Non-crimp

fabric
composites
Manufacturing,
properties
and
applications
Edited
by
Stepan
V. Lomov
WP
WOODHEAD
PUBLISHING
Oxford
Cambridge
Philadelphia
New Delhi
Contents
Contributor contact details xiii
Introduction
xvi
Part I
Manufacturing
of
non-crimp
fabrics 1
1 Production of
non-crimp
fabrics for
composites
3
A. Schnabel and T,
Gries, Institut
fur
Textiltechnik
(ITA)
of RWTH Aachen
University, Germany
1.1 Introduction
3
1.2
Warp-knitted non-crimp
fabric
(NCF)
5
1.3 Weft-knitted NCF
22
1.4
Non-crimp
woven fabrics
23
1.5 3D woven and non-interlaced NCF 27
1.6 Fixation
by
adhesion 30
1.7
Comparison
of
production technologies
33
1.8 Future trends 35
1.9
Acknowledgements
37
1.10 References 37
2 Standardisation of
production technologies
for
non-crimp
fabric
composites 42
F. Kruse and T. Gries, Institut
fUrTextiltechnik
(ITA)
of
RWTH
Aachen
University, Germany
2.1 Introduction 42
2.2 Classification and standardisation of
non-crimp
fabric
(NCF)
production
methods 42
2.3
Outstanding patents
of
existing
machines for the
production
of NCFs 47
2.4 The 'Hexcel
patent'
-
EP
0972102
B1
59
2.5 Product
patents
in the
production
of NCFs 61
2.6
Immobilisation of
adhesive on the surface of semi-finished
textile
products
(DE
102008004112
A1)
64
2.7
References
65
3 Structural
stitching
of
non-crimp
fabric
preforms
for
composites
67
P.
Mitschang,
Institut
fur
Verbundwerkstoffe
GmbH, Germany
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Threads for structural
stitching technology
68
3.3
Stitching technology
and
sewing
machines 70
3.4
Quality
aspects
for
structural
stitching
74
3.5
Applications
and future trends
81
3.6 References 82
4
Understanding
and modelling the effect of
stitching
on the
geometry
of
non-crimp
fabrics 84
S. V. Lomov, Katholieke Universiteit
Leuven, Belgium
4.1
Introduction 84
4.2 General
parameters
of the fibrous
plies
85
4.3
Geometry
of the
stitching
86
4.4 Distortions of fibres in the
plies
92
4.5
Change
of the
geometry
after shear 98
4.6 A
geometrical
model of NCF 100
4.7 Conclusion
100
4.8
References 102
5 Automated
analysis
of defects in
non-crimp
fabrics for
composites
103
M.
Schneider,
Toho
Tenax
Europe GmbH,
Germany
5.1
Motivation 103
5.2
Quality
characteristics of
non-crimp
fabric
(NCF)
104
5.3
Quality analysis
of NCF
by digital image
analysis
106
5.4 Future trends 111
5.5 References 114
Part II
Manufacturing
of
non-crimp
fabric
composites
115
6
Deformability
of
textile
preforms
in
the
manufacture
of
non-crimp
fabric
composites
117
S. V.
Lomov,
Katholieke
Universiteit
Leuven, Belgium
6.1 Introduction
117
6.2 Shear
118
6.3 Biaxial
tension 128
6.4
Compression 132
6.5
Bending 136
6.6 Conclusion
139
6.7 References 141
7
Modelling the
deformability
of biaxial
non-crimp
fabric
composites
144
P.
Harrison,
University
of
Glasgow,
UK, W-R.
Yu,
Seoul
National
University,
Korea and A. C. Long,
University
of
Nottingham, UK
7.1 Introduction 144
7.2 Behaviour of fabric architecture on the shear and
draping
behaviour of
non-crimp
fabrics
(NCFs)
145
7.3
Modelling strategies
for NCF
forming
148
7.4
Energy-based
kinematic
mapping
149
7.5 Finite
element
modelling
of
forming
for
NCFs 156
7.6 Future trends 161
7.7 Further information and advice
162
7.8 References 162
8
Permeability
of
non-crimp
fabric
preforms
166
R.
Loendersloot,
University
of
Twente,
The Netherlands
8.1 Introduction 166
8.2
Experimental permeability
results 168
8.3 Geometric effects 187
8.4 Deformation and
permeability
196
8.5 Conclusions 208
8.6
Acknowledgements
209
8.7
References 210
8.8
Appendix:
nomenclature 214
9 Understanding variability
in the
permeability
of
non-crimp
fabric
composite
reinforcements 216
A.
Endruweit
and A. C.
Long, University
of
Nottingham,
UK
9.1
Introduction
216
9.2 Material characterisation
217
9.3
Permeability
measurement
222
9.4 Modelling
and simulation
233
9.5
Future trends
239
9.6
References
239
10
Modelling
of the
permeability
of
non-crimp
fabrics
for
composites 242
B.
Verleye,
S. V.
Lomov and
D.
Roose,
Katholieke Universiteit
Leuven,
Belgium
10.1
Introduction 242
10.2
Numerical simulation 246
10.3
Experimental
validation 251
10.4
Parametric
study
253
10.5
Influence of shear 256
10.6 Conclusion
257
10.7
Acknowledgements 257
10.8 References
258
Part
III
Properties
of
non-crimp
fabric
composites
261
11 Mechanical
properties
of
non-crimp
fabric
(NCF)
based
composites:
stiffness and
strength
263
S. V.
Lomov, T. Truonq Chi and I.
Verpoest,
Katholieke
Universiteit
Leuven,
Belgium
11.1 Introduction
263
11.2 Materials and
composite production
264
11.3
Test
procedures
265
11.4
Mechanical
properties
of
non-crimp
fabric
(NCF)
composites
266
11.5 Mechanical
properties
of
composites
based on
sheared MMCF 274
11.6
Damage development
in B2
(0790)
laminates 279
11.7
X-ray radiography
283
11.8
Damage
initiation in non-sheared
and sheared materials 285
11.9 Conclusions
286
11.10 References
287
12
Damage progression
in
non-crimp
fabric
composites
289
L.
E.
Asp,
J.
Varna and E.
Marklund,
Swerea SICOMP and
Lulea
University
of
Technology,
Sweden
12.1 Introduction 289
12.2
Damage progression
in
non-crimp
fabric
(NCF)
composites
due to
in-plane loading
290
12.3
Damage progression
in
impacted
NCF
composites
300
12.4 Conclusions 308
12.5 References 308
13
Fatigue
in
non-crimp
fabric
composites 310
K.
Vallons, Katholieke Universiteit
Leuven, Belgium
13.1
Introduction
310
13.2
Fatigue
in
non-crimp
fabric
(NCF)
composites
311
13.3
Post-fatigue
residual
properties
330
13.4 Conclusions and
open questions
332
13.5 References
332
13.6
Appendix 333
14 Mechanical
properties
of
structurally
stitched
non-crimp
fabric
composites
335
N.
Himmel,
Institut ftir Verbundwerkstoffe
GmbH,
Germany
and
H.
HeB,
BASF
Engineering
Plastics
Europe, Germany
14.1 Introduction
335
14.2 Materials and
stitching
configurations
337
14.3
Characterisation of
structurally
stitched
NCF laminates
341
14.4
Simulation of mechanical behaviour of
structurally
stitched laminates 348
14.5 Conclusions and future trends 354
14.6 References 355
15
Predicting
the effect of
stitching
on the
mechanical
properties
and
damage
of
non-crimp
fabric
composites:
finite element
analysis
360
D. S.
Ivanov,
S. V. Lomov and I.
Verpoest,
Katholieke
Universiteit
Leuven,
Belgium
15.1 Introduction
360
15.2
Representative
volume element
(RVE)
of
non-crimp
fabric
(NCF)
composites
363
15.3 Elastic
analysis
369
15.4
Damage
accumulation in
NCF
composites
372
15.5 Conclusions
383
15.6 References
384
16
Modelling drape,
stress and
impact
behaviour
of
non-crimp
fabric
composites
386
A.
K.
Pickett, University
of
Stuttgart, Germany
16.1 Finite
element
(FE)
methods for
drape,
stress and
impact analysis
386
16.2 Laminate
analysis
and FE stiffness for
non-crimp
fabric
(NCF)
387
16.3
FE methods for infusion
analysis
389
16.4
Draping
and FE simulation
390
16.5
Infusion simulation 394
16.6
Stiffness and failure
394
16.7
Impact
and failure
396
16.8 References
400
17
Modelling
stiffness and
strength
of
non-crimp
fabric
composites:
semi-laminar
analysis
402
E.
Marklund, J.
Varna and L. E. Asp, Swerea SICOMPand
Lulea
University
of
Technology,
Sweden
17.1
Introduction 402
17.2
Stiffness models 405
17.3
Strength
models for
non-crimp
fabric
(NCF) composites
420
17.4 Conclusions
435
17.5 References
436
Part IV
Applications
of
non-crimp
fabric
composites
439
18
Aerospace applications
of
non-crimp
fabric
composites
441
P. Middendorf and C. Metzner, EADS Innovation
Works,
Germany
18.1 Introduction 441
18.2 Aeronautic
requirements
443
18.3
Application examples
445
18.4 Future trends
447
18.5
References 448
19
Non-crimp
fabric:
preforming analysis
for
helicopter applications
449
F. Dumont and C.
Weimer,
Eurocopter
Deutschland
GmbH,
Germany
19.1 Introduction 449
19.2 Preform
techniques
for
non-crimp
fabrics
(NCFs)
449
19.3 Main NCF deformation mechanism
observed
during preforming
454
19.4
Preforming
defect analysis
456
19.5 Conclusion and future trends
458
19.6 References 460
20 Automotive
applications
of
non-crimp
fabric
composites
461
B. SkOck-Hartmann and T.
Gries,
Institut ftirTextiltechnik
(ITA)
of RWTH Aachen
University,
Germany
20.1 Introduction
461
20.2
Applications
of
non-crimp
fabrics
(NCF)
in the
automotive
industry
466
20.3 Research and
development
for the use of
NCF in automotive
applications 469
20.4 Future trends
476
20.5 Conclusion
478
20.6 References
479
21
Non-crimp
fabric
composites
in wind turbines 481
G. Adolphs and C.
Skinner, OCV Technical
Fabrics,
Belgium
21.1 Introduction
481
21.2
Development
of
non-crimp
fabric
(NCF) composites
in wind
energy
483
21.3 NCF materials
used in nacelle construction 491
21.4
Future trends
492
21.5
References
493
22
Cost
analysis
in
using non-crimp
fabric
composites
in
engineering
applications
494
P.
Schubel,
University
of
Nottingham,
UK
22.1 Introduction 494
22.2
Costing methodologies: current
approaches
495
22.3 Technical cost
modelling
496
22.4 Case
study:
40 m wind turbine blade shell
504
22.5
Acknowledgements
509
22.6 References 509
Index
511