$les led to a ho&o.eneit$ in -&erican architecture that was
ne%er to #re%ail a.ain.
Eet e%en before 181*, -&erican architects, followin. the lead of their
=n.lish conte&#oraries, had be.un to introduce a ri%al st$le on the
-&erican scene--the 3othic 1e%i%al. 4t is a##ro#riate that this
&o%e&ent, which ori.inated with the rise of ro&anticis& in =n.land,
should ha%e been taken o%er in a countr$ where ro&anticis&
constituted the (rst intellectual 9owerin. after the nation>s foundin..
<ot sur#risin.l$, the st$le lent itself &ost naturall$ to church
architecture. 1ichard C#Fohn, a #roli(c ecclesiastical architect, &ade
his ;rinit$ Church )188-B6+ in <ew Eork the #rotot$#e for 3othic
1e%i%al churches. ;he st$le was also widel$ a##lied to colle.e
buildin.s, thus identif$in. those institutions with the #resti.ious
=n.lish uni%ersities of Oxford and Ca&brid.e.
/efore the Ci%il 2ar other re%i%al st$les such as the 1o&anesDue, the
=.$#tian, and the 4talian %illa st$le were introduced, but with less
a##licabilit$. 0ore wides#read was the cotta.e architecture for the
&iddle class ad%ocated b$ -ndrew 5ackson ?ownin.. 0oderate in #rice
referat.clopotel.ro
and well constructed, these ?ownin. desi.ns ex#loited the
#ossibilities of wood both as construction &aterial and as decoration.
Cast'#ron )rchitecture
-n i&#ortant de%elo#&ent was the #roliferation of industrial and
co&&ercial structures reDuirin. extensi%e use of iron. -t (rst
en.ineers rather than architects were res#onsible for buildin.s that
de&anded ad%anced technical #lannin.. /ecause cast- and wrou.ht-
iron colu&ns re#laced hea%ier &asonr$ construction, it beca&e
#ossible to construct a li.hter skeleton, use #refabricated &odules,
and introduce &ore .lass into the facade. 5a&es /o.ardus, an in%entor
and &anufacturer of &achiner$, is .enerall$ credited with the
de%elo#&ent of cast-iron architecture, as de&onstrated in his ACast
4ron /uildin.A )Lain. StoresG 18B8+ in <ew Eork. 4n his #ro#osed #lan
for the 4ndustrial ,alace of the <ew Eork 2orld>s "air )18!8+, also called
the <ew Eork Cr$stal ,alace, and his 2ana&aker ?e#art&ent Store in
<ew Eork )c.18!G destro$ed+, he #ushed this t$#e of en.ineered
buildin. to the li&its then #ossible.
-fter the (nancial crash of 18!7 and the Ci%il 2ar, both of which had
te&#oraril$ halted buildin. construction, -&ericans .ra%itated to a
st$le that de&onstrabl$ s$&bolized the nation>s ra#idl$ increasin.
wealth. 0ansions and .o%ern&ent and ci%ic buildin.s were desi.ned in
the Second =&#ire st$le, #ro&oted in "rance b$ <a#oleon 444 to bolster
his i&#erial a&bitions and exe&#li(ed b$ 5ohn 0c-rthur>s &assi%e
,hiladel#hia Cit$ 'all )187B-1*1+. -lso of .reat i&#ortance was the
extension of the 3othic 1e%i%al into its :ictorian #hase. ;his
&o%e&ent, ins#ired b$ the writin.s of 5ohn 1uskin, e&#hasized craft
and #er&itted the &ani#ulation of architectural detail to create bold
new e6ects. ;wo .reat architects, "rank "urness and 'enr$ 'obson
1ichardson, e&er.ed fro& :ictorian 3othicG "urness created works of
idios$ncratic ori.inalit$, while 1ichardson created a new %ision within
a re%i%al st$le.
1ichardson, the &ost inde#endent and i&a.inati%e architect since
Latrobe, attained #ro&inence when he .a%e a new 1o&anesDue for&
to /oston>s ;rinit$ Church )1877-77+. /esides churches, 1ichardson
desi.ned nu&erous residences, libraries, railroad stations, ci%ic and
co&&ercial buildin.s, and e%en a #rison, achie%in. &odels of their
kind for each t$#e. 'e fa%ored the 1o&anesDue because he belie%ed it
ex#ressed the #er%asi%e ener.$ and d$na&is& of the -&erican scene.
/ut it was his 0arshall "ield 2holesale Store )188!-87+ in Chica.o that
was to #ro%e se&inal. 4ts rusticated &asonr$ and &ultistoried
arran.e&ent of arches, re&iniscent of 1o&anesDue and ex#ressi%e of
1ichardson>s sense of orderin. &asses on a lar.e scale, would be
a##lied b$ his successors in Chica.o to #roble&s of sk$scra#er desi.n.
referat.clopotel.ro
$kyscra!er )rchitecture
;he sk$scra#er, de(ned here as a tall co&&ercial structure, is
-&erica>s ori.inal contribution to the histor$ of architecture.
Co&&ercial buildin.s of se%eral stories, constructed durin. the 18!*s
in ,hiladel#hia, antici#ated the sk$scra#er. /ut before it could beco&e
a realit$, architects had to incor#orate the ele%ator into the structure.
;his was done, be.innin. in the 18!*s in <ew Eork. Chica.o, howe%er,
was the cit$ where sk$scra#er desi.n soon attained a kind of canonical
#erfection.
Since &an$ of the cit$>s co&&ercial buildin.s needed to be re#laced
after the .reat (re of 1871, Chica.o ser%ed as an excellent testin.
.round for architects. ,ree&inent a&on. the& was Louis Sulli%an. 'e
and others workin. in tea&s e%ol%ed the .lass ca.e that beca&e the
hall&ark of the Chica.o school of architecture. 2illia& 'olabird and
0artin 1oche>s ;aco&a /uildin., ?aniel '. /urnha& and 5ohn 2ellborn
1oot>s 1eliance /uildin., and Sulli%an>s 3a.e /uildin. are outstandin.
exa&#les of the #ro.ressi%e sta.es in the sk$scra#er>s de%elo#&ent.
Eet Fust at the ti&e that an architecture of ori.inalit$ and darin. was
e&er.in. in Chica.o, the <ew Eork (r& of 0cHi&, 0ead, and 2hite
successfull$ introduced a &onu&ental /eaux--rts st$le for i&#ressi%e
#ublic buildin.s such as the /oston ,ublic Librar$ )1887-8+. ;his
#reference for re%i%al st$les continued well into the 7*th centur$, with
interestin. %ariations. 2hen, for instance, <ew Eork be.an its
ca&#ai.n to raise the world>s tallest buildin.s, their decorati%e
s$ste&s were ada#ted to re%i%al st$les, cul&inatin. in the best-known
3othic sk$scra#er, Cass 3ilbert>s 2oolworth /uildin. )118+ in <ew
Eork.
Modern )rchitecture
"ar &ore si.ni(cant than re%i%al st$les to &odern architecture was, on
the one hand, the unfoldin. of the brilliant indi.enous talent of "rank
Llo$d 2ri.ht and, on the other, the infusion of =uro#ean &odernis&
throu.h the work of the /auhaus architects 2alter 3ro#ius, 0arcel
/reuer, and Ludwi. 0ies %an der 1ohe, and the inde#endent work of
=ric 0endelsohn and =liel Saarinen. 2ri.ht, who earl$ in his career
worked for Sulli%an in Chica.o, belie%ed that the 2est and 0idwest
e&bodied the Areal -&erican s#irit.A -ctin. on this belief, he desi.ned
the houses that were to win hi& international renown. 'is A#rairie
housesA were horizontal, often of one stor$, with roo&s &er.in. in a
continuous o#en s#ace. 2ri.ht was a &an of fertile i&a.inationG
before his lon. career ended, he desi.ned buildin.s as %arious as the
4&#erial 'otel )116-77G destro$ed+ in ;ok$oG the 5ohnson 2ax
Co&#an$ /uildin. )186-8+ in 1acine, 2is.G and <ew Eork>s
3u..enhei& 0useu& )1!6-!+.
referat.clopotel.ro
?es#ite so&e nati%e resistance--includin. 2ri.ht>s obFection that the
4nternational St$le of architecture exhibited at <ew Eork>s 0useu& of
0odern -rt in 187 was Aun--&ericanA--the #resence of =uro#ean
&odernis& was felt in -&erica>s urban and industrial culture fro& the
18*s. -fter 3ro#ius was a##ointed chair&an of architecture at
'ar%ard>s 3raduate School of ?esi.n in 188, &an$ $oun. -&ericans
were trained in the ideas of the 3er&an /auhaus.
Post*ar )rchitecture
;he stark, box$ for&s of =uro#ean &odernis& b$ wa$ of the /auhaus
do&inated -&erican cit$sca#es in the buildin. boo& followin. 2orld
2ar 44. Of s#ecial i&#ortance was the use of .lass curtain-wall
construction for the desi.n of lar.e sk$scra#ers and other buildin.s, as
in the Cnited <ations co&#lex, erected in 1B7-!8 under the
su#er%ision of Le Corbusier and 2allace H. 'arrison, and the Sea.ra&
/uildin. )1!6-!+ of Ludwi. 0ies %an der 1ohe and ,hili# 5ohnson.
/$ the &id-17*s, howe%er, the reaction a.ainst the #lain, unadorned
A.lass boxA of the 4nternational St$le was well under wa$, carried forth
b$ 0ichael 3ra%es, 1obert -. 0. Stern, and 1obert :enturi, a&on.
&an$ others, as well as b$ ,hili# 5ohnson, who had been the chief
-&erican #ro#onent of the 4nternational St$le. ;hese architects
returned once a.ain to the use of color and decoration and re%i%ed
such once-s#urned architectural de%ices as the colu&n. ,ost&odern
architecture &a$ ha%e #roduced a few extre&e state&ents, but the
&o%e&ent also brou.ht -&erican architecture a new %italit$.
&reek )rchitecture
-n$ consideration of 3reek architecture &ust be.in with &ention of
-e.ean ci%ilization, t$#i(ed b$ the .reat 0inoan #alaces on the island
of Crete, in #articular the hu.e co&#lex of Hnossos and the
&a.ni(centl$ sited structures at ,haistos )both c.17**-c.1B** /C+.
Constructed of &assi%e &asonr$, the$ were se%eral stories hi.h and
incor#orated lar.e #illared halls, dozens of lab$rinthine s&aller roo&s,
swee#in. terraces lookin. to the sea, and #lu&bin. arran.e&ents of
astonishin. &odernit$. ;he walls were decorated with brilliantl$
colored frescoes )see fresco #aintin.+ and stucco bas-reliefs. ;he
0inoans were conDuered b$ the 0$cenaeans of &ainland 3reece,
whose architecture was subseDuentl$ stron.l$ in9uenced b$ Cretan
#rotot$#es.
;his earl$ 3reek architecture )8***-7** /C+ is characterized b$ the
use of &assi%e stone blocks for walls and b$ the occasional use of
corbeled &asonr$ to &ake #ri&iti%e for&s of %aults and do&es, as in
the Lion 3ate and so-called ;reasur$ of -treus at 0$cenae )1B**-17**
/C+. Colu&ns so&eti&es were also used to fra&e doors and .atewa$s
and to #ro%ide internal colonnades for #alaces, as in the court$ard at
referat.clopotel.ro
;ir$ns. 4t was, howe%er, the colu&n and the bea&--#ost and lintel--
that for&ed the basis of classical 3reek architecture and that .i%e it
the si&#le, strai.htforward character that, to.ether with its details,
has led &an$ scholars to s#eculate on its ori.ins in the construction of
#ri&iti%e wooden huts.
;he 3reeks de%elo#ed a %ocabular$ of architectural detail in stone
that was funda&ental to =uro#ean architecture for &ore than 7,***
$ears. ;he 3reek Alan.ua.e of architectureA reached its zenith durin.
the !th centur$ /C. Classical 3reek architecture consisted of three
orders--the ?oric, 4onic, and Corinthian. =ach re#resented the
asse&bl$ of the basic co&#onents of a si&#le rectan.ular buildin.
with a #itched roof--that is, colu&n, ca#ital )or colu&n head+,
entablature )the Abea&A connectin. the colu&ns+, and #edi&ent the
trian.ular .able of the roof+. ?i6erent #ro#ortions and decorati%e
con%entions i&#arted a distincti%e character to each order, re.ardless
of the bri.ht colors a##lied to the ori.inal buildin.s or the subFect
&atter of the scul#tured decoration alon. the frieze or in the
trian.ular #edi&ent )t$&#anu&+. ;he #ro#ortions of each order were
(xed within narrow li&its, and, strictl$ s#eakin., the co&#onents of
each order could be correctl$ asse&bled in onl$ one wa$. ;he 3reeks
ne%er &ixed di6erent orders on the sa&e buildin.. ;his, and other
rules, were &odi(ed in 1o&an architecture. ;he 1o&ans created two
additional orders, the ;uscan and the Co&#osite, and e&#lo$ed all
(%e orders as decoration for buildin.s constructed on #rinci#les
di6erent fro& those the 3reeks used.
;he basic buildin. &aterial of the classical #eriod was &arble, a stron.
stone that could be sha#ed to .i%e .reat #recision of line and detail.
;he basic te&#le for& was also %er$ si&#leI a rectan.ular cha&ber
with a shallow-#itched .abled roof, surrounded b$ a row of colu&ns )or
fronted b$ a colu&ned #orch+, standin. on a #odiu& of three ste#s.
3i%en the si&#licit$ of the construction s$ste& and the buildin. for&,
the essential achie%e&ent of the 3reeks was the re(ne&ent of the
buildin. and its co&#onents into an architectural s$ste& of #ro#ortion
and decoration--exe&#li(ed b$ the buildin.s on the -thens -cro#olis,
in #articular the ,arthenon )BB7-B87 /C+--that re&ained the basis of
the 2estern =uro#ean architectural tradition until the &id-1th
centur$.
Roan )rchitecture
?urin. the 7d centur$ /C the 1o&ans, in conDuerin. <orth -frica,
3reece, -natolia, and S#ain, absorbed the architectural traditions of
those areas )&ost si.ni(cantl$ that of 3reece+, to which the$ added
the constructional skills of the =truscans, their i&&ediate nei.hbors in
central 4tal$ )see 1o&an art and architecture+. ;he &ost si.ni(cant
achie%e&ents of the 1o&ans were in their technolo.$ of buildin., their
use of a &uch wider ran.e of &aterials )includin. concrete, terra-
referat.clopotel.ro
cotta, and (red bricks+, and their re(ne&ents of the arch and %ault
and the do&e--all of which had been #ioneered b$ the =truscans.
1o&an te&#les .enerall$ re&ained &odeled on those of 3reece, with
the co&&on addition of a hi.h #linth )base or #latfor&+ and the
freDuent o&ission of the side and rear colu&ns, t$#i(ed b$ the 0aison
Carree at <i&es, "rance.
1o&an ci%ic &onu&ents included a nu&ber of buildin. t$#es of
un#recedented size and co&#lexit$, which could not ha%e been built
usin. the 3reek bea&-and-colu&n construction s$ste&. -Dueducts,
ther&ae )such as the /aths of Caracalla+, basilicas )law courts+,
theaters, triu&#hal arches, a&#hitheaters )such as the Colosseu&+,
circuses, and #alaces in%ol%ed enclosin. &uch lar.er s#aces or
brid.in. &uch .reater distances than could be achie%ed b$ the use of
ti&ber or stone bea&s. ;he 1o&an use of do&ed construction in &ass
concrete is best re#resented b$ the well-#reser%ed ,antheon in 1o&e
)constructed -? 17*-7B+, which subseDuentl$ beca&e a Christian
church. Later 1o&an or =arl$ Christian churches, howe%er, .enerall$
took their for& fro& the basilica, whose central na%e, side aisles,
triforiu&, and a#se beca&e characteristic features of the 1o&anesDue
and 3othic church. =&#eror Constantine 4 built hu.e basilican
churches at all the &aFor Christian sites in the 1o&an =&#ire in the
Bth centur$, thus (r&l$ establishin. the basilica as the #redo&inant
for& of Christian church architecture )see =arl$ Christian art and
architecture+.
By+antine )rchitecture
/$zantine art and architecture de%elo#ed in the =astern 1o&an
=&#ire founded b$ Constantine 4 when he &o%ed the ca#ital fro&
1o&e to /$zantiu& )subseDuentl$ Constantino#le--#resent-da$
4stanbul+ in the Bth centur$. 4n southern and eastern =uro#e, in
#articular in those #arts of 4tal$, 3reece, and -natolia that re&ained
under the swa$ of the /$zantine =&#ire, the continuit$ of 1o&an
#lans and techniDues was stron.. Onl$ sli.htl$ &odi(ed 1o&an
basilican #lans were used for such 4talian churches as Sant>-#ollinare
in Classe, 1a%enna )!8B-8+G in Constantino#le itself hu.e do&ed
churches, such as 'a.ia So#hia )!87-87+, were built on a scale far
lar.er than an$thin. achie%ed b$ the 2estern 1o&an =&#ire.
Roanes,ue )rchitecture
4n northern =uro#e, where 1o&an re&ains were less freDuentl$
encountered, .reater freedo& of ex#eri&ent existed in 0ero%in.ian,
Carolin.ian, and Ottonian architecture, as the earl$ #eriods are known.
"ro& the &id-1*th to the &id-17th centur$ .reater #ro.ress was &ade
toward the de%elo#&ent of a successor st$le--the 3othic. ;he #ri&ar$
referat.clopotel.ro
characteristics of 1o&anesDue architecture )or <or&an architecture,
as northern 1o&anesDue is often known+ were 1o&an in ori.in,
howe%erI lar.e internal s#aces were s#anned b$ barrel %aults on thick,
sDuat colu&ns and #iersG windows and doors had round-headed
archesG and &ost of the &aFor churches were laid out on the basilican
#lan, &odi(ed b$ the addition of buttresses, transe#ts, and towers.
;he buildin.s are solid, hea%$, and, because of the co&#arati%el$
s&all windows, di&l$ li.hted, exe&#li(ed b$ ?urha& Cathedral
)be.un 1*78+ in =n.land. ,ortals, ca#itals, and altars are e&bellished
with scul#ture of su#erlati%e skill and #owerful e6ectG stained .lass
(rst a##eared in =uro#e, but on a li&ited scale, because of the
restricted size of window o#enin.s.
&othic )rchitecture
"ro& the &id-17th centur$ to the 16th centur$ northern =uro#ean
architecture was characterized b$ the use of 9$in. buttresses, #ointed
arches, ribbed %aults, and traceried windows. ;he thin walls, slender
colu&ns, and %er$ lar.e areas of .lass in 3othic buildin.s .a%e an
i&#ression of li.htness that contrasted &arkedl$ with the
1o&anesDue. 3othic architecture ori.inated at the ro$al abbe$ church
of St. ?enis, built b$ -bbot Su.er between 1187 and 11BB. 4t was
re(ned in the .reat churches of northern and central "rance, such as
-&iens Cathedral)177*-7*+, notable for its .reat hei.ht and the
slenderness of its colu&ns, and the Sainte-Cha#elle in ,aris )17B7-B8+,
in which exce#tionall$ lar.e wall areas were (lled with .lass and
tracer$. 4ndeed, 3othic architecture was &ost full$ de%elo#ed in "rance
and =n.land, where the st$le s#read in the late 17th centur$. ;he
s#read of 3othic to 3er&an$ was dela$ed until the &id-18th centur$,
and in this countr$ onl$ a few cathedrals, such as the one in Colo.ne
)be.un 17B8+, a##roached the size and Dualit$ of the northern "rench
#rotot$#es. ;he &ost thorou.h a##lication of northern 3othic to 4tal$
was in the 0ilan Cathedral, built at the end of the 1Bth centur$ b$
"rench and 3er&an &asons. 4n .eneral, the 4talians tended to use
3othic as a decorati%e feature rather than as a total buildin. s$ste&.
0an$ 3othic secular buildin.s sur%i%e, so&e of the (nest exa&#les
bein. the /ru.es ;own 'all )1876-1B7*+ in /el.iu&, the ,alazzo
,ubblico )be.un 178+ in Siena, 4tal$, and the ,ont :alentre )earl$
1Bth centur$+ in Cahors, "rance. ;he .reatest concentration of 3othic
secular buildin.s is in /el.iu&, then the &ost #ros#erous #art of
northwest =uro#e.
Renaissance )rchitecture
?urin. the earl$ 1!th centur$ =uro#ean culture beca&e ins#ired b$
the redisco%er$, known as the 1enaissance, of classical literature, art,
referat.clopotel.ro
and architecture. 4tal$ was the center of this rebirth, and in "lorence,
where the &o%e&ent started, architecture was in9uenced b$ the use
of the orders, the round arch, the barrel %ault, and the do&e--all
1o&an features. 4n northern =uro#e, where 3othic continued to
9ourish well into the 16th centur$, the 1enaissance at (rst &ade onl$
a su#er(cial i&#act and was for a &uch lon.er ti&e con(ned to
decorati%e chan.es. 4n both "rance and =n.land a trul$ classical st$le
was not established until the (rst half of the 17th centur$I in "rance b$
"rancois 0ansart and in =n.land b$ 4ni.o 5ones.
;he "lorentine 1enaissance did not initiall$ &ean the co&#lete break
with traditional #ractice that was i&#lied in the 3othic north. "or the
church of Santo S#irito )be.un c.1B86+, "ili##o /runelleschi used a
basilican #lan, round arches, and a 9at ceilin.G but these traditional
4talian 1o&anesDue ele&ents were co&bined with a new sense of
#ro#ortion, the use of Corinthian colu&ns, and a do&e o%er the
crossin. of na%e and transe#ts. /runelleschi>s later desi.n for the %ast,
still un(nished cathedral of Santa 0aria de.li -n.eli )also called the
?uo&o of "lorence+ took the for& of a do&ed octa.on with ei.ht
radiatin. cha#els, a centralized #lan that beca&e the ideal a&on. his
conte&#oraries in "lorence )Leon /attista -lberti and 0ichelozzo+ and
his followers in 1o&e. ;here, durin. the 16th centur$, a &ore
&onu&ental %ersion of the st$le was de%elo#ed b$ ?onato /ra&ante,
1a#hael, and 0ichelan.elo, as in their %arious #lans for Saint ,eter>s
/asilica.
Baro,ue and Rococo )rchitecture
4n the 1!th centur$ "lorentine architecture relied for e6ect u#on
#ro#ortion, si&#le strai.ht lines, and the correct use of classical
details. ?urin. the 16th centur$, howe%er, architects such as
0ichelan.elo and 3iulio 1o&ano abandoned this restraint for a &ore
excitin., idios$ncratic %ersion of the st$le, now called 0anneris&, in
which the classical rules were deliberatel$ 9outed for e6ect. 3io%anni
Lorenzo /ernini and "rancesco /orro&ini further de%elo#ed the st$le
b$ introducin. cur%ilinear for&s and b$ incor#oratin. scul#ture and
#aintin. in their buildin.s to .i%e a rich and d$na&ic %ersion, known
as baroDue, which s#read durin. the 17th and 18th centuries fro&
1o&e to &uch of southern =uro#e and to South -&erica.
4n northern =uro#e, es#eciall$ in -ustria and 3er&an$, baroDue
architecture achie%ed an exuberance and freedo& un&atched
elsewhere, cli&axin. in the rococo, as in 3er&an$>s 2urzbur.
1esidenz. 4n "rance baroDue and rococo were te&#ered b$
neoclassicis&, with a resultant ele.ance and re(ne&ent in both
architecture and decoration, exe&#li(ed b$ the 18th-centur$ sections
of the ,alace of :ersailles. ;he s#read of neoclassical architecture
durin. the 17th and 18th centuries was due in no s&all &easure to
referat.clopotel.ro
the illustrated books that brou.ht it to the attention of educated
#atrons. -lthou.h (ne architecture has ne%er been created b$
untalented architects, the rules of the classical orders enforced
s$ste&atic con%ention in desi.n that enabled &an$ &oderatel$
co&#etent architects to #roduce well-#ro#ortioned and (nel$ detailed
buildin.s. 4n #art this ex#lains the extraordinar$ success of the
,alladian )see ,alladio, -ndrea+ inter#retation of 1o&anized 3reek
architecture. 4t was, for exa&#le, the source of al&ost all countr$-
house buildin. in =n.land durin. the 18th centur$, as well as of
nu&erous &ansions, courthouses, state ca#itols, and uni%ersities
alon. the eastern seaboard of <orth -&erica.
The )ge o" Re(i(als
?urin. the late 18th and 1th centuries =uro#e and -&erica
witnessed a series of st$listic re%i%als. ;he #eriod was do&inated b$
the #ro#onents of the classical )the&sel%es s#lit between A3reeksA
and A1o&ansA+ and the northern 3othic. /uildin.s were also desi.ned
in self-conscious i&itation of /$zantine, Oriental, =.$#tian, :enetian
3othic, and "lorentine 1enaissance architecture, howe%er. ;his was
not, of course, the (rst ti&e that ancient st$les had been re%i%edG the
4talians of the 1!th centur$ and the architects of Charle&a.ne>s court
in the th centur$ had incor#orated classical &otifs in their buildin.s.
/oth the re%i%ed classical and the 3othic 1e%i%al, howe%er, were
essentiall$ di6erent fro& the architecture that ins#ired the&.
;he countr$ &ansion of =n.land and colonial -&erica bore a classical
#ortico, but it was attached to a t$#e of buildin. ne%er seen in ancient
1o&e or 3reece. ;he re%i%ed 3othic a##lied durin. the 1th centur$
to #ri%ate houses, o@ce buildin.s, railroad stations, hos#itals, and
waterworks was b$ no &eans the sa&e as the 3othic architecture of
the northern &edie%al cathedrals. <ew en.ineerin. techniDues and
&odern &aterials--in #articular in cast-iron architecture--re&o%ed
&an$ of the a.e-old #ractical constraints on buildin. desi.n. 1a#id
urban .rowth durin. the 1th centur$ #roduced a .reat &an$ (ne and
essentiall$ ori.inal buildin.s, the Dualit$ of which is onl$ be.innin. to
be a##reciated.
Modern )rchitecture
Conte&#orar$ architecture takes a bewilderin. %ariet$ of for&s and
&akes use of a far wider ran.e of &aterials than e%er before. ;he
4nternational St$le, #ro&ul.ated b$ 2alter 3ro#ius, Le Corbusier, and
Ludwi. 0ies %an der 1ohe in theor$ and #ractice, do&inated
architecture for &ost of the 7*th centur$. 0ost of the earlier buildin.s
b$ these architects were s&all #ri%ate houses, usuall$ rectan.ular,
with undecorated walls, 9at roofs, and lar.e areas of .lass set in &etal
referat.clopotel.ro
fra&es. Conscious a%oidance of an$ #re%ious st$les or reco.nizable
antecedents was co&bined with hi.hl$ so#histicated #ro#ortionin. to
achie%e sleek, ele.ant structures, such as 0ies>s 3er&an ,a%ilion for
the 17 /arcelona =xhibition. ;o the dis&a$ of its ori.inators, the
4nternational St$le was enthusiasticall$ ado#ted b$ far lesser talents
and #ro(t-&inded builders to #roduce nu&erous A&odernA o@ce
buildin.s, a#art&ent co&#lexes, hos#itals, and &otels all o%er the
world.
<ot all conte&#orar$ architects subscribed to 0ies>s dictu& of Aless is
&ore,A and hence their work is di@cult to classif$ as A&odern.A "rank
Llo$d 2ri.ht, #robabl$ the outstandin. nati%e-born -&erican architect
of the 7*th centur$, Henzo ;an.e of 5a#an, -l%ar -alto of "inland, and
the "innish--&ericans =liel Saarinen and =ero Saarinen #roduced
&an$ buildin.s of .reat beaut$ and ori.inalit$. -lthou.h so&e of their
work does re9ect the 4nternational St$le, &ost of their buildin.s are
instantl$ reco.nizable in their indi%idualit$, as were the .reat buildin.s
of the #ast. 4n short, these architects and others like the& see& to be
#art of a continuin. architectural tradition reFected b$ the #ractitioners
of the 4nternational St$le )see &odern architecture+.
;he social tur&oil of the 16*s was e&#haticall$ re9ected in
architecture. Co&#lexit$ and Contradiction in 0odern -rchitecture
)168+ b$ the architect 1obert :enturi was a re%olt a.ainst the
ubiDuitous .lass boxes of the &odernists, and it si.naled the
e&er.ence of #ost&odern architecture. Since that ti&e, architects
ha%e found new stren.th in the traditions of the #ast, as well as in the
%ernacular architecture seen all about the&.
Ste#hen /a$le$ and Si&on ,e##er
referat.clopotel.ro