Notes for the UNIX Clueless:

1. LINUX IS CASE-SENSITIVE. For example: Netscape, NETSCAPE and nEtscape o!ld "e t#ree
d$%%erent commands &"!t o% t#e t#ree, onl' netscape $s a($ala"le on m' s'stem). Also m'*%$lE, m'*%$le, and
m'*FILE are t#ree d$%%erent %$les. +o!r !ser lo,$n name and passord are also case sens$t$(e. &T#$s ,oes
$t# t#e trad$t$on o% UNIX and t#e -c- pro,ramm$n, lan,!a,e "e$n, case sens$t$(e.)
2. F$lenames can "e !p to ./0 c#aracters lon, and can conta$n letters, n!m"ers, -.- &dot), -*-
&!nderscore), --- &das#), pl!s some ot#er non-recommended c#aracters.
3. F$les $t# names start$n, $t# -.- are normall' not s#on "' t#e ls &l$st) or d$r commands. T#$n1 o% t#ese
%$les as -#$dden-. Use ls -a &l$st $t# t#e opt$on -all-) to see t#ese %$les.
4. -2- $s an e3!$(alent to 45S -6- &root d$rector', mean$n, t#e parent o% all ot#er d$rector$es, or a separator
"eteen a d$rector' name and a s!"d$rector' or %$lename). For example, tr' cd 2!sr2doc
5. Under L$n!x, all d$rector$es appear !nder a s$n,le d$rector' tree &t#ere are no 45S-st'le dr$(e letters).
T#$s means d$rector$es and %$les %rom all p#'s$cal de($ces are mer,ed $nto t#$s s$n,le %$le s'stem.
6. In a con%$,!rat$on %$le, a l$ne start$n, $t# 7 $s a comment. I% c#an,$n, a con%$,!rat$on %$le, don8t delete
old sett$n,s--comment t#em o!t $nstead. Ala's $nsert a s#ort comment descr$"$n, #at 'o! #a(e done.
7. +o!r personal sett$n,s are $n 'o!r #ome d$rector' #$c# $s 2#ome2'o!r*!ser*lo,$n*name. 9an'
sett$n,s are 1ept $n %$les $t# names start$n, $t# a dot -.-so as to 1eep t#em o!t o% 'o!r a' &see po$nt :
a"o(e).
8. S'stem-$de sett$n,s are 1ept $n t#e d$rector' 2etc .
9. Under L$n!x, as $n an' m!lt$!ser operat$n, s'stem, d$rector$es and %$les #a(e an oner and set o%
perm$ss$ons. +o! $ll "e t'p$call' alloed to r$te onl' to 'o!r #ome d$rector' #$c# $s
2#ome2'o!r*!ser*lo,$n*name. Learn to !se t#e %$le perm$ss$ons else 'o! $ll "e constantl' anno'ed $t#
L$n!x.
10. Command opt$ons are $ntrod!ced "' a das#, ---, %olloed "' a s$n,le letter &or -- #en t#e opt$on $s
more t#an one letter). T#!s --- $s an e3!$(alent o% 45S8s s$tc# -2-. For example, tr' rm --#elp.
Linux ssenti!l "hort#uts !n$ "!nit% Co&&!n$s:
'Ctrl(')lt('*1(
S$tc# to t#e %$rst text term$nal. Under L$n!x 'o! can #a(e se(eral &0 $n standard set!p) term$nals opened
at t#e same t$me.
'Ctrl(')lt('*n( +n,1..6-
S$tc# to t#e nt# text term$nal. &T#e same co!ld "e accompl$s#ed $t# t#e rarel' !sed command c#(t n.
-c#(t- stands %or -c#an,e ($rt!al term$nal-).
tt%
Pr$nt t#e name o% t#e term$nal $n #$c# 'o! are t'p$n, t#$s command.
'Ctrl(')lt('*7(
S$tc# to t#e %$rst ;UI term$nal &$% X-$ndos $s r!nn$n, on t#$s term$nal).
'Ctrl(')lt('*n( +n,7..12-
S$tc# to t#e nt# ;UI term$nal &$% a ;UI term$nal $s r!nn$n, on screen n-<). 5n de%a!lt, not#$n, $s r!nn$n,
on term$nals 7 = to <., "!t 'o! can r!n anot#er ser(er t#ere.
'.!/(
&In a text term$nal) A!tocomplete t#e command $% t#ere $s onl' one opt$on, or else s#o all t#e a(a$la"le
opt$ons. T>IS S>5?TCUT IS ;?EAT@ It e(en or1s at LIL5 prompt@
')rro0U1(
Scroll and ed$t t#e command #$stor'. Press AEnterB to exec!te.
'"hift('23U1(
Scroll term$nal o!tp!t !p. Cor1 also at t#e lo,$n prompt, so 'o! can scroll t#ro!,# 'o!r "oot!p messa,es.
'"hift('234o0n(
Scroll term$nal o!tp!t don.
'Ctrl(')lt('5(
&$n X-$ndos) C#an,e to t#e next X-ser(er resol!t$on &$% 'o! set !p t#e X-ser(er to more t#an one
resol!t$on). For m!lt$ple resol!t$ons on m' standard SV;A card2mon$tor, I #a(e t#e %ollo$n, l$ne $n t#e %$le
2etc2X<<2XF=0Con%$, &t#e %$rst resol!t$on starts on de%a!lt, t#e lar,est determ$nes t#e s$De o% t#e -($rt!al
screen-):
9odes -<E.FxG0=- -=EEx0EE- -0FExF=E- -/<.x:=F- -F=Ex:EE- -FEEx:EE- -<</.x=0F-
5% co!rse, %$rst I #ad to con%$,!re t#e X ser(er, e$t#er "' !s$n, Xcon%$,!rator, x%=0con%$,, or man!all' "'
ed$t$on t#e %$le 2etc2X<<2XF=0Con%$,, so t#at $t s!pports t#e a"o(e resol!t$ons &mostl' t#e matter o%
!ncomment t#e l$ne t#at de%$nes m' ($deo c#$pset, and spec$%'$n, t#e s'nc#ron$Dat$on %re3!enc$es m'
mon$tor s!pports).
'Ctrl(')lt('6(
&$n X-$ndos) C#an,e to t#e pre($o!s X-ser(er resol!t$on.
'Ctrl(')lt('s#(
&$n X-$ndos) H$ll t#e $ndo I am ,o$n, to cl$c1 $t# m' mo!se po$nter &t#e po$nter c#an,es to
somet#$n, l$1e a deat# s'm"ol). S$m$lar res!lt can "e o"ta$ned $t# t#e command x1$ll &t'ped $n X-
term$nal). Use%!l #en an X-$ndo pro,ram does not ant to close &#an,sI).
'Ctrl(')lt('78"1#(
&$n X-$ndos) H$ll t#e c!rrent X-$ndos ser(er. Use $% t#e X-$ndos ser(er cannot "e ex$ted normall'.
'Ctrl(')lt('4el(
S#!t don t#e s'stem and re"oot. T#$s $s t#e normal s#!tdon command %or a !ser at t#e text-mode
console. 4on8t J!st press t#e -reset- "!tton %or s#!tdon@
'Ctrl(#
H$ll t#e c!rrent process &or1s mostl' a small text-mode appl$cat$ons).
'Ctrl($
Lo, o!t %rom t#e c!rrent term$nal. See also t#e next command.
'Ctrl($
Send KEnd-o%-F$leL to t#e c!rrent process. 4on8t press $t t$ce else 'o! also lo, o!t &see t#e pre($o!s
command).
'Ctrl(s
Stop t#e trans%er to t#e term$nal.
'Ctrl(9
?es!me t#e trans%er to t#e term$nal. Tr' $% 'o!r term$nal m'ster$o!sl' stops respond$n,.
'Ctrl(:
Send t#e c!rrent process to t#e "ac1,ro!nd.
exit
Lo,o!t. I can also !se lo,o!t %or t#e same e%%ect. &I% 'o! #a(e started a second s#ell, e.,., !s$n, "as#, t#e
second s#ell $ll "e ex$ted and 'o! $ll "e "ac1 $n t#e %$rst s#ell, not lo,,ed o!t.)
reset
?estore a screed-!p term$nal &a term$nal s#o$n, %!nn' c#aracters) to de%a!lt sett$n,. Use $% 'o! tr$ed to
-cat- a "$nar' %$le. +o! ma' not "e a"le to see t#e command as 'o! t'pe $t.
';i$$le;ouse7utton(
Paste t#e text #$c# $s c!rrentl' #$,#l$,#ted some#ere else. T#$s $s t#e normal -cop'-paste- operat$on $n
L$n!x. &It doesn8t or1 $t# Netscape and CordPer%ect #$c# !se t#e 9S C$ndos-st'le -cop'-paste-. It
does or1 $n t#e text term$nal $% 'o! ena"led -,pm- ser($ce !s$n, -set!p-.) Mest !sed $t# a L$n!x-read'
:-"!tton mo!se &Lo,$tec# or s$m$lar) or else set -:-mo!se "!tton em!lat$on-).
<
&t$lde) 9' #ome d$rector' &normall' t#e d$rector' 2#ome2m'*lo,$n*name). For example, t#e command cd
N2my_dir $ll c#an,e m' or1$n, d$rector' to t#e s!"d$rector' -my_dir- !nder m' #ome d$rector'. T'p$n,
J!st -cd- alone $s an e3!$(alent o% t#e command -cd N-.
.
&dot) C!rrent d$rector'. For example, .2m'*pro,ram $ll attempt to exec!te t#e %$le -m'*pro,ram- located $n
'o!r c!rrent or1$n, d$rector'.
..
&to dots) 4$rector' parent to t#e c!rrent one. For example, t#e command cd .. $ll c#an,e m' c!rrent
or1$n, d$rector' one one le(el !p.
=el1 #o&&!n$s
any_command 66hel1 >&ore
4$spla' a "r$e% #elp on a command &or1s $t# most commands). For example, tr' cp --#elp Omore. ---#elp-
or1s s$m$lar to 45S -2#- s$tc#. T#e -more- p$pe $s needed #en t#e o!tp!t $s lon,er t#an one screen.
&!n topic
4$spla' t#e contents o% t#e s'stem man!al pa,es &#elp) on t#e top$c. Press -3- to 3!$t t#e ($eer. Tr' man
man $% 'o! need an' ad(anced opt$ons. T#e command $n%o topic or1s s$m$lar to man topic, 'et $t ma' conta$n
more !p-to-date $n%ormat$on. 9an!al pa,es can "e #ard to read--t#e' ere r$tten %or UNIX
pro,rammers. Tr' any_command --#elp %or a "r$e%, eas$er to d$,est #elp on a command. Some pro,rams also
come $t# ?EA49E or ot#er $n%o %$les--#a(e a loo1 to t#e d$rector' 2!sr2doc. To d$spla' man!al pa,e %rom a
spec$%$c sect$on, I ma' !se somet#$n, l$1e: man : ex$t &t#$s d$spla's an $n%o on t#e command ex$t %rom
sect$on : o% t#e man!al pa,es) or man -a ex$t &t#$s d$spla's man pa,es %or ex$t %rom all sect$ons). T#e man
sect$ons are: Sect$on <-User Commands, Sect$on .-S'stem Calls, Sect$on :-S!"ro!t$nes, Sect$on F-
4e($ces, Sect$on /-F$le Formats, Sect$on 0-;ames, Sect$on G-9$scellaneo!s, Sect$on =-S'stem
Adm$n$strat$on, Sect$on P, Sect$on n-Ne. To pr$nt a man!al pa,e, I !se: man top$c O col -" O lpr &t#e opt$on
col -" remo(es an' "ac1space or ot#er c#aracters t#at co!ld ma1e t#e pr$nted manpa,e d$%%$c!lt to read).
info topic
4$spla' t#e contents o% t#e $n%o on a part$c!lar command. $n%o $s a replacement %or man pa,es so $t
conta$ns t#e most recent !pdates to t#e s'stem doc!mentat$on. Use ASpaceB and AM1SpaceB to mo(e
aro!nd or 'o! ma' ,et con%!sed. Press -3- to 3!$t.
!1ro1os topic
;$(e me t#e l$st o% t#e commands t#at #a(e somet#$n, to to do $t# m' top$c.
hel1 command
4$spla' "r$e% $n%o on a "as# &s#ell) "!$lt-$n command. Us$n, #elp $t# no command pr$nts t#e l$st o% "as#
"!$lt-$n commands.
T#e s#ortest l$st o% "as# "!$lt-$n commands o!ld pro"a"l' $ncl!de: al$as, ",, cd, ec#o, ex$t, export, %,, #elp,
#$stor', Jo"s, 1$ll, lo,o!t, pd, set, so!rce, !l$m$t, !mas1, !nal$as, !nset.
8$ehel1
&$n X-term$nal). Mrose t#e #ole s'stem #elp !s$n, t#e ,rap#$cal H4E #elp na($,ator. Normall', H4E
#elp $s $n(o1ed "' press$n, t#e $con -t#e "oo1 $t# t#e lamp- on t#e H4E control panel.
"%ste& info
10$
Pr$nt or1$n, d$rector', $.e., d$spla' t#e name o% m' c!rrent d$rector' on t#e screen.
hostn!&e
Pr$nt t#e name o% t#e local #ost &t#e mac#$ne on #$c# 'o! are or1$n,). Use netcon% &as root) to c#an,e
t#e name o% t#e mac#$ne.
0ho!&i
Pr$nt m' lo,$n name.
i$ username
Pr$nt !ser $d &!$d) and #$s2#er ,ro!p $d &,$d), e%%ect$(e $d &$% d$%%erent t#an t#e real $d) and t#e
s!pplementar' ,ro!ps.
$!te
Pr$nt or c#an,e t#e operat$n, s'stem date and t$me. E.,., I co!ld c#an,e t#e date and t$me to .EEE-<.-:<
.::/G !s$n, t#$s command:
date <.:<.:/G.EEE
To set t#e #ardare &MI5S) cloc1 %rom t#e s'stem &L$n!x) cloc1, !se t#e command &as root) setcloc1
ti&e
4eterm$ne t#e amo!nt o% t$me t#at $t ta1es %or a process to complete Q ot#er $n%o. 4on8t con%!se $t $t# t#e
date command &see pre($o!s entr'). E.,. I can %$nd o!t #o lon, $t ta1es to d$spla' a d$rector' content
!s$n,:
t$me ls
0ho
4eterm$ne t#e !sers lo,,ed on t#e mac#$ne.
0
4eterm$ne #o $s lo,,ed on t#e s'stem, %$nd o!t #at t#e' are do$n,, t#e$r processor !ssa,e, etc. >and'
sec!r$t' command.
r0ho 6!
&Rremote #o) 4eterm$ne !sers lo,,ed on ot#er comp!ters on 'o!r netor1. T#e r#o ser($ce m!st "e
ena"led %or t#$s command to r!n. I% $t $sn8t, r!n set!p &?ed>at spec$%$c) as root to ena"le -r#o-.
fin3er user_name
S'stem $n%o a"o!t a !ser. Tr': %$n,er root
l!st
S#o l$st$n, o% !sers last lo,,ed-$n on 'o!r s'stem. ?eall' ,ood $dea to c#ec1 $t %rom t$me to t$me as a
sec!r$t' meas!re on 'o!r s'stem.
l!st/
&-Rlast "ad-) S#o t#e last "ad &!ns!ccess%!l) lo,$n attempts on 'o!r s'stem.
histor% > &ore
S#o t#e last &<EEE or so) commands exec!ted %rom t#e command l$ne on t#e c!rrent acco!nt. T#e -O
more- ca!ses t#e d$spla' to stop a%ter eac# screen%!l. To see #at anot#er !ser as do$n, on 'o!r
s'stem, lo,$n as -root- and $nspect #$s2#er -#$stor'-. T#e #$stor' $s 1ept $n t#e %$le ."as#*#$stor' $n t#e !ser
#ome d$rector' &so 'es, $t can "e mod$%$ed or erased).
u1ti&e
S#o t#e amo!nt o% t$me s$nce t#e last re"oot.
1s
&R-pr$nt stat!s- or -process stat!s-) L$st t#e processes c!rrentl' r!n "' t#e c!rrent !ser.
1s !xu > &ore
L$st all t#e processes c!rrentl' r!nn$n,, e(en t#ose $t#o!t t#e controll$n, term$nal, to,et#er $t# t#e
name o% t#e !ser t#at ons eac# process.
to1
Heep l$st$n, t#e c!rrentl' r!nn$n, processes, sorted "' cp! !sa,e &top !sers %$rst). Press ACtrlBc #en
done.
3to1
8to1
&$n X term$nal) To ;UI c#o$ces %or top. 9' %a(o!r$te $s ,top &comes $t# ,nome). In H4E, 1top $s also
a(a$la"le %rom t#e -H-men! !nder -S'stem---Tas1 9ana,er-.
un!&e 6!
&R -Un$x name- $t# opt$on -all-) In%o on 'o!r &local) ser(er. I can also !se ,!name &$n X-$ndo term$nal) to
d$spla' t#e $n%o more n$cel'.
#!t ?et#?issue
C#ec1 #at d$str$"!t$on 'o! are !s$n,. +o! can p!t 'o!r on messa,e $n t#$s text %$le--$t8s d$spla'ed on
lo,$n. It $s more common to p!t 'o!r s$te-spec$%$c lo,$n messa,e to t#e %$le 2etc2motd &-motd-R-messa,e o%
t#e da'-).
free
9emor' $n%o &$n 1$lo"'tes). -S#ared- memor' $s t#e memor' t#at can "e s#ared "eteen processes &e.,.,
exec!ta"le code $s -s#ared-). -M!%%ered- and -cas#ed- memor' $s t#e part t#at 1eeps parts o% recentl'
accessed %$les--$t can "e s#r!n1 $% more memor' $s needed "' processes.
$f 6h
&Rd$s1 %ree) Pr$nt d$s1 $n%o a"o!t all t#e %$les'stems &$n #!man-reada"le %orm).
$u ? 6/h > &ore
&Rd$s1 !sa,e) Pr$nt deta$led d$s1 !sa,e %or eac# s!"d$rector' start$n, at t#e -2- &root) d$rector' &$n #!man
le,$"le %orm).
#!t ?1ro#?#1uinfo
Cp! $n%o--$t s#o t#e content o% t#e %$le cp!$n%o. Note t#at t#e %$les $n t#e 2proc d$rector' are not real %$les--
t#e' are #oo1s to loo1 at $n%ormat$on a(a$la"le to t#e 1ernel.
#!t ?1ro#?interru1ts
L$st t#e $nterr!pts $n !se. 9a' need to %$nd o!t "e%ore sett$n, !p ne #ardare.
#!t ?1ro#?@ersion
L$n!x (ers$on and ot#er $n%o.
#!t ?1ro#?files%ste&s
S#o t#e t'pes o% %$les'stems c!rrentl' $n !se.
#!t ?et#?1rint#!1 >&ore
S#o t#e set!p o% pr$nters.
ls&o$
&R -l$st mod!les-. As root. Use 2s"$n2lsmod to exec!te t#$s command #en 'o! are a non-root !ser.) S#o
t#e 1ernel mod!les c!rrentl' loaded.
set>&ore
S#o t#e c!rrent !ser en($ronment.
e#ho A2).=
S#o t#e content o% t#e en($ronment (ar$a"le -PAT>-. T#$s command can "e !sed to s#o ot#er
en($ronment (ar$a"les as ell. Use -set- to see t#e %!ll en($ronment.
$&es3 > less
Pr$nt 1ernel messa,es &t#e content o% t#e so-called 1ernel r$n, "!%%er). Press -3- to 3!$t -less-. Use less
2(ar2lo,2dmes, to see #at -dmes,- d!mped $nto t#$s %$le r$,#t a%ter t#e last s'stem "oot!p.
#h!3e 6l &%Blo3inBn!&e
See m' passord exp$r' $n%ormat$on.
7!si# o1er!tions
ls
$ir
L$st t#e content o% t#e c!rrent d$rector'. T#e command d$r $s an al$as to ls so t#$s to commands do exactl'
t#e same t#$n,. T#e %$le l$st$n, $s normall' color-coded: dar1 "l!eR d$rector$es, l$,#t ,re' R re,!lar %$les,
,reen R exec!ta"le %$les, ma,enta R ,rap#$cs %$les, red R compressed &D$pped) %$les, l$,#t "l!e R s'mol$c
l$n1s, 'ello R de($ce %$les, "ron R FIF5 &-F$rst-In F$rst-5!t- named p$pes).
ls 6!l >&ore
L$st t#e content o% t#e c!rrent d$rector', all %$les &also t#ose start$n, $t# a dot), and $n a lon, %orm. P$pe
t#e o!tp!t t#ro!,# t#e -more- command, so t#at t#e d$spla' pa!ses a%ter eac# screen%!l.
#$ directory
C#an,e d$rector'. Us$n, -cd- $t#o!t t#e d$rector' name $ll ta1e 'o! to 'o!r #ome d$rector'. -cd - - $ll
ta1e 'o! to 'o!r pre($o!s d$rector' and $s a con(en$ent a' to to,,le "eteen to d$rector$es. -cd ..- $ll
ta1e 'o! one d$rector' !p &(er' !se%!l).
.?program_name
?!n an exec!ta"le $n t#e c!rrent d$rector', #$c# $s not on 'o!r PAT>. Exec!ta"les #$c# are 'o! 'o!r
PAT> are s$mpl' r!n !s$n,: program_name
shut$o0n 6h no0
&as root) S#!t don t#e s'stem to a #alt. 9ostl' !sed %or a remote s#!tdon. Use ACtrlBAAltBA4elB %or a
s#!tdon at t#e console &#$c# can "e done "' an' !ser).
h!lt
re/oot
init 6
&as root, t#ree commands) >alt or re"oot t#e mac#$ne. Used %or remote s#!tdon, s$mpler to t'pe t#an
t#e pre($o!s command. Also ,reat $% t#e comp!ter -#an,s- &I lose control o(er t#e 1e'"oard)--I telnet to $t
%rom anot#er mac#$ne on t#e netor1 and remotel' re"oot $t. I !se ACtrlBAAltBA4elB %or normal s#!tdon at
t#e console o% a local comp!ter.
@lo#8
&Not present on older (ers$ons o% ?ed>at.) Loc1 a local &text mode) term$nal. I can also !se (loc1 -a to loc1
all term$nals &pro"a"l' not a ,ood $dea). T#e "est $s pro"a"l' to lo, o!t. +o! don8t !se (loc1 $n ;UI--t#e
$ndos mana,ers come $t# passord-protected screensa(er and a loc1$n, !t$l$t' &e.,., t#e small $con
$t# padloc1 $n H4E).

*ile &!n!3e&ent
#1 source destination
Cop' %$les. E.,., cp 2#ome2stan2ex$st$n,*%$le*name . $ll cop' a %$le to m' c!rrent or1$n, d$rector'. Use t#e --r-
opt$on &%or rec!rs$(e) to cop' t#e contents o% #ole d$rector$es, e.,. , cp -r m'*ex$st$n,2d$r2 N $ll cop' a
s!"d$rector' !nder m' c!rrent or1$n, d$rector' to m' #ome d$rector'.
&#o1% source destination
Cop' a %$le %rom2to a 45S %$les'stem &no mo!nt$n, o% t#e %$les'stem $s necessar'). E.,., mcop'
a:6a!toexec."at N2J!n1. See man mtools %or ot#er commands t#at can access 45S %$les $t#o!t mo!nt$n,: md$r,
mcd, mren, mmo(e, mdel, mmd, mrd, m%ormat .... Ce don8t !se t#e mtool commands t#at o%ten--operat$ons on
45S29S C$ndos %$les can "e per%ormed !s$n, re,!lar L$n!x commands a%ter 'o! mo!nt t#e 45S29S
C$ndos %$les'stem.
&@ source destination
9o(e or rename %$les. T#e same command $s !sed %or mo($n, and renam$n, %$les and d$rector$es.
ren!&e string replacement_string filename
Flex$"le !t$l$t' %or c#an,$n, parts o% %$lenames. For example:
rename .#tm .#tml S.#tm
ln source destination
Create a #ard l$n1 called destination to t#e %$le called source. T#e l$n1 appears as a cop' o% t#e or$,$nal
%$les, "!t $n real$t' onl' one cop' o% t#e %$le $s 1ept, J!st to &or more) d$rector' entr$es po$nt to $t. An'
c#an,es to t#e %$le are a!tomat$call' ($s$"le t#ro!,#o!t. C#en one d$rector' entr' $s remo(ed, t#e ot#er&s)
sta'&s) $ntact. T#e l$m$tat$on o% t#e #ard l$n1s are: t#e %$les #a(e to "e on t#e same %$les'stem, #ard l$n1s to
d$rector$es or spec$al %$les are $mposs$"le.
ln 6s source destination
Create a s'm"ol$c &so%t) l$n1 called -dest$nat$on- to t#e %$le called -so!rce-. T#e s'm"ol$c l$n1 J!st spec$%$es
a pat# #ere to loo1 %or t#e -real- %$le. In contrad$st$nct$on to #ard l$n1s, t#e so!rce and dest$nat$on don8t
not #a(e to "e on t#e same %$les'stem. In compar$son to #ard l$n1s, t#e dra"ac1 o% s'm"ol$c l$n1s are: $%
t#e or$,$nal %$le $s remo(ed, t#e l$n1 $s -"ro1en---$t po$nts to no#ereT s'm"ol$c l$n1s can also create
c$rc!lar re%erences &l$1e c$rc!lar re%erences $n spreads#eets or data"ases, e.,., -a- po$nts to -"- and -"-
po$nts "ac1 to -a-). In s#ort, s'm"ol$c l$n1s are a ,reat tool and are (er' o%ten !sed, "!t t#e' can create
an extra le(el o% complex$t'.
r& files
?emo(e &delete) %$les. +o! m!st on t#e %$le $n order to "e a"le to remo(e $t &or "e -root-). 5n man'
s'stems, 'o! $ll "e as1ed or con%$rmat$on o% delet$on, $% 'o! don8t ant t#$s, !se t#e --%- &R%orce) opt$on,
e.,., rm -% S $ll remo(e all %$les $n m' c!rrent or1$n, d$rector', no 3!est$ons as1ed.
&8$ir directory
9a1e a ne d$rector'.
r&$ir directory
?emo(e an empt' d$rector'.
r& 6r files
&rec!rs$(e remo(e) ?emo(e %$les, d$rector$es, and t#e$r s!"d$rector$es. Care%!l $t# t#$s command as
root--'o! can eas$l' remo(e all %$les on t#e s'stem $t# s!c# a command exec!ted on t#e top o% 'o!r
d$rector' tree, and t#ere $s no !ndelete $n L$n!x &'et). M!t $% 'o! reall' anted to do $t &recons$der), #ere $s
#o &as root):
rm -r% 2S
r& 6rf files
&rec!rs$(e %orce remo(e). As a"o(e, "!t s1$p t#e prompt %or con%$rmat$on, $% one $s set on 'o!r s'stem.
Care%!l $t# t#$s command part$c!larl' as root--see t#e command a"o(e.
&#
La!nc# t#e -9$dn$,#t Commander- %$le mana,er &loo1s l$1e -Norton Commander- %or L$n!x).

Cie0in3 !n$ e$itin3 files
#!t filename > &ore
V$e t#e content o% a text %$le called -%$lename-, one pa,e a t$me. T#e -O- $s t#e -p$pe- s'm"ol &on man'
Amer$can 1e'"oards $t s#ares t#e 1e' $t# -6-). more ma1es t#e o!tp!t stop a%ter eac# screen%!l. For lon,
%$les, $t $s somet$mes con(en$ent to !se t#e commands #ead and ta$l t#at d$spla' J!st t#e "e,$nn$n, and t#e
end o% t#e %$le. I% 'o! #appened to !se cat a "$nar' %$le and 'o!r term$nal d$spla's %!nn' c#aracters
a%terards, 'o! can restore $t $t# t#e command reset.
#!t filename > less
less filename
&to commands, !se e$t#er) Scroll t#ro!,# a content o% a text %$le. Press 3 #en done. -less- $s ro!,#l'
e3!$(alent to -more- , t#e command 'o! 1no %rom 45S, "!t o%ten -less- $s more con(en$ent t#an -more-.
he!$ filename
Pr$nt %$rst <E l$nes o% t#e &lon,) text %$le.
t!il filename
Pr$nt last <E l$nes o% a lon, or ,ro$n, text %$le. Use ta$l -% %$lename %or ta$l to %ollo t#e %$le as $t ,ros--reall'
#and' %or cont$n!$n, $nspect$on o% lo, %$les.
1i#o filename
Ed$t a text %$le !s$n, t#e s$mple and standard text ed$tor called p$co. Use ACtrlBx to ex$t. T#ere are man'
text ed$tors %or L$n!x, $ncl!d$n, se(eral ;UI-"ased.
1i#o 60 filename
Ed$t a text %$le, #$le d$sa"l$n, t#e lon, l$ne rap. >and' %or ed$t$n, con%$,!rat$on %$les, e.,. 2etc2%sta".
80rite
&$n X term$nal) Ver' n$ce, -ad(anced text ed$tor-. S!pports (er$t$cal text select$on@
8e$it
3e$it
&$n X term$nal). S$mple 'et n$ce text ed$tors &;UI "ased).
3xe$it
&$n X term$nal) Anot#er m!lt$-p!rpose, %eat!re pac1ed text ed$tor. T#$s one e(en #as t$med "ac1!p.
is1ell filen!&e
Spell c#ec1 an ASCII text %$le. A"$Cord, CordPer%ect, Star5%%$ce and ot#er ord processors come $t#
-as-'o!-t'pe- spellc#ec1$n,, so 'o! reall' don8t #a(e to orr' a"o!t t#e s$mple $spell !nless 'o! need $t.
Neer L$n!x d$str$"!t$ons &e.,., ?>G.E) conta$n an $mpro(ed spellc#ec1$n, mod!le called aspell, 'et t#e
a"o(e command $ll st$ll or1s.
tou#h filename
C#an,e t#e date2t$me stamp o% t#e %$le filename to t#e c!rrent t$me. Create an empt' %$le $% t#e %$le does not
ex$st.
*in$in3 filesfin$ ? 6n!&e DfilenameD
F$nd t#e %$le called -%$lename- on 'o!r %$les'stem start$n, t#e searc# %rom t#e root d$rector' -2-. T#e
-%$lename- ma' conta$n $ldcards &S,I).
lo#!te filename
F$nd t#e %$le name o% #$c# conta$ns t#e str$n, -%$lename-. Eas$er and %aster t#an t#e pre($o!s command
"!t depends on a data"ase t#at normall' re"!$lds at n$,#t.
0hi#h executable_name
S#o me t#e %!ll pat# to t#e exec!ta"le t#at o!ld r!n $% I J!st t'ped $ts name on t#e command l$ne. For
example, t#$s commmand:
#$c# netscape
on m' s'stem prod!ces:
2!sr2"$n2netscape
r3re1 6r E#elesteE . >&ore
Scan all %$les $n t#e c!rrent d$rector' and all $ts s!"d$rectr$es t#at conta$n t#e str$n, -celeste-. Pr$nt t#e
%$lename and t#e l$ne t#at conta$ns t#e searc#ed str$n,.
7!si#s of X60in$o0s
xinit
Start a "are"one X-$ndos ser(er &$t#o!t a $ndos mana,er).
st!rtx
Start an X-$ndos ser(er and t#e de%a!lt $ndos mana,er. Cor1s l$1e t'p$n, -$n- !nder 45S $t#
C$n:.<
st!rtx 66 :1
Start anot#er X-$ndos sess$on on t#e d$spla' < &t#e de%a!lt $s opened on d$spla' E). +o! can #a(e
se(eral ;UI term$nals r!nn$n, conc!rrentl'. S$tc# "eteen t#em !s$n, ACtrlBAAltBAFGB,
ACtrlBAAltBAF=B, etc.
xter&
&$n X term$nal) ?!n a s$mple X-$ndos term$nal. T'p$n, ex$t $ll close $t. T#ere are ot#er, more ad(anced
-($rt!al- term$nals %or X-$ndos. I l$1e t#e pop!lar ones: 1onsole and 1(t &"ot# come $t# 1de) and ,nome-
term$nal &comes $t# ,nome). I% 'o! need somet#$n, reall' %anc'-loo1$n,, tr' Eterm.
Net0or8 !11s
nets#!1e
&$n X term$nal) ?!n netscape &re3!$res a separate Netscape $nstallat$on). T#e c!rrent (ers$ons o%
Netscape &F.x) are 1non to "e "$, and "!,,'. T#e' occas$onall' cras# "' (an$s#$n, &no ot#er #arm
done). Also, #en not connected to t#e netor1 , Netscape l$1es to re%!se to do an't#$n, &loo1s l$1e $t
#an,ed)-$t re($(es #en 'o! connect.
nets#!1e 6$is1l!% host:0.0
&$n X term$nal) ?!n netscape on t#e c!rrent mac#$ne and d$rect t#e o!tp!t to mac#$ne named -#ost-
d$spla' E screen E. +o!r c!rrent mac#$ne m!st #a(e a perm$ss$on to d$spla' on t#e mac#$ne -#ost-
&t'p$call' ,$(en "' exec!t$n, t#e command x#ost current_machine_name $n t#e xterm$nal o% t#e mac#$ne #ost.
5t#er X-$ndos pro,ram can "e r!n remotel' t#e same a'.
l%nx file.html
V$e an #tml %$le or "rose t#e net %rom t#e text mode. Alt#o!,# l'nx8s loo1 or con(en$ence o% !se $s not
as ,reat as ;UI-"ased "roser, $t $s l$,#t-e$,#t, almost ala's or1s, and does not re3!$re an'
con%$,!rat$on, as lon, as 'o!r netor1s $s %!nct$onal.
1ine
A ,ood text-mode ma$l reader. Anot#er ,ood and standard one $s elm. +o!r Netscape ma$l $ll read t#e
ma$l %rom 'o!r Internet acco!nt. p$ne $ll let 'o! read t#e -local- ma$l, e.,. t#e ma$l 'o!r son or a cron
process sends to 'o! %rom a comp!ter on 'o!r #ome netor1. T#e command ma$l co!ld also "e !sed %or
read$n,2compos$n, ma$l, "!t $t o!ld "e $ncon(en$ent--$t $s meant to "e !sed $n scr$pts %or a!tomat$on.
el&
A ,ood tex-mode ma$l reader. See t#e pre($o!s command.
&utt
A reall' "as$c "!t extremall' !se%!l and %ast ma$l reader.
&!il
A "as$c operat$n, s'stem tool %or e-ma$l. Loo1 at t#e pre($o!s commands %or a "etter e-ma$l reader. ma$l $s
,ood $% 'o! anted to send an e-ma$l %rom a s#ell scr$pt.
8&!il
&$n X-term$nal) N$ce, ;UI ma$l pro,ram.
li#9
&$n X term) An $c3 -$nstant messa,$n,- cl$ent. Anot#er ,ood one $s 1x$c3. 5lder d$str$"!t$ons don8t #a(e an
$c3 cl$ent $nstalled, 'o! #a(e to do donload one and $nstall $t.
t!l8 username1
Tal1 to anot#er !ser c!rrentl' lo,,ed on 'o!r mac#$ne &or !se -tal1 username1Umachinename- to tal1 to a !ser
on a d$%%erent comp!ter) . To accept t#e $n($tat$on to t#e con(ersat$on, t'pe t#e command -tal1 username2-. I%
some"od' $s tr'$n, to tal1 to 'o! and $t d$sr!pts 'o!r or1, 'o!r ma' !se t#e command -mes, n- to re%!se
accept$n, messa,es. +o! ma' ant to !se -#o- or -r#o- to determ$ne t#e !sers #o are c!rrentl'
lo,,ed-$n.
telnet server
Connect to anot#er mac#$ne !s$n, t#e TELNET protocol. Use a remote mac#$ne name or IP address. +o!
$ll "e prompted %or 'o!r lo,$n name and passord--'o! m!st #a(e an acco!nt on t#e remote mac#$ne to
lo,$n. Telnet $ll connect 'o! to anot#er mac#$ne and let 'o! operate on $t as $% 'o! ere s$tt$n, at $ts
1e'"oard &almost). Telnet $s not (er' sec!re--e(er't#$n, 'o! t'pe ,oes $n open text, e(en 'o!r passord@
rlo3in server
&Rremote lo,$n) Connect to anot#er mac#$ne. T#e lo,$n name2passord %rom 'o!r c!rrent sess$on $s
!sedT $% $t %a$ls 'o! are prompted %or a passord.
rsh server
&Rremote s#ell) +et anot#er a' to connect to a remote mac#$ne. T#e lo,$n name2passord %rom 'o!r
c!rrent sess$on $s !sedT $% $t %a$ls 'o! are prompted %or a passord.
ft1 server
Ftp anot#er mac#$ne. &T#ere $s also nc%tp #$c# adds extra %eat!res and ,%tp %or ;UI .) Ftp $s ,ood %or
cop'$n, %$les to2%rom a remote mac#$ne. Tr' !ser -anon'mo!s- $% 'o! don8t #a(e an acco!nt on t#e remote
ser(er. A%ter connect$on, !se -I- to see t#e l$st o% a(a$la"le %tp commands. T#e essent$al %tp command
are: ls &see t#e %$les on t#e remote s'stem), ASCII, "$nar' &set t#e %$le trans%er mode to e$t#er text or "$nar',
$mportant t#at 'o! select t#e proper one ), ,et &cop' a %$le %rom t#e remote s'stem to t#e local s'stem),
m,et &,et man' %$les at once), p!t &cop' a %$le %rom t#e local s'stem to t#e remote s'stem), mp!t &p!t man'
%$les at once), "'e &d$sconnect). For a!tomat$on $n a scr$pt, 'o! ma' ant to !se nc%tpp!t and nc%tp,et, %or
example:
nc%tpp!t -! m'*!ser*name -p m'*passord -a remote.#ost.doma$n remote*d$r Slocal.#tml
&ini#o&
9$n$com pro,ram &loo1s l$1e -Procomm %or L$n!x-).
rx
?ece$(e %$les !s$n, t#e Vmodem, +modem, or Xmodem protocol. Xmodem re3!$res a %$lename.
Use rx --#elp %or more $n%o.
*ile +$e-#o&1ression
t!r 6:x@f filename.tar.gz
&Rtape arc#$(er) Untar a tarred and compressed tar"all &S.tar.,D or S.t,D) t#at 'o! donloaded %rom t#e
Internet.
t!r 6x@f filename.tar
Untar a tarred "!t !ncompressed tar"all &S.tar).
t!r #:@1f ?@!r?/!#8u1s?&%/!#8u1.t!r.3: ?ho&e
#$ ?F t!r x:@1f ?@!r?/!#8u1s?&%/!#8u1.t!r.3: EG?&%file.rtfE
&as root) Create a "ac1!p o% 2#ome to a compressed %$le. T#e second command s#os #o to restore a
%$le %rom t#e "ac1!p.
3un:i1 filename.gz
4ecompress a D$pped %$le &S.,D- or S.D). Use ,D$p &also D$p or compress) $% 'o! anted to compress %$les to
t#$s %$le %ormat.
:#!t filen!&e.3: > &ore
&RD$p cat) 4$spla' t#e contents o% a compress %$le.
/un:i12 filename.bz2
&R"$, !nD$p) 4ecompress a %$le &S."D.) D$pped $t# "D$p. compress$on !t$l$t'. Used %or "$, %$les.
un:i1 filename.zip
4ecompress a %$le &S.D$p) D$pped $t# a compress$on !t$l$t' compat$"le $t# PHVIP %or 45S.
un!rH e filename.arj
Extract t#e content o% an S.arJ arc#$(e.
uu$e#o$e 6o outputfile filename
4ecode a %$le encoded $t# !!encode. !!-encoded %$les are t'p$call' !sed %or trans%er o% non-text %$les $n e-
ma$l &!!encode trans%orms an' %$le $nto an ASCII %$le).
2ro#ess #ontrol
1s
&R-pr$nt stat!s- or -process stat!s-) 4$spla' t#e l$st o% c!rrentl' r!nn$n, processes $t# t#e$r process I4s
&PI4) n!m"ers. Use ps ax! to see all processes c!rrentl' r!nn$n, on 'o!r s'stem &also t#ose o% ot#er
!sers or $t#o!t a controll$n, term$nal), eac# $t# t#e name o% t#e oner. Use -top- to 1eep l$st$n, t#e
processes c!rrentl' r!nn$n,.
any_command I
?!n an' command $n t#e "ac1,ro!nd &t#e s'm"ol -W- means -r!n t#e proceed$n, command $n t#e
"ac1,ro!nd-). T#e job_number $s pr$nted on t#e screen so 'o! can "r$n, t#e command $n t#e %ore,ro!nd
&see "elo) $% 'o! ant.
Ho/s
L$st m' "ac1,ro!nd or stopped processes and s#o t#e$r Jo" n!m"ers.
f3 job_number
Mr$n, a "ac1,ro!nd or stopped process to t#e %ore,ro!nd.
/3 job_number
Place a process $n t#e "ac1,ro!nd, so $t $s exactel' as $% $t #ad "een started $t# W. T#$s $ll restart a
stopped "ac1,ro!nd process. C!rrent %ore,ro!nd process can o%ten "e stopped $t# ACtrlBD. I% 'o! #a(e
stopped or "ac1,ro!nd Jo"s, 'o! #a(e to t'pe ex$t t$ce $n ro to lo, o!t.
/!t#h any_command
?!n an' command &!s!all' one t#at $s ,o$n, to ta1e more t$me) #en t#e s'stem load $s lo. I can lo,o!t,
and t#e process $ll 1eep r!nn$n,.
!t 17:00
Exec!te a command at a spec$%$ed t$me. +o! $ll "e prompted %or t#e command&s) to r!n, !nt$l 'o! press
ACtrlBd. T#e assoc$ated commands are at3 &d$spla' t#e 3!e!e o% processes started $t# at) and atrm
&remo(e a process %rom t#e -at 3!e!e-).
8ill PID
Force a process s#!tdon. F$rst determ$ne t#e PI4 o% t#e process to 1$ll !s$n, 1s.
8ill!ll program_name
H$ll pro,ram&s) "' name.
x8ill
&$n X term$nal) H$ll a ;UI-"ased pro,ram $t# mo!se. &Po$nt $t# 'o!r mo!se c!rsor at t#e $ndo o% t#e
process 'o! ant to 1$ll and cl$c1.)
81&
&$n X term$nal) H4E process mana,er.
l1#
&as root) C#ec1 and control t#e pr$nter&s). T'pe -I- to see t#e l$st o% a(a$la"le commands.
l19
S#o t#e content o% t#e pr$nter 3!e!e. Under H4E &X-C$ndos), 'o! ma' !se ;UI-"ased -Pr$nter
X!e!e- a(a$la"le %rom -H-men!-Ut$l$t$es.
l1r& job_number
?emo(e a pr$nt$n, Jo" -Jo"*n!m"er- %rom t#e 3!e!e.
ni#e program_name
?!n program_name adJ!st$n, $ts pr$or$t'. S$nce t#e pr$or$t' $s not spec$%$ed $n t#$s example, $t $ll "e
$ncreased "' <E &t#e process $ll r!n sloer), %rom t#e de%a!lt (al!e &!s!all' E). T#e loer t#e n!m"er &o%
-n$ceness- to ot#er !sers on t#e s'stem), t#e #$,#er t#e pr$or$t'. T#e pr$or$t' (al!e ma' "e $n t#e ran,e -.E
to <P. 5nl' root ma' spec$%' ne,at$(e (al!es. Use top to d$spla' t#e pr$or$t$es o% t#e r!nn$n, processes.
reni#e 618 PID
&as root) C#an,e t#e pr$or$t' o% a r!nn$n, process to m$n!s <=. Normal !sers can onl' adJ!st processes
t#e' on, and onl' !p %rom t#e c!rrent (al!e &ma1e t#em r!n sloer). 5ne co!ld also ren$ce Q<E -! peter to
ma1e !ser peter !se %eer cp! cl$c1s so t#at ot#er !ser don8t s!%%er #en #e r!ns #$s comp!t$n,-$ntens$(e
tas1s.