Propaganda: The Formation of Men's

Attitudes
Propaganda and the Formation of Men's Attitudes
Author Jacques Ellul
Country United States
Language English
Publisher Vintage Books
Pages !"
ISBN #$%&"&#'&$(%$'&
Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes
From )ikipedia* the free enc+clopedia
Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes
,(#-./(#$0 ,French1 Propagandes2 original
French edition1 (#-!0 is a 3ook on the su34ect of
propaganda 3+ French philosopher* theologian*
legal scholar* and sociologist Jacques Ellul5 6his
3ook appears to 3e the first attempt to stud+
propaganda from a sociological approach as 7ell
as a ps+chological one5 8t presents a sophisticated
ta9onom+ for propaganda* including such paired
opposites as political:sociological* ;ertical
:hori<ontal* rational:irrational* and agitation
:integration5
6he 3ook contains Ellul's theories a3out the nature
of propaganda to adapt the indi;idual to a societ+*
to a li;ing standard and to an acti;it+ aiming to
make the indi;idual ser;e and conform5 6he 7ork
concerns propaganda as an inner control o;er an
indi;idual 3+ a social force5
Contents
( Authorship
! Background
Summar+ of chapters
' Ma4or themes
'5( =6he >onel+ ?ro7d=
'5! Fundamental currents in societ+
. See also
- @eferences
$ Further reading
Authorship
Auring )orld )ar 88* Ellul 7as a leader in the French resistance after 3eing discharged as a
professor from French uni;ersities 3+ the Vich+ regime5
B(C
After France's li3eration* he 3ecame
professor at the Uni;ersit+ of Bordeau95 De authored .% 3ooks and numerous articles o;er his
lifetime* the dominant theme of 7hich has 3een the threat to human freedom created 3+ modern
PEgina ( de (' Propaganda1 6he Formation of Men's Attitudes & )ikipedia* the free enc+clopedia
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technology. In 1947, Ellul was appointed chair of law and social history at the Institut d'tudes
politiques that increased his reputation as a social and political philosopher which led to the
publication of his wors in the !nited "tates.
Background
#ropaganda has long been recogni$ed as a general pheno%enon in the %odern world. &s early as
19'(, Edward )ernays recogni$ed propaganda as a %odern instru%ent to be utili$ed to produce
producti*e ends and +help bring order out of chaos,.
-'.
"ince then, there has been great difficulty in
deter%ining what constitutes propaganda in our world and what the nature of propaganda is because
it is a secret action. /or a long ti%e, propaganda was si%plistically *iewed as being able to %odify
senti%ents and attitudes of an indi*idual without their being conscious of such an atte%pt. 0his
li%ited perspecti*e of propaganda as being only able to influence the indi*idual psychologically was
pre*alent fro% 19'1 to around 1922. 3nce reassessed though %ore e%phasis was placed on the
intention of the propagandist and another ob4ecti*e of propaganda concerned with sparing an
indi*idual to action was recogni$ed. +0he Institute for #ropaganda &nalysis, inspired by 5arold
6asswell, defined propaganda as +the e7pression of opinions or actions carried out deliberately by
indi*iduals or groups with a *iew to influencing the opinions or actions of other indi*iduals or
groups for predeter%ined ends and through psychological %anipulations,.
-2.
0his definition see%ed %ore accurate and was supported by others such as 8oebbels, a 8er%an
propagandist, who stated, 9:e do not tal to say so%ething, but to obtain a certain effect.9
-4.
"i%ilarly /.;. )artlett holds an accurate interpretation of the goal of propaganda as not %erely as an
instru%ent to increase political understanding of e*ents, but to obtain results through action. Ellul
supports the idea that propaganda is %ade pri%arily because of a will to action for the purpose of
effecti*ely ar%ing policy %ade by the "tate. 6eonard <oob, an &%erican specialist, defined
propaganda in 194( as 9the atte%pt to affect the personalities and to control the beha*ior of
indi*iduals towards desired ends.9
-=.
!nending definitions show the uncertainty a%ong specialists
and the inability of definitions to enco%pass all that is propaganda. >ust because the ter% propaganda
cannot be defined with any degree of precision does not %ean that atte%pts to define it should be
abandoned.
9?ery frequently propaganda is described as a %anipulation for the purpose of changing
idea or opinions of %aing indi*iduals 'belie*e' so%e idea or fact, and finally of %aing
the% adhere to so%e doctrine@all %atters of the %ind. It tries to con*ince, to bring
about a decision, to create a fir% adherence to so%e truth. 0his is a co%pletely wrong
line of thiningA to *iew propaganda as still being what it was in 1(=1 is to cling to an
obsolete concept of %an and of the %eans to influence hi%B it is to conde%n oneself to
understand nothing about propaganda. 0he ai% of %odern propaganda is no longer to
%odify ideas, but to pro*oe action. It is no longer to change adherence to a doctrine,
but to %ae the indi*idual cling irrationally to a process of action. It is no longer to
transfor% an opinion but to arouse an acti*e and %ythical belief.9
-C.
Ellul does not dispute these traditional notions, howe*er, in this boo he argues that %odern
propaganda is *iewed fro% an inco%plete perspecti*e. 5e holds that the %ain concern of
propaganda through psychological influence is sparing action to a desired response by de*eloping
learned attitudes. #rior atte%pts to define propaganda failed to fully elaborate on the de*elop%ent of
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learned attitudes, thus ignoring the sociological influences of propaganda by placing more emphasis
on the psychological influences. Ellul sustains that modern propaganda is based on scientific
analyses of both psychology and sociology.
Summary of chapters
Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes is divided into five substantive chapters discussing
Elluls analysis.
Introduction
Regardless of the State, propaganda should be viewed as situated at the center of the growing powers
of governmental and administrative techniques.
"ifferences in political regimes matter little! differences in social levels are more
important! and most important is national self"awareness. #ropaganda is a good deal less
the political weapon of a regime $it is that also% than the effect of a technological society
that embraces the entire man and tends to be a completely integrated society.
#ropaganda stops man from feeling that things in society are oppressive and persuades
him to submit with good grace."
&'(
)hapter *ne+ )haracteristics of #ropaganda
,odern propaganda is a technique that requires an analysis of both environment and individual to be
sub-ected to propaganda therefore it is based on scientific analyses of psychology and sociology.
Sufficient understanding of these two areas creates the most effective propaganda and without the
scientific research of modern psychology and sociology there would be no propaganda. .Step by step
the propagandist builds the techniques on the basis of his /nowledge of man, his tendencies, his
desires, his needs, his psychic mechanisms, his conditioning, and as much on social psychology as
on depth psychology.0
&1(
2. #art *ne+ E3ternal )haracteristics
#ropaganda is first and foremost concerned with influencing an individual psychologically by
creating convictions and compliance through imperceptible techniques that are effective only by
continuous repetition. #ropaganda employs encirclement on the individual by trying to surround man
by all possible routes, in the realm of feelings as well as ideas, by playing on his will or his needs
through his conscious and his unconscious, and by assailing him in both his private and his public
life.
&4(
5he propagandist also ac/nowledges the most favorable moment to influence man is when an
individual is caught up in the masses. #ropaganda must be total in that utili6es all forms of media to
draw the individual into the net of propaganda. #ropaganda is designed to be continuous within the
individual7s life by filling the citi6ens entire day. It is based on slow constant impregnation that
functions over a long period of time e3ceeding the individuals capacities for attention or adaptation
and thus his capabilities of resistance. In order for propaganda to maintain encirclement, it must be
e3erted by an organi6ation capable of influencing psychological channels that reach the individual.
#sychological and physical actions are inseparable elements to propaganda, however, if no influence
is e3erted by an organi6ation than there can be no propaganda because it cannot operate in a vacuum.
5he necessity for a physical organi6ation limits propaganda enterprises and in order to be effective
propaganda must wor/ inside a group, principally inside a nation. #ropaganda must first organi6e the
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masses in order to propagandize within the masses. In general, propaganda is a set of methods
employed by an organized group that wants to bring about the active or passive participation in its
actions of a mass of individuals, psychologically unified through psychological manipulations and
incorporated into an organization.
[10]
Propaganda should no longer be viewed in terms of an
orthodoy but rather modern propaganda should be seen as an orthopray because it aims for
participation not adherence. Participation can be active or passive! active if propaganda has been able
to mobilize the individual for action" passive if the individual does not act directly but
psychologically supports that action.
#. Part $wo! Internal %haracteristics
$he second ma&or element that a propagandist must understand is the environment in which the
individual operates, mainly the foci of interest of the public. 'n understanding of the conventional
patterns and stereotypes that pre(eist in a milieu provide the propagandist with material from which
to build off. Propaganda is not able to create something out of nothing and is confined to developing
pre(eisting material thereby epressing the fundamental currents of the society it see)s to influence.
$hese currents include accepted structures such as collective sociological presuppositions and myths
that are fundamental to society.
*The Four Great Collective Sociological Presuppositions in the Modern World:
1. $hat an individual+s aim in life is happiness.
#. $hat man is naturally good.
,. $hat history develops in endless progress.
-. $hat everything is matter.
The Collective Myths:
1. of .or)
#. of /appiness
,. of the 0ation
-. of 1outh
2. of the /ero*
[11]
$hese currents reinforce society and hold man3s ma&or convictions and propaganda must voice this
reality. Propaganda is concerned with timeliness since an individual is only moved to action if he is
pushed towards a timely one by propaganda. 4nce it becomes history it inevitably becomes neutral
and indifferent to the individual who is sensitive primarily to current news. 54perational words6 are
used to penetrate an individual3s indifference. /owever they lose their value as immediacy passes as
old facts are replaced by new ones. $he 5current events man6 is carried along the current of news
and caught in the events of today, losing interest in the events of yesterday. $he indifferent are
apolitical and without opinion, therefore they are outside of propaganda3s grasp. Incidentally, there
are also the undecided, people whose opinions are vague, who form the ma&ority of citizens within
the collective. $hese citizens are the most susceptible to control of public opinion that is dictated by
propaganda. 7astly, this part discusses propaganda and truth or the ability of propaganda to relay
something as true based not on the accuracy of facts but of reality. Propaganda veils the truth with
falsehoods even though lying is generally to be avoided.
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,. Part $hree! %ategories of Propaganda
Presented in this chapter is a sophisticated taonomy for propaganda, including such paired
opposites as political(sociological, vertical(horizontal, rational(irrational, and agitation(integration.
Political vs. Sociological Propaganda: Political Propaganda involves techniFues of influence
employed by a government, a party, an administration, or a pressure group with the intention of
changing the behavior of the public. $he themes and ob&ectives of this type of propaganda are of a
political nature. $he goals are determined by the government, party, administration, or pressure
group. $he methods of political propaganda are calculated in a precise manner and its main criteria is
to disseminate an ideology for the very purpose of ma)ing various political acts acceptable to the
people.
[1#]
$here are two forms of political propaganda, tactical and strategic. $actical political
propaganda see)s to obtain immediate results within a given framewor). Etrategic political
propaganda is not concerned with speed but rather it establishes the general line, the array of
arguments, and the staging of campaigns.
Political propaganda reversed is sociological propaganda because the ideology is penetrated by
means of its sociological contet. Propaganda, as it is traditionally )nown, implies an attempt to
spread an ideology through the mass media of communication in order to lead the public to a desired
action. In sociological propaganda even media that are not controllable such as individual art wor),
films, and writing reflect the ideology allowing for an accelerated penetration of the masses and the
individuals within them.
[1,]
Eociological propaganda is a phenomenon where a society see)s to integrate the maimum number
of individuals into itself by unifying its members3 behavior according to a pattern, spreading its style
of life abroad, and thus imposing itself on other groups. >ssentially sociological propaganda aims to
increase conformity with the environment that is of a collective nature by developing compliance
with or defense of the established order through long term penetration and progressive adaptation by
using all social currents. $he propaganda element is the way of life with which the individual is
permeated and then the individual begins to epress it in film, writing, or art without realizing it.
$his involuntary behavior creates an epansion of society through advertising, the movies,
education, and magazines. *$he entire group, consciously or not, epresses itself in this fashion" and
to indicate, secondly that its influence aims much more at an entire style of life.*
[1-]
$his type of
propaganda is not deliberate but springs up spontaneously or unwittingly within a culture or nation.
$his propaganda reinforces the individual3s way of life and represents this way of life as best.
Eociological propaganda creates an indisputable criterion for the individual to ma)e &udgments of
good and evil according to the order of the individual3s way of life. Eociological propaganda does
not result in action, however, it can prepare the ground for direct propaganda. 9rom then on, the
individual in the clutches of such sociological propaganda believes that those who live this way are
on the side of the angels, and those who don3t are bad.
[12]
Vertical vs. Horizontal Propaganda: Dertical propaganda is similar to direct propaganda that aims
at the individual in the mass and is renewed constantly. /owever, in horizontal propaganda there is
no top down structure but rather it springs up from within the group. It involves meticulous
encirclement that traps an individual involuntarily in dialectic. $he individual is led unfailingly to its
adherence by tal)ing about the dialectic until the individual discovers the answer that was set up
unconsciously for him to find. Echools are a primary mechanism for integrating the individual into
the way of life.
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Rational vs. Irrational Propaganda: Propaganda is addressed to the individual on the foundation
of feelings and passions which are irrational, however, the content of propaganda does address
reason and experience when it presents information and furnishes facts making it rational as well. It
is important for propaganda to be rational because modern man needs relation to facts. Modern man
wants to be convinced that by acting in a certain way he is obeying reason in order to have self-
justification. he challenge is creating an irrational response on the basis of rational and factual
elements by leaving an impression on an individual that remains long after the facts have faded
away. Individuals are not compelled to act based facts but rather on emotional pressure, the vision of
the future, or the myth.
Agitation vs. Integration propaganda: Propaganda of agitation seeks to mobili!e people in order to
destroy the established order and"or government. It seeks rebellion by provoking a crisis or
unleashing explosive movements during one. It momentarily subverts the habits, customs, and
beliefs that were obstacles to making great leap forward by addressing the internal elements in each
of us. It eradicates the individual out of his normal framework and then proceeds to plunge him into
enthusiasm by suggesting extraordinary goals which nevertheless seem to him completely within
reach. #owever, this enthusiasm can only last a short duration so the objective must be achieved
$uickly followed by a period of rest. People cannot be kept at in a %state of perpetual enthusiasm and
insecurity&. 'ebellion is incited by the propagandist who knows that hate is one of the most
profitable resources when drawn out of an individual. (gitation propaganda is usually thought of as
propaganda in that it aims to influence people to act. Integration propaganda, on the other hand, is a
more subtle form that aims to reinforce cultural norms. his is sociological in nature because it
provides stability to society by supporting the %way of life& and the myths within a culture. It is
propaganda of conformity that re$uires participation in the social body. his type of propaganda is
more prominent and permanent, yet it is not as recogni!ed as agitation propaganda because it is more
permanent manner. )asically, agitation propaganda provides the motive force when needed and
when not needed integration propaganda provides the context and backdrop.
*hapter wo+ he *ondition for the ,xistence of Propaganda
he nature of propaganda has changed over the course of time and yet it is evident that propaganda
cannot exist without a milieu. he emergence of propaganda is interconnected with technology and
scientific discoveries yet it can only appear and grow under certain conditions. -everal events have
occurred that have furthered propaganda by increasing its ability in depth and discovering new
methods. Modern propaganda could not exist without the mass media or modern means of
transportation which permit crowds of diverse individuals from all over to assemble easily and
fre$uently.
.. Part /ne+ he -ociological *onditions
-ociety must contain elements of both an individualist society and a mass society. Propaganda aims
to capture both the mass and the individual at the same time through this dual type of society. (
mass society is based on individuals that are reduced to ciphers based on what they have in common
to others. 0irst conditions for growth and development of modern propaganda+ it emerged in 1estern
,urope in the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth precisely because that was when
society was becoming increasingly individualistic and its organic structures were breaking down.
Individuals without natural organic local groups are defenseless and more likely to be caught up in a
social current. /n the other hand, a mass society has considerable population density in which local
structures and organi!ations are weak, currents of opinion are strongly felt creating a certain
psychological unity, and individuals are organi!ed into large and influential collectives. Mass society
is characteri!ed by uniformity and material life despite differences of environment. /nce a mass
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society is created, public opinion will begin to play a role to help individuals form their own personal
opinion. Public opinion can only express itself through channels which are provided by the mass
media of communication without which there could be no propaganda. Yet it is important that mass
media be subject to centralized control in order to successfully form public opinion without any
opposition. Again Ellul mentions that the individual must be caught in wide net of media through all
channels. nce opinion has been formed, propaganda is able to reinforce it and transform opinion
into action.
!. Part "wo# bjective $onditions of "otal Propaganda
Propaganda thrives off of what individuals have in common with others to develop patterns of
behavior and modify cultural opinions. "otal propaganda recognizes that within a nation individuals
should all have in common a standard of living, a culture, and an ideology. "he need of an average
standard of living is that people must be able to afford to buy a radio, "%, a newspaper, or go to the
movies. &t is mostly concerned with the densest mass which is made up of average men and not the
very rich or very poor. Poor cannot do this therefore they cannot be subjected to integration
propaganda because the immediate concerns of daily life absorb all their capacities and efforts. "he
poor can only be subjected to agitation propaganda, excited to the point of theft and murder. 'ut they
cannot be trained by propaganda, (ept in hand, channeled, and oriented. )ore advanced propaganda
can influence only a man who is not completely haunted by poverty, a man who can view things
from a certain distance and be reasonably unconcerned about his daily bread, who therefore can ta(e
an interest in more general matters.
*+or propaganda to be effective the propagandee must have a certain store of ideas and a
number of conditioned reflexes that can only be ac,uired through peace of mind
springing from relative security. "he establishment of a mode of common life- all this
leads to the creation of a type of normal man conveniently leads all men toward that
norm via a multitude of paths. Propaganda.s intent is to integrate people into the normal
pattern prevailing in society bring about conformance to way of life. "o sum up# "he
creation of normalcy in our society can ta(e one of two shapes. &t can be the result of
scientific, psycho-sociological analysis based on statistics- that is the American type of
normalcy. &t can be ideological and doctrinaire- that is the $ommunist type. 'ut the
results are identical# such normalcy necessarily gives rise to propaganda that can reduce
the individual to the pattern most useful to society.*
/012
3&nformation4 &s an essential element of propaganda, which must 3have reference to political or
economic reality4 to be credible. &n fact, no propaganda can wor( until the moment when a set of
facts has become a problem in the eyes of those who constitute public opinion.4 Education permits
the dissemination of propaganda in that it enables people to consume information. &nformation is
indistinguishable from propaganda in that information is an essential element of propaganda because
for propaganda to succeed it must have reference to political or economic reality. Propaganda grafts
itself onto an already existing reality through 3informed opinion4. 5here no informed opinion with
regard to political or economic affairs propaganda cannot exist ma(ing it an indispensable aspect.
Propaganda means nothing without preliminary information that provides the basis for propaganda,
gives propaganda the means to operate, and generates the problems that propaganda exploits by
pretending to offer solutions. &t is through information that the individual is placed in a social context
and learns to understand the reality of his own situation. &nformation allows us to evaluate our
situation feel our own personal problems are a general social problem thus enabling propaganda to
entice us into social and political action. &nformation is most effective when it is objective and broad
because it creates a general picture. 5ith information ,uantity is better than ,uality, the more
political or economic facts believed to be mastered by an individual, the more sensitive their
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judgment is to propaganda. In fact, only in and through propaganda do the masses have access to
political economy, politics, art, or literature. The more stereotypes in a culture, the easier it is to form
public opinion, and the more an individual participates in that culture, the more susceptible he
becomes to the manipulation of these symbols.
Chapter Three: The Necessity for Propaganda
All propaganda is based on a need, a dual need, first there is the need of state to mae it and second
there is the need of propagandee to receive it. These t!o needs compliment and correspond to each
other in the development of propaganda. Propaganda is an e"pression of modern society as a !hole.
#. Part $ne: The %tate&s Necessity
The %tate has the need to mae propaganda to integrate citi'ens into its society, to disseminate
information, and to increase participation and involvement of members of society. %ometimes the
people !ant to tae part in government affairs. (o!ever, the official leaders cannot disconnect
themselves from !hat the people !ant. )eing that the people in charge cant escape the people, bait
must be presented to them. This acts as a disguise that must be there to hide !hat is really happening
behind the scenes in the government . Citi'ens are a!are that political decisions affect everybody
and governments cannot govern !ithout the support, presence, pressure, or no!ledge of the people.
*et the people are incapable of maing long term policy so opinion must be created to follo! the
government because the government cannot be led by opinion. All of this describes the +,ass-
.overnment+ relationship characteri'ed by people demanding !hat has already been decided, in
order to appear as though the government is actually caring about !hat the people need. The ne"t
part that the boo discusses is psychological !arfare. It is believed to be a peace policy that is used
bet!een nations as a form of aggression. This type of propaganda changes the public opinion of an
opposing regime so that it can be in favor of their regime.
/. Part T!o: The Individual0s Necessity
The individual needs propaganda to gain satisfaction as a member of society. Individuals !ant to be
informed and to participate in the decisions of the state. Propaganda is the outlet through !hich
individuals obtain the satisfaction of having contributed to the state. It is a necessary instrument of a
state or institution to spread information to members of the group or society. )ut for propaganda to
succeed it must respond to a need on the individual0s part as !ell. The individual is by no means just
an innocent victim of propaganda !hen in fact he provoes the psychological action of propaganda
by not merely lending himself to it, but also from deriving satisfaction from it. It is strictly a
sociological phenomenon, in the sense that it has its roots and reasons in the need of the group that
!ill sustain it. The great role performed by propaganda is in its ability to give the people the
involvement they crave or the illusion of it in order for the masses to be artificially satisfied.
Individuals are faced !ith decisions !hich re1uire a range of information that the individual does not
and cannot have !ithout propaganda. Thus, the individual is unable to accept that he cannot form
opinion on his o!n and is caught bet!een his desire and his inability. People are !illing and liely
to accept propaganda that allo!s them to artificially satisfy their desire to have an opinion by hiding
their incompetence. The individual does not mind being given preconceived positions because
other!ise he !ould reali'e that he does not understand the problems of the modern !orld. The
individual !ould then reali'e that he +depends on situations of !hich he has no control+ and have to
face this reality. The individual cannot live in the state of this harsh reality so he derives satisfaction
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from the veil created by the ideology and the sense of values it provides. The individual need
psychological and ideological reasons !hy he needs to be !here he is and propaganda is the
mechanism that the state uses for this very purpose.
Chapter 5our: Psychological ;ffects of Propaganda
The psychological effects of propaganda on an individual cannot be ignored. The individual
undergoes profound changes !hile being propagandi'ed mainly the diminishment of personal
activity. +Propaganda furnishes objectives, organi'es the traits of an individual into a system, and
free'es them into a mold by standardi'ing current ideas, hardening the prevailing stereotypes, and
furnishing thought patterns in all areas.+
B#CD
The individual is traumati'ed by the over!helming force
of propaganda that intensifies the prejudices and beliefs until eventually the individual has no control
over his o!n impulses. It sees to push the individual into the mass until his !ill fades entirely into
that of the mass. Individuality is sacrificed for the greater cause of the nation by uniting him and
blending him !ith others. Critical and personal judgment are subdued and replaced !ith ready-made
attitudes and opinions. >iscernment is made nearly impossible for the individual !hose ability to
judge is destroyed maing him dependent on propaganda0s ready-made opinions from then on. The
individual can no longer e"ercise his o!n judgment and becomes honed into !hat propaganda tells
him. (e no longer e"presses himself but his group once he accepts public opinion as his o!n. The
artificial, impersonal public opinion created by propaganda is absorbed by the individual and he
becomes filled !ith its conviction. 6hen he is fully integrated in the social group and can no longer
distinguish bet!een himself and society than he has reached total alienation. In this process, the
individual0s personal inclinations lead to participation in the collective !here he loses control and
submits to e"ternal impulses. The individual is suppressed psychologically so that he can continue to
live under the conditions in !hich society places him by providing an artificial and unreal reality that
is the result of po!erful propaganda.
Chapter 5ive: The %ocio-Political ;ffects
+In the nineteenth century, the problem of opinion formation through the e"pression of
thought !as essentially a problem of contacts bet!een the %tate and the individual, and
a problem of ac1uisition of freedom. )ut today, thans to the mass media, the individual
finds himself outside the battle that is no! bet!een the %tate and po!erful groups. The
freedom to e"press ideas is no longer at stae in this debate but it has been replaced by
mastery and domination by the %tate or some po!erful groups over the formation of
opinion. The individual is not in the battle because he is the stae and the battle !ill
determine !hat voice he !ill be permitted to hear and !hich !ords !ill have the po!er
to obsess him.+
B#3D
#. Part $ne: Propaganda and Ideology
An ideology provides society certain beliefs and no social group can e"ist !ithout the foundation of
these beliefs. Propaganda is the means by !hich an ideology can e"pand !ithout force. An ideology
is either fortified !ithin a group or e"panded beyond the borders of a group through propaganda.
(o!ever, propaganda is less and less concerned !ith spreading the ideology no!adays as it is !ith
becoming autonomous. The ideology is no longer the decisive factor of propaganda that must be
obeyed by the propagandist. The propagandist cannot be constrained by the ideology of his %tate but
must operate in service of the state and be able to manipulate the ideology as if it !ere an object. The
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ideology merely provides the content for the propagandist to build off since he is limited to what
already is present within the group, nation, or society. The fundamental ideologies are nationalism,
socialism, communism, and democracy.
2. Part Two: Effects on the Structure of Public Opinion
Public opinion is an instrument of propaganda that is disseminated through the mass media of
communication to the masses. hile most people view the formation of public opinion as being
shaped itself by interaction between different viewpoints on controversial !uestions, this is incorrect
because public opinion is delineated by propaganda as a "truth# which is either believed or not
believed. Public opinion ceases to be controversial and can no longer form itself e$cept through
channels of mass media. %o opinion can be held until it is communicated to the masses through mass
media. Propaganda uses public opinion to e$ternali&e inner opinions of the organi&ation to the
masses that eventually produces conformity.
'()*
+. Part Three: Propaganda and ,rouping
-n regards to propaganda, there are two groups: the groups that ma.e propaganda and the groups that
are sub/ected to propaganda. -n Ellul0s view, there is a 1double foray on the part of propaganda that
proves the e$cellence of one group and the evilness of another at the same time to create
partitioning1. This creates isolation between groups by promoting allegiance to the group one is in
and suppressing conversation between groups. The more they listen to their propaganda the stronger
their beliefs and the greater their /ustifications for their actions. Partitioning ta.es place on many
different levels including class, religious, political, national and blocs of nations. 2 superior group is
able to affect the lesser groups, however, groups that have an e!ual amount of influence will only
separate further from one another in that a members allegiance to a group develops closed
mindedness. ell3organi&ed propaganda is able to wor. with different elements that e$ist within a
nation such as religion, political parties, and labor groups.
4. Part 5our: Propaganda and 6emocracy
Since democracy depends on public opinion, it is clear that propaganda must be involved. The
relationship between democracy and propaganda evidently presents a conflict between the principles
of democracy and the processes of propaganda. The individual is viewed as the cornerstone of a
democracy which is a form of government that is made "for the people and by the people#. 7owever,
as discussed in early chapters Ellul described the masses are incapable of ma.ing long3term foreign
policy and the government needs to ma.e these decisions in a timely manner. This is where
propaganda comes into play and pro/ects an artificial reality to the masses to satisfy their need to
participate in government while the decisions are really made behind the scenes. This was also
describe earlier as the 1mass3government1 relationship. 6emocratic regimes develop propaganda in
line with its myths and pre/udices. Propaganda stresses the superiority of a democratic society while
intensifying the pre/udices between democratic and oppressive.
Major themes
Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes builds on prior notions of propaganda to
demonstrate that while propaganda is psychological in nature it is /ust as much sociological in nature
as well. Propaganda is not /ust embedded into the individual0s psyche but also the cultural psyche.
Propaganda wor.s off the inner characteristics of both the individual and the society that the
individual belongs. This thorough analysis made by Ellul illustrates that to downplay the importance
P8gina (9 de (4 Propaganda: The 5ormation of :en0s 2ttitudes 3 i.ipedia, the free encyclopedia
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of the sociological influences of propaganda to psychological ones is a dreadful error. Propaganda is
more threatening when it begins to be recognized as sociological as well psychological in nature.
Below are two major themes the first stressing the psychological aims of propaganda the second the
sociological aims.
"The Lonely Crowd"
The "lonely crowd" is used by Ellul to distinguish the two inseparable elements of propaganda, the
individual and the masses, which must be addressed by the propagandist at the same time. s an
isolated unit, the individual is of no interest to the propagandist unless he is reduced to an average. !t
is crucial that the individual is never considered as an individual but always in terms of what he has
in common with others. The individual is included and integrated into the mass because the
propagandist profits from the process of diffusion of emotions through the mass, and at the same
time, from the pressures felt by an individual when in a group.
"#$%
!n this setting, &the individual caught up in the mass', the individual(s reactions are easier to provo)e
and psychic defenses are wea)ened. The individual must always be considered as a participant in a
mass and similarly the mass must only be viewed as a crowd composed of individuals. *hen
propaganda is addressed to the crowd, it must touch each individual in that crowd which is in fact
nothing but assembled individuals. +onversely, the individual should not be viewed as alone as a
listener, watcher, or reader because the individual is nevertheless part of an invisible crowd though
he is actually alone. The most favorable moment to influence an individual is when he is alone in the
mass, the structure of the mass is e,tremely profitable to the propagandist concerned with being
effective.
Fundamental currents in society
"-ne cannot ma)e just any propaganda any place for anybody."
"#.%
*hile propaganda is focused on
reaching the individual, it cannot only rely on building off what already e,ists in the individual.
Propaganda must also attach itself to the pre/e,isting fundamental currents of the society it see)s to
influence. The propagandist must )now the current tendencies and the stereotypes among the public
he is trying to reach. These are indicated by principal symbols of the culture the propagandist wishes
to attac) since these symbols e,press the attitudes of a particular culture. !ndividuals are part of a
culture and are therefore psychologically shaped by that culture. The main tas) of propaganda is to
utilize the conditioned symbols as transmitters of that culture to serve its purpose. Propaganda must
be a reflection of the fundamental structures of society to be successful and not contradictory of
e,isting opinions. s)illful propagandist does not try to change mass opinion or go against an
accepted structure. -nly a bad propagandist would ma)e a direct attac) on an established, reasoned,
durable opinion, accepted clich0, or fi,ed pattern. &Each individual harbors a large number of
stereotypes and established tendencies1 from this arsenal the propagandist must select those easiest to
mobilize, those which will give the greatest strength to the action he wants to precipitate.'
"##%
*hile propaganda cannot create something out of nothing, it does have the ability to build on the
foundation already established. 2ore importantly even though it does not create new material and is
confined to what already e,ists, it is not necessarily powerless. &!t can attac) from the rear, war own
slowly, provide new centers of interest, which cause the neglect of previously ac3uired positions1 it
can divert a prejudice1 or it can elicit an action contrary to an opinion held by the individual without
his being clearly aware of it.'
"#4%
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Propaganda can gradually undermine prejudices and images in order to weaken them. These
fundamental currents in society create the perfect atmosphere for sociological propaganda which
influences the individual through his customs and unconscious habits. Sociological propaganda is a
phenomenon where a society tries to unify its members behavior according to a pattern. Essentially
sociological propaganda is to increase conformity with the environment that is of a collective nature
by developing compliance with or defense of the established order through long term penetration and
progressive adaptation by using all social currents. The propaganda element is the way of life with
which the individual is permeated and then the individual begins to express it in film writing or art
without reali!ing it. This involuntary behavior creates an expansion of society through advertising
the movies education and maga!ines. "The entire group consciously or not expresses itself in this
fashion# and to indicate secondly that its influence aims much more at an entire style of life."
$%&'
This type of propaganda is not deliberate but springs up spontaneously or unwittingly within a
culture or nation. This propaganda reinforces the individuals way of life and represents this way of
life as best.
See also
(rainwashing
)onformity
*deology
*ndoctrination
+edia manipulation
+ind control
Propaganda
Psychological manipulation
Psychological warfare
Social *nfluence
Socially constructed reality
References
,. ^ Ellul -ac.ues. /,01&2 The Technological Society. 3ew 4ork5 6intage (ooks from the translator7s
introduction by -ohn 8ilkinson p.ix.
%. ^ (ernays Edward. "Propaganda" /http599www.historyisaweapon.org9defcon,9bernprop.html2. /,0%:2
;. ^ Ellul -ac.ues /,0<;2. Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes p. xi=xii. Trans. >onrad >ellen
? -ean @erner. 6intage (ooks 3ew 4ork. *S(3 0<:=A=;0&=<,:<&=;.
&. ^ Ellul -ac.ues /,0<;2. Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes p. x. Trans. >onrad >ellen ?
-ean @erner. 6intage (ooks 3ew 4ork. *S(3 0<:=A=;0&=<,:<&=;.
B. ^ Crigins of mass communications research during the Dmerican )old 8ar ... = Page %% by Timothy
Eichard Flander = @anguage Drts ? Gisciplines = /%AAA2
1. ^ Ellul -ac.ues /,0<;2. Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes p. %B. Trans. >onrad >ellen ?
-ean @erner. 6intage (ooks 3ew 4ork. *S(3 0<:=A=;0&=<,:<&=;.
PHgina ,% de ,& Propaganda5 The Iormation of +en7s Dttitudes = 8ikipedia the free encyclopedia
A&9A:9%A,& file5999)59Jsers9D@EKD3L,9DppGata9@ocal9Temp9@ow9P0:16SG@.htm
7. ^ Ellul, Jacques (1965). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p.i, xviii. Trans. Konrad Kellen
& Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
*. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p... Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
9. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p.11. Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
1,. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p.61. Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
11. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. -9+.,. Trans. Konrad Kellen
& Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
1/. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. 6. Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
1-. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. 6-. Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
1.. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. 6/. Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
15. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. 65. Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
16. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. 1,6+1,*. Trans. Konrad
Kellen & Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
17. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. 16/+16-. Trans. Konrad
Kellen & Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
1*. ^ 0ivero (1957) 1Tec2nique de 3or4a!ion de l5opinion pu6lique1, L57pinion 8u6lique
19. ^ 9oo6, Leonard (1.*). Public Opinion and Propaganda, :2 5. ;enr< ;ol! and :o4pan<, %e& 'or$.
/,. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. 7. Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
/1. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. -.. Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
//. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. -7. Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
/-. ^ Ellul, Jacques (197-). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. -*. Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
/.. ^ Ellul, Jacques (1965). Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes, p. 6/.Trans. Konrad Kellen &
Jean Lerner. in!a"e #oo$s, %e& 'or$. ()#% 97*+,+-9.+71*7.+-.
Further reading
Ellul, Jacques. T2e Tec2nolo"ical )ocie!<, %e& 'or$= Knop3, 196. (ori"inal >renc2 edi!ion, 195.)
:2o4s$<, %oa4 and ;er4an, Ed&ard. Manufacturing Consent: The Political conomy of the Mass
Media. %e& 'or$= 8an!2eon #oo$s. (19**)
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