Mankind has been aware composite materials since several hundred years before Christ and applied innovation to improve the quality of life. Composites could be natural or synthetic. Modern composites results from research and innovation from past few decades have progressed from glass fiber for automobile bodies to particulate composites for aerospace.
Mankind has been aware composite materials since several hundred years before Christ and applied innovation to improve the quality of life. Composites could be natural or synthetic. Modern composites results from research and innovation from past few decades have progressed from glass fiber for automobile bodies to particulate composites for aerospace.
Mankind has been aware composite materials since several hundred years before Christ and applied innovation to improve the quality of life. Composites could be natural or synthetic. Modern composites results from research and innovation from past few decades have progressed from glass fiber for automobile bodies to particulate composites for aerospace.
chemically distinct materials which when combined have improved properties over the individual materials. It is also defined as a heterogeneous substance consisting of two or more materials which does not lose the characteristics of each component. This combination of materials brings about new desirable properties. Mankind has been aware composite materials since several hundred years before Christ and applied innovation to improve the quality of life. Although it is not clear has to how Man understood the fact that mud bricks made sturdier houses if lined with straw he used them to make buildings that lasted. Ancient !haraohs made their slaves use bricks with to straw to enhance the structural integrity of their buildings some of which testify to wisdom of the dead civili"ation even today. Composites could be natural or synthetic. Traditional or natural composites - composite materials that occur in nature or have been produced by civili"ations for many years #$amples: wood concrete asphalt %aturally occurring composites include tendon bone bamboo rock and many other biological and geological materials. &ood is a good e$ample of a natural composite combination of cellulose fiber and lignin. The cellulose fiber provides strength and the lignin is the 'glue' that bonds and stabili"es the fiber. Synthetic composites ( modern material systems normally associated with the manufacturing industries in which the components are first produced separately and then combined in a controlled way to achieve the desired structure properties and part geometry Contemporary composites results from research and innovation from past few decades have progressed from glass fiber for automobile bodies to particulate composites for aerospace and a range other applications. Ironically despite the growing familiarity with composite materials and ever(increasing range of applications the term defines a clear definition. )oose terms like *materials composed of two or more distinctly identifiable constituents+ are used to describe natural composites like timber organic materials like tissue surrounding the skeletal system soil aggregates minerals and rock. Composites that forms heterogeneous structures which meet the requirements of specific design and function imbued with desired properties which limit the scope for classification. ,owever this lapse is made up for by the fact new types of composites are being innovated all the time each with their own specific purpose like the filled flake particulate and laminar composites. -ibers or particles embedded in matri$ of another material would be the best e$ample of modern(day composite materials which are mostly structural.
Components of composite materials Composites are combinations of two materials in which one of the material is called the reinforcing phase is in the form of fibers sheets or particles and is embedded in the other material called the matrix phase. Typically reinforcing materials are strong with low densities while the matri$ is usually a ductile or tough material. If the composite is designed and fabricated correctly it combines the strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the matri$ to achieve a combination of desirable properties not available in any single conventional material Basic Components of composite materials: C)A..I-ICATI/% /- C/M!/.IT#. : In its most basic form a composite material is one which is composed of at least two elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the properties of those elements on their own. In practice most composites consist of a bulk material0the 1matri$12 and a reinforcement of some kind added primarily to increase the strength and stiffness of the matri$. This reinforcement is usually in fibre form. Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels: Composites based on matri$ constituent. Composites based on reinforcement form. Composites based on matri$ constituent : The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matri$ constituent. The ma3or composite classes include /rganic Matri$ Composites 0/MCs2 Metal Matri$ Composites 0MMCs2 and Ceramic Matri$ Composites 0CMCs2. The term organic matri$ composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites namely !olymer Matri$ Composites 0!MCs2 and carbon matri$ composites commonly referred to as carbon carbon composites. Today the most common man(made composites can be divided into three main groups: !olymer Matri$ Composites 0!MC1s2 :These are the most common and will the main area of discussion in this guide. Also known as -4! ( -ibre 4einforced !olymers 0or !lastics2 ( these materials use a polymer(based resin as the matri$ and a variety of fibres such as glass carbon and aramid as the reinforcement. Metal Matri$ Composites 0MMC1s2 ( Increasingly found in the automotive industry these materials use a metal such as aluminium as the matri$ and reinforce it with fibres such as silicon carbide. Ceramic Matri$ Composites 0CMC1s2 ( 5sed in very high temperature environments these materials use a ceramic as the matri$ and reinforce it with short fibres or whiskers such as those made from silicon carbide and boron nitride. Composites based on reinforcement form
The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form ( fibre reinforced composites laminar composites and particulate composites. -ibre reinforced composites can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.
-ibre 4einforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matri$ material. .uch a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. /n the other hand when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase the elastic modulus of the composite the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. -ibres are small in diameter and when pushed a$ially they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. )aminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matri$. .andwich structures fall under this category.
!articulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matri$ body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are e$amples of this category. 4#I%-/4C#M#%T.: .trong materials bonded to or into a matri$ to improve mechanical properties. Materials ranging from short fibers through comple$ te$tile forms that is combined with a resin to provide the composite with enhanced mechanical properties. 4einforcements for the composites can be fibers fabrics particles or whiskers. -ibers are essentially characteri"ed by one very long a$is with other two a$es either often circular or near circular. !articles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. &hiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers. T6!#. /- 4#I%-/C#M#%T. I% C/M!/.IT#.: 4einforcing constituents in composites as the word indicates provide the strength that makes the composite what it is. 7ut they also serve certain additional purposes of heat resistance or conduction resistance to corrosion and provide rigidity. 4einforcement can be made to perform all or one of these functions as per the requirements. A reinforcement that embellishes the matri$ strength must be stronger and stiffer than the matri$ and capable of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the composite. This means that the ductility should be minimum or even nil the composite must behave as brittle as possible. -iber 4einforcement : -ibers are the important class of reinforcements as they satisfy the desired conditions and transfer strength to the matri$ constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as desired.
8lass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were subsequently found out and put to e$tensive use to render composites stiffer more resistant to heat . -ibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber composite is 3udged by its length shape orientation composition of the fibers and the mechanical properties of the matri$. Types of Fibers : /rganic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density fle$ibility and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly the following different types of fibers namely glass fibers silicon carbide fibers high silica and quart" fibers aluminina fibers metal fibers and wires graphite fibers boron fibers aramid fibers and multiphase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers it is again classified into #(glass A(glass 4(glass etc. There is a greater marker and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite silica carbide and boron are also e$ercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites. Glass fibers : /ver 9:; of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers as they are ine$pensive easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
Their low density resistance to chemicals insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics although the one ma3or disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when sub3ected to high tensile stress for a long time. ,owever it remains break(resistant at higher stress(levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is e$pected to sustain loads for many months or years continuously.
!eriod of loading temperature moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catamorphic failure. 7ut all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die(moulding filament winding lay(up and so on. 8lass fibers are available in the form of mates tapes cloth continuous and chopped filaments roving and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses Carbon fibers also come in a variety of grades and si"es and were once limited to the aerospace industry due to their high cost. Carbon fiber imparts significantly more stiffness to a composite than glass fibers at a lower weight and as the cost of the fibers have decreased the utili"ation of carbon fibers have made their way into other industries.
Aramid fibers recogni"ed more commonly by their trade names of <evlar and Twaron are very strong lightweight and heat resistant fibers. Aramid fibers are most commonly used in high(end composites that require optimal strength(to(weight performance. Thermoplastic fibers are strands of thermoplastic resin from polypropylene to ultra(high molecular weight polyethylene that are lightweight chemical resistant and very tough.
Natural Fibers have been in 'composites' for thousands of years dating back to the use of straw in mud bricks for primitive buildings. In more recent times with a focus on renewable resources there has been increased use of natural fibers in composites focused mostly in thermoplastic composites. As with any natural resource there is natural variation in material and performance variation that has thus far been too great for many composite manufacturing processes. As agri(tech and manufacturing process continue to evolve and e$pand with a focus on such. Fabrics are produced from all of the above fibers in a multitude of weaves. These fabrics from unidirectional to three(dimensional weaves are all designed and engineered to optimi"e particular mechanical properties in specific directions within the composite. Cores are materials that have been encapsulated within a composite laminate typically designed to increase the stiffness or increase the insulative properties of the composite without significantly increasing the weight of the system. The use of cores are even used to 'tune' a composite1s transparency to specific electromagnetic radiation 0i.e. various radar bands2. #$amples of core material include a wide range of materials from polyurethane foam to thermoplastic or even aluminum honeycomb structures. Multiphase Fibers : .poolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multiphase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. 7oron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate( temperature composites. A poly(phase fiber is a core(sheath fiber consisting of a poly( crystalline core. Whiskers : .ingle crystals grown with nearly "ero defects are termed whiskers. They are usually discontinuous and short fibers of different cross sections made from several materials like graphite silicon carbide copper iron etc. Typical lengths are in = to :: %.M. ranges. &hiskers differ from particles in that whiskers have a definite length to width ratio greater than one. &hiskers can have e$traordinary strengths upto >??? M!a. Matrix Materials Although it is undoubtedly true that the high strength of composites is largely due to the fibre reinforcement the importance of matri$ material cannot be underestimated as it provides support for the fibres and assists the fibres in carrying the loads. It also provides stability to the composite material. 4esin matri$ system acts as a binding agent in a structural component in which the fibres are embedded. &hen too much resin is used the part is classified as resin rich. /n the other hand if there is too little resin the part is called resin starved. A resin rich part is more susceptible to cracking due to lack of fibre support whereas a resin starved part is weaker because of void areas and the fact that fibres are not held together and they are not well supported.
Funtions of a Matrix In a composite material the matri$ material serves the following functions: @ ,olds the fibres together. @ !rotects the fibres from environment. @ Aistributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are sub3ected to the same amount of strain. @ #nhances transverse properties of a laminate. @ Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component. @ ,elps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing alternate failure path along the interface between the fibres and the matri$. @ Carry interlaminar shear. The matri$ plays a minor role in the tensile load(carrying capacity of a composite structure. ,owever selection of a matri$ has a ma3or influence on the interlaminar shear as well as in(plane shear properties of the composite material. The interlaminar shear strength is an important design consideration for structures under bending loads whereas the in(plane shear strength is important under torsion loads. The matri$ provides lateral support against the possibility of fibre buckling under compression loading thus influencing to some e$tent the compressive strength of the composite material. The interaction between fibres and matri$ is also important in designing damage tolerant structures. -inally the processability and defects in a composite material depend strongly on the physical and thermal characteristics such as viscosity melting point and curing temperature of the matri$. The fibres are saturated with a liquid resin before it cures to a solid. The solid resin is then said to be the matri$ for the fibres General types of Matrix Materials In general following general following types of matri$ materials are available: @ Thermosetting materialB @ Thermoplastic materialB @ CarbonB @ MetalsB @ CeramicsB @ 8lass Matri$. A thermosetting material is the one which when cured by heat or chemical reaction is changed into an infusible and insoluble material. Thermosetting resins undergo irreversible chemical cross(linking reaction upon application of heat. /n the other hand thermoplastics do not undergo a chemical reaction on application of heat. They simply melt on application of heat and pressure to form a component. Thermoplastics can be softened and they undergo large and rapid change in viscosity with variation in temperature. Thermoplastics can be repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by cooling. Thermosetting Materials The ma3or group of materials used today in the industries contains thermosetting matri$ resins. T!er"oset Resin !olyesters epo$y and other resins in liquid form contain monomers 0consisting of simple molecules2 which convert into polymers 0comple$ cross(linked molecules2 when the resin is cured. The resulting solid .is called thermosets which is tough hard insoluble and infusible. The property of infusibility distinguishes thermosets from the thermoplastics. Cure and polymerisation refer to the chemical reactions that solidify the resin. Curing is accomplished by heat pressure and by addition of curing agents at room temperature. Thermosetting materials can be further divided into two groups depending on how they react to form their network structure. -or e$ample epo$ies and polyesters react to form a network structure without formation of a volatile by(product. !henolics react to form a volatile by(product i.e. water. The fact that some thermosets form volatile by(products means that high pressure laminating techniques must be used to prevent the formation of voids or other defects. #po$ies and polyesters can be cured at atmospheric pressures and also at ambient temperatures.
!olyester matrices have been in use for the longest period in the widest range of structures. !olyesters cure with the addition of a catalyst 0usually a pero$ide2 resulting in an e$othermic reaction which can be initiated at room temperature. The most widely used matrices for advanced composites have been the epo$y resins. These resins cost more than polyesters and do not have the high temperature capability of the 7ismaleimides or !olyimides. ,owever they are widely used due to the following advantages. @ Adhesion to fibres and to resin @ %o by(products formed during cureB @ )ow shrinkage during cureB @ ,igh or low strength and fle$ibilityB @ 4esistance to solvents and chemicalsB @ 4esistance to creep and fatigueB @ &ide range of curative optionsB @ Ad3ustable curing rateB @ 8ood electrical properties. #po$ies do have few inherent disadvantages also vi" . @ 4esins and curatives are somewhat to$ic in uncured formB @ Moisture absorption resulting into change in dimensions and physical propertiesB @ )imited to about C??DC 0=9CD-2 upper temperature useB @ Aifficult to combine toughness and high temperature resistanceB @ ,igh thermal coefficient of e$pansionB @ ,igh degree of smoke liberation in a fireB @ May be sensitive to ultraviolet light degradationB @ .low curing. Fibre einforced !ol"mer #F!$ %aminated Composites : #a"inate #ay$up : A structural laminate is designed to have a specific lay(up or ply arrangement based on the various design criteria imposed on it. A laminate lay(up definition refers to the fibre orientation of successive pies in a laminate with respect to an established reference coordinate system.
Ply Orientation %efinition : It designates the tape fibre direction or the warp It is important that for positive and negative angles should be consistent with the coordinate system chosen. /ne of the advantages of using a modern composite is its potential to orient the fibres to respond to the load requirement s. this means that the composite designer must take into consideration the characteristics of the material including the aspects of the fibre orientation in each ply and how the plies arte arranged. #ach pl" #lamina$ is defined by a number representing the direction of the fibre in degrees with respect to the reference 0$2 a$is. ?E fibres of both tape and fabric are oriented at angles equal in magnitude but opposite in sign 0F2 and 0(2 are used. #ach 0F2 or 0(2 sign represents one ply. Criteria use% %urin& Ply Orientation -ollowing criteria should be used during ply orientation: @ Attention to ply orientation on strength controlled laminates can prevent matri$ and stiffness degradation. The ?E ply orientation is used to carry the longitudinal loading the 9?E ply orientation is suited to the transverse loading and the GH:E ply orientation is for shear loading. @ In order to minimise the in(plane shear place the GH:E and (H:E plies togetherB the in(plane shear is carried as tension and compression in the H:E plies. @ To minimise warpage and interlaminar shear within a laminate maintain the symmetry about the centre line of the laminate. @ .tress orientation can be minimised by proper designing or by stepped laminate thickness changes. @ The placement of specific ply orientations can influence the buckling strength and damage tolerance. The outer ply orientations influence the laminate bending characteristics more than plies placed at or near the laminate bending characteristics more than the plies placed at or near the neutral a$is. Influene of Fibre Orientation : Strength and stiffness of a composite laminate depends on the orientation of the plies with reference to the load direction. Proper selection of ply orientation is necessary to provide a structurally efficient design. As stated above, a composite part might require 0 plies to react to the axial loads, !" to react to the shear loads and #0 plies to react to the side loads. $or example, a lay%up of "0& of 0 plies and "0& of !" plies will have strength and stiffness equivalent to those of aluminium when loaded in the 0 direction. Speial lassifiation of #a"inates : 'he laminates also classified based on the symmetricity of (einforced fibres, vi)* + Symmetric laminates + Anti%symmetric laminates + ,on%symmetric laminates Desi&nin& t!e la"inate : Many structural materials generally have isotropic properties and they are homogeneous that is to say they are uniform in all directions. A composite material can take a number of different forms. The material may be orthotropic such as a unidirectionally reinforced polymer where the strength and stiffness in the fibre direction considerably e$ceeds that at 9?D to the fibre. It may be planar&isotropic such as a random chopped strand glass mat reinforced polymer. It may approach isotropy by the use of very short fibres randomly placed in a polymer by in3ection moulding. In all cases though composite materials are inhomogeneous. It is these anisotropic properties of composite materials that are the key to developing highly efficient structures. -ibres can be strategically placed so that they locally engineer the required strength and stiffness properties. -urthermore by combining different fibre types ( glass aramid carbon etc ( the particular properties of each fibre can be e$ploited. -or instance the low cost of glass the e$treme toughness of aramid fibre and the high strength and stiffness of carbon can all be used within a single laminate. A composite material is not ductile like metal and failure when it occurs is abrupt. The stiffness properties are generally lower than those of steel but the lower weight of composite materials results in e$cellent specific strength and stiffness properties leading to reduced( weight components and structures. The properties of the laminate are affected by the amount of fibre in the matri$ which in turn is influenced by the manufacturing process. T!e priniples of %esi&n analysis : As in all structural designs the developed stress and strain levels in the polymer composite when it is under load must be determined and the material designed. 'he critical stress, strain and deformation values are then compared with the relevant design criteria to ensure that the component satisfies product requirements and material limitations. Polymer composites are usually macroscopically inhomogeneous and anisotropic because of the reinforcing fibres and, in addition, have visco elastic properties derived from the polymer matrix. -wing to the differing material descriptions between composites, further material properties are required to characterise polymer composites completely, consequently, more complex analysis procedures are required to determine stress and deformation levels than are generally required for the more conventional materials. 'he three main aspects of material design which will be considered are* .. 'he analysis which considers the anisotropy and non%homogeneity in polymer composites /the material properties 0 the fibre and matrix, ply orientation, layer thic1nesses, etc.2. 3. 'he short term load condition, in which the elastic stress and analysis methods may be used, provided anisotropy is ta1en into account. 4. 'he long term load conditions, in which viscoelastic and degradation effects may be significant5 in this case it would be necessary to modify the short term elastic design procedures. Re'uire"ents of "aterials( %esi&n !olymer composite materials generally consist of laminae of resin impregnated fibres which are unidirectionall" or orthogonall" aligned angle&pl" or randoml" orientated systems. It is also possible to provide a mi$ture of fibre arrays in ad3acent laminae when fabricating a composite material to meet the required loading situation. This freedom to tailor( make composite materials with specific required properties introduces an additional comple$ity in the design analyses of these systems over those of the conventional ones. As the design of composite structures ideally involves the simultaneous analysis and design of the material and the structural system this approach may be undertaken by the finite element analysis. It can be e$pensive for small 3obs and is really relevant only to the high technology of the aerospace industryB for the medium technology applications a simpler approach is to consider the material design independently from that of the structural one. Consequently for the latter design application the properties of a chosen fibreImatri$ array are calculated or measured and are then utilised in the structural analyses. 'he ma6ority of polymer composite structural systems are composed of relatively thin plates or shell laminates where the properties may be in terms of laminate structure and ply thic1ness using laminated plate theory or by commercially available P7 software. Assuming that the laminates had orthotropic symmetry and that both in%plane direct and shear loads as well as bending and twisting moments were acting on the plate,the element properties would require two principal tensile stiffness, shear stiffness and two principal flexural rigidities. 8n addition, the corresponding strength values in tension, flexure and shear would be required5 the latter three values would be obtained by either mechanical tests or by underta1ing a laminate analysis and thus the laminate stiffness and strength characteristics would be 1nown. 'o satisfy the necessary design criteria this relatively small number of properties would then be used in the structural analysis and design for the composite M)NUF)CTURING OR F)*RIC)TION PROCESS OF COMPOSITE #)MIN)TE: Manufacturing !rocesses : Manufacturing of composite materials involves distinct operations that may vary depending upon available technology e$isting facilities and personnel skill. The manufacturing process may also vary due to wide variety of composite materials and their application. #ach of the fabrication processes has characteristics that define the type of products to be produced. This is advantageous because this e$pertise allows to produce the best composite. -actors considered for selection of most efficient manufacturing process are as follows: @ 5ser needs @ Total production volume @ !erformaiJce requirements @ #conomic targets @ .i"e of the product @ )abour @ .urface comple$ity @ Materials @ Appearance @ ToolingIassembly @ !roduction rate @ #quipment The goals of the composite manufacturing process are to: @ Achieve a consistent product by controlling -ibre thickness -ibre volume -ibre direction @ Minimise voids @ 4educe internal residual stresses @ !rocess in the least costly manner The procedure to achieve these goals involves series of actions to select the three key components vi". @ Composite material and its configuration @ Tooling @ !rocess As reinforcement for composite material the choice between unidirectional tape and woven fabric is made on the basis of the greater strength and modulus attainable with the tape particularly in applications in which compression strength is important. .alient advantages and disadvantages of tape and fabric for their selection are given below: Tape Ad'antages @ 7est modulus and strength efficiency @ ,igh fibre volume achievable @ )ow scrap rate @ )ess tendency to trap volatiles + Automated lay(up possible @ %o discontinuities Fabri )%+anta&es + 9etter drape for complex shapes + Single ply is balanced and may be essentially symmetric + 7an be laid up without resin + Plies stay in line better during cure + 7ured parts easier to machine + 9etter impact resistance + :any forms available Fabri Disa%+anta&es + $ibre discontinuities /splices2 + ;ess strength and modulus + ;ower fibre volume than tape + :ore costly than tape + <reater scrap rates + =arp and fill properties differ + $abric distortion can cause part warping Another aspect considered important for composite fabrication is appropriate lay(up techniques along with composite cure control. .ome of the considerations for choosing lay(up techniques are given below: Classifiation of Manufaturin& Proesses :ost widely used manufacturing methods for laminated fibre composites are as follows* Open Mol% Proess : + Spray lay%up % 7hopped roving and resin sprayed simultaneously, rolled. + >and lay%up % ;ay%up of fibres or woven cloth, impregnate, no heat or pressure. + $ilament winding. + Sheet molding compound. + ?xpansion tool molding. + 7ontact molding. Close% Mol% Proess : + 7ompression molding @ ;oad with raw material, press into shape. + Aacuum bag, pressure bag, autoclave % Prepreg laid up, bagged, cured. + 8n6ection molding @ :old in6ected under pressure. + (esin 'ransfer @ $ibres in place, resin in6ected at low temperature. Continuous Proess : + Pultrusion. + 9raiding. As the resources are limited for us in our study of the composites we employed hand lay up process for the fabrication of composite laminate.
Open Mol% Proesses:
/pen molding offers a number of process and product advantage over other high volume and comple$ application methods. These include:. @ -reedom of design @ #asy to change design @ )ow mold andIor tooling cost (Tailored properties possible @ ,igh strength large parts possible @ /n(site production possible (isad'antages associated with the open molding process include:
@ )ow to medium number of parts @ )ong cycle times per molding @ %ot the cleanest application process @ /nly one surface has aesthetic appearance @ /perator skill dependent Wet %a"&up)*and %a"&up: The hand 0wet2 lay(up is one of the oldest and most commonly used methods for manufacture of composite parts. ,and lay(up composites are a case of continuous fibre reinforced composites. )ayers of unidirectional or woven composites are combined to result in a material e$hibiting desirable properties in one or more directions. #ach layer is oriented to achieve the ma$imum utilisation of its properties. )ayers of different materials 0different fibres in different directions2 can be combined to further enhance the overall performance of the laminated composite material. 4esins are impregnated by hand into fibres which are in the form of woven knitted stitched or bonded fabrics. This is usually accomplished by rollers or brushes with an increasing use of nip(roller type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics by means of rotating rollers and a bath of resin. )aminates are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions. Materials used for fabrication : 4esin: #po$y resin0 )6 ::K 7I-5%CTI/%A) 4#.I%2 -ibers: &oven 8lass fibre reinforcement Cores: +,T-MAT-N. C/0+A.+ AN( MAT+-A% +12-+M+NT,
J2Aifferent amounts of resin are required to wet out different forms of fiberglass. -or e$ample one gallon of resin will wet out appro$imately the following amounts of fiberglass:
H? square foot of L to J? o". cloth :? square foot of M o". mat =? square foot of JN o". mat =: square foot of CH o" roving
In the event successive layers of glass are laid up before previous layers gelled coverage will be greater.
C.2The desired thickness for gelcoat is generally J: mils 0?.J:+2. This is equivalent to C: square feet per quart or J?? square feet per gallon.
-or e$ample suppose a boat is to be fabricated having a hull area of J?? square feet using gelcoat M o". mat and C layers of JN o". mat. 7ased upon the rules stated in OJ and OC the following is required:
-rom OC one gallon of gelcoat is required.
-rom OJ resin needed is:
0J?? sq. ft. M mat2 I :?PC gallons of resin 0C?? sq. ft. JN mat2 I :?PC gallons of resin
L gallons total of resin
=.2The percentage of glass to resin in various laminates is:
H.The weight of a finished fiberglass and resin laminate is appro$imately:
Thickness &eight
JIH' C lb. JIL' J lb. JIJK' JIC lb.
:.Casting resin and table top resin for various thickness of pour are:
Thickness .q. ftI8al. .q. ft.IQt JIH' K J(JIC JIL' JC = JIJK' CH K JI=C' HL JC JIKH' 9K CH
The above figures will vary depending upon the worker thickness of laminate and method used. In general the higher the percentage of glass the stronger the laminate. ,T+!, -N0/0%+( -N *AN( %A3 2! !/C+,,: J. !4#!A4I%8 T,# M/)A 4emove dust and dirt from mold. If mold is of plaster wood or new fiberglass apply soft wa$ 0&a$ OC2 and buff with soft towel. Then spray or brush with !.R.A. parting compound and allow to dry. If mold material is glass metal ceramic or well(cured fiberglass apply three coats of hard wa$ carnauba type buffing between each coat.
C. A!!)6I%8 T,# 8#)C/AT J. If gelcoat is to be brushed on allow first coat to cure and then apply second coat to make sure there are no light spots.
C. If gelcoat is to be sprayed on with a gelcoat gun spray up to a thickness of .?J:+ to ?C?+. &hen gelcoat has cured long enough that your fingernail cannot easily scrape it free 0test at edge of mold where damage will not show on part2 then proceed with ne$t step.
=. )A6(5! .<I% C/AT Cut M or J o". mat to cover part. 7rush cataly"ed resin over gelcoat then apply the mat. &ork with roller adding more resin where necessary until all white areas in mat fibers have disappeared and all air bubbles have escaped. A mohair roller is ideal for rolling in the resin and a serrated plastic roller assists greatly in popping any remaining bubbles. Avoid leaving e$cess resin standing in puddles. 4esin(rich areas weaken the part. &here rollers will not reach brushes must be used. &hen this step is complete clean all tools in acetone. Allow skin coat to cure before ne$t step.
H. )A6I%8 -I7#48)A.. 4#I%-/4C#M#%T -or a JC ft. boat two layers of JN o". or C o". mat may be adequate depending upon design. -or a JH ft. boat an additional layer of woven roving will add considerable strength. Apply each layer as in step = but it will not be necessary to wait for curing between these layers. 7e sure to shake all acetone out of brushes and rollers before applying resin. Acetone drips can result in uncured spots in the lay(up.
:. T4IM /n a small lay(up the fiberglass laminate which hangs over the edge of the mold can be trimmed off easily with a ra"or knife if you catch the *trim stage+ of the period after the lay(up has gelled but before it has hardened. /n a larger lay(up it can be trimmed with a saber saw and coarse sand paper.
K. C54# May take from two hours to overnight depending upon turnover desired temperature canali"ation and nature of the part. If laid up in a female mold longer cure will affect shrinkage and easier parting. In the case of the male mold the part comes off more easily before it shrinks appreciably. If the part is sub3ect to warping a longer cure may be necessary. In any case when the part is removed it should be supported in its desired shape until fully cured.
>. 4#M/R# !A4T -4/M M/)A -irst e$amine the trim edge all the way around the mold and make sure there is no resin bridging the line between the mold and the part. .and this edge where necessary. Then wooden wedges such as *tongue sticks+ can be pushed into the edges to start the separation. Continue separation by pulling and fle$ing. In some cases it is necessary to drill a small hole in the mold and apply air or water pressure.
L. -I%I., Trim edges and back of part may need to be fine(sanded and coated with surfacing resin or gelcoat.
9. 8#)C/AT !4/7)#M. Alligatoring or wrinkling of the gelcoat may be due to the following reasons:
J. 8elcoat is too thin in spots consequently it does not completely cure. C. Insufficient hardener added or hardener not mi$ed well enough. In general it is best to use about twice as much hardener in gelcoat as in lay(up resin at the same room temperature since the gelcoat goes on thinner than a mat lay(up.
=. 8elcoat has not cured long enough before mat lay(up.
H. Acetone from tools drips onto gelcoat or into skin lay(up.
Main Ad'antages of *and %a"up !rocess: )ow capital Investment. .imple principles to fabricate the part. )ow cost tooling if room(temperature cure resins are used. &ide choice of suppliers and material types (isad'antages: @ /nly one molded surface is obtained. @ Quality is related to the skill of the operator. @ )ow volume process. @ )onger cure times required. @ 4esins need to be low in viscosity to be workable by hand. This generally compromises their mechanicalIthermal properties. @ The waste factor can be high. Applications : @ .tandard wind(turbine blades production boats architectural moldings C2-N. /F C/M!/,-T+,: A#-I%ITI/% /- C54I%8: Curing is a term in polymer chemistry and process engineering that refers to the toughening or hardening of a polymer material by cross(linking of polymer chains brought about by chemical additives ultraviolet radiation electron beam or heat. In rubber the curing process is also called vulcani"ation. Resin urin&: Aespite the wide variety of thermoset resin formulations 0epo$y vinylester polyester etc.2 their cure behavior is qualitatively identical. The resin viscosity drops initially upon the application of heat passes through a region of ma$imum flow and begins to increase as the chemical reactions increase the average length and the degree of cross(linking between the constituent oligomers. This process continues until a continuous =( dimensional network of oligomer chains is created S this stage is termed gelation. In terms of processability of the resin this marks an important watershed: before gelation the system is relatively mobile after it the mobility is very limited the micro(structure of the resin and the composite material is fi$ed and severe diffusion limitations to further cure are created. Thus in order to achieve vitrification in the resin it is usually necessary to increase the process temperature after gelation. Cure monitoring methods give a significant insight to the chemical process and define process actions towards achieving specific quality indices of the cured resin systems. A very important aspect of thermoset resins is their cure cycle. 5nsaturated polyester and vinylester along with epo$y require time and temperature in order to achieve what we call *Crosslinking.+ This is the the *set+ part of thermoset and is the permanent and irreversible chemical bonds in the resin. The amount of time and temperature is dependent upon the formulation of the resin the ratio of resin(to(hardener and the presence of additional chemicals used to modify the properties. /utside of the chemistry the control of the time and temperature is important to the curing of the resin. If the actual temperature is outside the range of the intended formulated temperature it will affect the curing reaction. If the part is demolded too early the resin will continue to cure but the final shape of the part may not match the mold. The manufacturer of the resin is the very best source for information on the recommended cure time and temperature. As these resins change from liquid to solid states there is a certain amount of shrinkage involved. A part made on a female mold will shrink towards the center and a part made on a male mold will tighten around that mold. This shrinkage factor depends upon the resin chemistry and its additives but is generally less than =; by volume. This is why male molds more difficult to demold and the design of the mold needs to account for part shrinkage and part removal. Curing Mechanisms Temperature plays an important role in the curing process of the resins used in composites. Many of the resins are setup for room( temperature curing. This requires that the ambient room temperature is ideally set between K: and >: degrees. And that the resin itself is near this temperature. The old rule of thumb is that a drum of resin takes about CH hours to get to room temp when moved in from shipping or storage. These room temperature cured resins have windows of open working time before the curing cycle begins to happen. #levated temperatures in the summer can cause havoc but can be managed with special mi$tures and ingredients. .ome resins cure with time and elevated temperatures which are achieved with the use of ovens. These allow for nearly unlimited open working time before cure. &hen things are satisfactorily placed the temperatures are elevated to start the cure process. 5R )ight is another curing mechanism that has special applications and takes the temperature consideration away. This has a big use with the infrastructure restoration industries working onsite and underground. It is much more of a speciali"ed niche application. COMPOSITE M)C,INING: The processes used to manufacture composite structures generally require that trimming and other machining operations be performed prior to assembly. Machining processes are required to produce accurate surfaces and holes to allow precision fitting of components into an assembly. Aue to shrinkage during the curing stage of the composite structure it is not practicable to place holes in the part during the molding stage therefore milling cutting drilling etc. are considered a post cure operation. Aue to the toughness and abrasive nature of modern composites there is a need for harder and longer lasting cutting tools. A large database of machining information for various high speed steel and carbide cutting tool materials e$ists for machining metal wood and some thermoplastics. ,owever much of this data cannot be applied to machining modern composites . Modern composites like graphite(epo$y aramid( epo$y and carbon carbon each have their own machining characteristics. Composites are not homogeneous orisotropic therefore the machining characteristics are dependent on the tool path in relation to the direction of the reinforcing fibers. Metals or metal alloys have nearly homogeneous properties throughout the work piece but each material in a composite retains its individual properties. Ad'antages of machining composites are: improved surface finish unless part surface was directly in contact with the mold surfaceB machined surfaces provide accurate mating surfaces for parts to be assembledB eliminates the ma3ority of the problems associated with part shrinkage and insert movement during the fabrication processes (-,A(0ANTA.+,: The disadvantages associated with machining of composites include controlling dust particles produced due to machining confining them to a small area and having an adequate collection system. A second problem is controlling the outer layers of the composite so that the fibers will shear instead of lifting up under the force of the cutting action and leaving e$tended fibers beyond the cut surface. Also when cutting perpendicular to the lay of composite fibers edge break(out can occur. This can be controlled by designing a backup structure in the tooling. Aelamination of composite is also another ma3or disadvantage while machining .The fiber glass reinforcement tend to separate from the matri$ material due to delamination .This tend to happen during machining due to Improper curing and insufficient compaction pressure .If the curing temperature is not maintained properly then there will be weak cross linking /f the resin with the reinforcement .Therefore care should be taken while Curing the composites and machining of the composites. ,AF+T3 W*-%+ MAC*-N-N. /F C/M!/,-T+,: .afety is something that needs lots of attention. The processes are very operator dependent and we are working with chemicals here so workers must be protected. Many of these chemicals are regulated by several government agencies. This is why these chemicals are generally difficult to obtain on the street. The styrene(based polyesters and vinylesters require respiratory protection and skin protection as styrene is considered by some 0California2 to be a possible carcinogen. There is a time weighted average for breathing the esters specific to the percentage of styrene in the mi$ture. #$cessive inhalation can lead to headaches sinus irritation and watering eyes. .kin contact is permissible but can be difficult to remove and can enter the bloodstream. The epo$y(based resins are more forgivable with regards to respiratory issues but dermal protection is much more important. .hort term occasional e$posure is not serious but can develop into allergic reactions. Therefore while machining of the composites a lot of dust is generated and must be eliminated in order for the safety of the workers .-or this a vaccum pump is provided while machining process so that the dust produced is eliminate by vaccum pump by sucking of the dust produced while machining process ensuring the safety of the workers.As a safety measure very every worker need to wear a protective mask around his face and cover his body with a appron to prevent any health problems. MAC,I%I%8 !4/C#..: Aue to the toughness and abrasive nature of the modern composites it is not possible to machine the composites through the convectional methods as the tool wear out is at a larger scale. .o non convectional maching process are employed for the machining of the composites. The various non convectional manchining process employed are A74A.IR# &AT#4 T#T MAC,I%I%8 )A.#4 MAC,I%I%8 #)#CT4IC AI.C,A48# MAC,I%I%8 5)T4A./%IC MAC,I%I%8 :A7>8,8,< -$ '>? $A9(87A'?B <;ASS $89?( 7-:P-S8'? 9C >A,B ;ACDP P(-7?SS 8, 7-;;?<? =-(ES>-P 9C 7-,A?7'8-,A; :A,7>8,< P(-7?SS* 'he glass fiber reinforced composite fabricated in the wor1 shop of the college by hand lay up process has a low toughness and abrasive nature.so,convectional milling process is employed for the machining of the the composite. A B8A:-,B P-8,' 7D''8,< '--; is employed for the machining process.'he tool is mounted on to a flat table with a suitable position and is connected to a electric motor.'he tool is made to rotate at a speed of .3000 (P: and the machining of the composite is done. 'he dust produced from the glass fibre composite is much higher compared to other composites.so to prevent the dust to disperse water is used a preventive measure so that the the dust get mixed in the water and does get dispersed into air.'he wor1er shold wear a protewctive mas1 and a apron to cover his body to prevent any health problems. 'he machining should be done very s1illfully and precaution should be ta1en while machining to avoid delamination.