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Reduce vortex drag X
Reduce wave drag X X
Reduce friction drag X X
Reduce pressure drag X
Reduce critical loads X X X X
Increase structural eciency X X X X
Reduce airframe source noise X X
Reduce engine noise X X X X
Reduce separation distances X X
Reduce complexity X
main conclusions and works presented in these series of confer-
ences. However, the paper tries not to be limited to KATnet and,
in taking advantage of this forum, it will give a general overview
of the recent developments in these technologies. In any case, this
paper does not aim to describe separately each of these technolo-
gies in detail. Outstanding reviews can already be found in the
literature [24,38,91,98] and, although it is always possible to up-
date those works (some of them are more than 10 years old), a
detailed and throughout description of all those technologies illus-
trated in KATnet is beyond the objectives and the extension of this
work. Also, the authors wish to point out that this review is bi-
ased unavoidably in favor of KATnet activities. As such, we may
have omitted unintentionally important studies pertaining to ow
control technologies. It is important, also, to highlight the diculty
associated with this task. Most of these works were presented only
in series of KATnet conferences and internal reports, and we found
no further publications in journals or international conferences.
Whenever possible, we included the reference to a journal paper
or conference proceedings but, many times, the work which is ex-
posed here, is unpublished.
2. Aircraft conguration technologies
This general topic comprises of two main different strategies.
On the one hand, there are small modications in the geometry
which produce substantial improvements in drag reduction (fric-
tion and wave) and reduce detached areas. Small ow control de-
vices as synthetic jets or vortex generators belong to this category.
These technologies will be described with detail in Section 4. On
the other hand, there are large geometrical modications over clas-
sical aircraft conguration or other innovative congurations which
are aimed at improving aircraft performances substantially by re-
ducing drag and/or weight. This section is dedicated mainly to this
point.
Different lines of action can be addressed.
2.1. Blended wing body (BWB) and boundary layer ingestion (BLI)
In 1994, NASA sponsored one of the rst attempts to study
the feasibility of BWB congurations (Fig. 2). Liebecks prelimi-
nary results [63,64], showed potential savings in: fuel burn (27%);
takeoff weight (15%); operating empty weight (12%); total thrust
(27%); and a higher lift/drag (20%). The study was performed in
a 800 passenger BWB for a 7000 miles design range compared to
a conventional aircraft. Despite these promising results, an impor-
tant number of drawbacks had to be solved in order to make this
aircraft technically viable. A new eld of study, related to fuselage-
wing integration, is identied: structural integration; aerodynamic
stability; the elimination of the conventional empennage; and the
presence of a non-circular fuselage etc.
Additionally, the engines in the considered conguration are
mounted near the trailing edge on the upper surface of the wing.
Initially, aircraft designers used pylon-mounted nacelles to avoid
problems of surface integration and inlet ow distortion resulting
from ingesting the incoming boundary layer. However, recent stud-
ies indicate that boundary layer ingestion (BLI) offers additional
benets including reduced ram drag, lower structural weight and
less wetted area than a pylon mounted conguration. Because of
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132 103
Fig. 2. Blended wind body conguration from [64].
that boundary layer ingestion, nacelles started to attract the scien-
tic communitys attention [91].
Boundary layer ingestion means taking the fuselage boundary
layer ow through the engines for the purpose of improving fuel
eciency. The idea comes from re-energizing the aircraft wake
which enables less kinetic energy to be wasted. Comparing the sit-
uation with a typical podded engine, it can be proved that, for a
given thrust force, less power needs to be added to a ow entering
the engine with a lower velocity. Consequently, due to bound-
ary layer ingestion, the lower inlet velocity means that the same
propulsive force can be achieved with less power. However, the
gain is not without drawbacks, the incoming ow to the engines is
highly non-uniform and produces loss of performance, additional
stress and fatigue to the blades. Moreover, the aerodynamic block-
age, associated with the fuselage boundary layer, is much larger
than that due to the duct boundary layer. Therefore, it has a major
role in the achievable ow rate and the increase in fan pressure for
a given thrust. The non-uniformity affects, also, the nozzle exit mo-
mentum ux, and the degree to which this occurs in much larger
than typically associated with civil engines. This effect can be alle-
viated by careful design of the input S-duct to the compressor and
the use of active or passive ow devices which energize the input
boundary layer in order to avoid detached ow and ow distortion
problems.
In order to reduce the ow pressure distortion at the fan en-
trance, the detailed design of the input duct, has been studied by
[77], who considered variations of the inlet duct offset; curvature
of the two bends; area ratio and scalloping of the pre-compression
region ahead of the intake. It was found that duct offset was the
most important parameter governing the strength of the secondary
ow and impacted on intake recovery. In these studies, authors
demonstrated, also, that strong pressure distortion could eliminate
the power saving related to the BLI effect.
The lack of numerical and experimental data available to com-
pare and validate new methods and tools is an important obstacle
in the development of the BWB. In this line, Carter et al. [19,20]
conducted a series of numerical and experimental test cases on
Fig. 3. Example of total drag breakdown (2002 standard).
the Boeings BWB-450-1L model. These focused on the determi-
nation of the effectiveness of the trailing edge devices (elevons,
drag rudder and winglet rudders), tested at various angles of
attack; sideslip angles; and Mach numbers. The computational
work focused on particular cruise condition of Mach = 0.85 and
Re = 75 millions. Besides, in the range of Mach = 0.2 to 0.88 and
Re =2.4 to 75 millions, four different congurations (no nacelles;
pylon-mounted nacelles; BLI nacelles; and redesigned BLI nacelles
[19]) were studied.
2.2. High aspect ratio
In large transport aircrafts, during cruise ight in a still air con-
guration, drag is mainly due to friction drag (about 47%) and
induced drag (about 43% see Fig. 3).
Several strategies to reduce the friction drag of conventional air-
craft are under examinations and will be reviewed hereafter.
The induced drag which is the other big source of drag de-
pends on the span and the lift distribution along the wing span. In
104 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132
Fig. 4. Spiroid loop (left) and downward pointing (right) wing tip devices from [42].
Fig. 5. Design box (hatched zone) from [42].
conventional large transport aircraft, the lift distribution is so op-
timized that no signicant reduction seems possible in the future
within the current design approaches. An alternative approach, for
a given lift, is obtained through adopting a high aspect ratio wing
or a wing tip device. Extensive literature can be found on this topic
covering the theoretical background underlying the induced drag
prediction and methods to reduce it [57]; the link between the
wingtip shapes and the induced drag [16]; and studies of different
wingtip devices [1,27,55,97].
ONERA, Airbus and Technische Universitat at Braunschweig [42]
carried out an interesting study within the M-DAW Project (Mod-
eling and Design of Advanced Wing Tip Devices). Two different
and innovative congurations were analyzed and optimized: the
spiroid loop; and the downward pointing wingtip devices (Fig. 4).
Both concepts can have better structural characteristics related to
the wing root bending moment. For reference, we considered the
wing of a generic long haul aircraft. We compared the new solu-
tions and the new designs with a standard blended winglet. The
modications were limited to 4% of the wingtip and the height of
the ground vehicles limited the downward device extension (see
Fig. 5). The wing was designed for cruising at Mach =0.85.
Previous studies of the spiroid winglet [39] showed drag gains,
for a slightly lower root bending moment, of the same order of
standard wingtip devices. However, it suffers high-transonic inter-
actions in the loop. A specic optimization to alleviate this ef-
fect was carried out. The optimization was based on 45 design
variables (sweep; maximum thickness; twist; and camber). Some
shape design variables were prescribed (spiroid size; minimum
chord length; minimum aerofoil relative thickness (5%); and thick-
ness law with the same span extension and wetted area of the
equivalent blended winglet). Although slightly more eciency at
high CL in keeping the same root bending moment, the compar-
ison showed a discouraging drag reduction of about 86% of the
blended winglet drag reduction. On the contrary, a detailed study
of the downward pointing winglet, which considered high and low
speed, root bending moment and lateral stability, showed some
benets without incurring any major redesign of the wing box. We
obtained promising gains of about 13% in range over a long-ight
scenario and an improvement of 46% in low speed L/D.
Another line of research was related to the box-like wing con-
cept, which, theoretically, produced the minimum induced drag for
a given lift (Prandtl [79]). The following conditions are satised:
same lift distribution and same total lift on each of the horizon-
Fig. 6. Span eciency for various optimally loaded non-planar systems from [58].
tal wings; and buttery shaped lift distribution on the vertical tip
wings. Following these ideas, Kroo [58] showed a numerical com-
parison between the eciency of different non-planar congura-
tion (induced drag of planar wing/induced drag of the non-planar
system of the same span and lift Fig. 6) for several non-planar
geometries. Each of the geometries permitted a vertical extent of
20% of the wing span. Such designs may be of interest because of
their potential for lower vortex drag at a xed span which is a key
constraint for many aircraft including very large commercial trans-
port concepts.
This unconventional non-planar conguration provides the
technology breakthrough necessary to obtain substantial gains in
drag vortex reduction. Between these solutions, the wingtip device,
already implemented in commercial aircraft, and the joined wings
are probably the ideal Prandtl wing solution.
The practical application of a box-wing can be seen in the
Joined-Wing concept (Fig. 7). First proposed by J. Wolkovitch [107],
this kind of conguration increases substantially the high aspect
ratio with a theoretical induced drag reduction of up to 40% [35,
96]. However, several non-aerodynamics issues must be studied in-
cluding the effects on stability and control, characteristics of wake
vortices or structural implications. Frediani et al. [35] carried out
a practical implementation of this concept on a modied A380.
The project focused on stability and structural issues. After an op-
timization procedure, they found that the rear wing could not be
connected to the rear fuselage but had to be positioned over the
fuselage itself and connected to it by means of two ns (Fig. 8).
This conguration proved to be stable in cruise ight; and, the
lift was distributed equally on the front and rear wings giving the
maximum L/D improvement. From the structural point of view, the
fuselage is equivalent to a doubly supported beam; the supports
being the front and the rear wing and, then, bending stresses in
the fuselage are close to zero in the front and rear wing roots.
The eigenmodes of the aircraft are completely different from a
conventional one; in particular, the lateral bending modes of a con-
ventional fuselage are not longer present. The damping moment
and the moment of inertia along the pitch axis are higher than
its equivalent conventional aircraft; hence, the ight qualities are
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132 105
Fig. 7. Example of non-planar wing conguration, Lockheed box-wing.
Fig. 8. Initial aircraft with joined wing studied by [35].
considered to be very satisfactory; but this rises problems in the
properly design of the pitch control system [34].
In the same line, it is worth mentioning the strut-braced wing
(Fig. 9) which uses a strut for the wing bending load alleviation.
This allows the aspect ratio to be increased and the wing thick-
ness to be reduced. A thinner wing has less transonic wave drag;
therefore, it is possible to unsweep the wing allowing larger ex-
tensions of natural laminar and further structural weight savings.
The optimization of these conguration is concerned usually with
structures, weights, and stability and control [12,41].
2.3. Engine concept
Increasing the by-pass ratio of turbofans is a successful formula
applied currently to increase the propulsive eciency. Geared tur-
bofan (GTF) and distributed propulsion are considered to be the
technology concepts for an increased engine by-pass ratio. How-
ever, the growth of the bypass ratio is accompanied by larger and
heavier nacelles. At a certain point, the associated nacelle weight
increase and drag penalty outweighs the growth in propulsive ef-
ciency. The Contra-Rotating Open-Rotor (CROR) offers a break-
through solution. Operating without the drag and weight penalty
of a large nacelle, the by-pass ratio is no longer a limiting factor.
However, intrinsically, the open-rotor is noisier than a turbofan at
an equivalent thrust setting. To the authors knowledge, very few
studies of open-rotor congurations can be found in the litera-
ture. To give an example, at the 2010 International Congress of
the Aeronautical Science meeting (ICAS), there was presented only
one work on this subject [60]. We could nd, also, no references to
open-rotor at the 46th AIAA Joint Propulsion Conference. This does
not mean that the scientic community is not increasing their ef-
forts in understanding this technology. However, the main efforts
are found in an industrial framework. Clearly, different European
Projects are concerned with the investigation and application of
this technology, e.g. DREAM, NACRE and, more recently, CleanSky.
These are focused on studying tail-mounted CROR conguration on
civil aircrafts (see Fig. 10).
The European Project NACRE (New Aircraft Concepts Research)
carried out a comparative study between an Open-Rotor and a con-
ventional turbofan. The turbofan was represented by the CFM56-5
series with 1995 technology. It had a 1.8 m fan diameter; by-
pass ratio of 6.6; and a maximum trust of 1915 daN These gave
a typical fuel eciency at cruise condition of 0.57 kg/hr/daN. The
equivalent open rotor had a 3.72 m diameter and maximum trust
of 1777 daN, giving a typical fuel eciency of 0.46 kg/hr/daN,
with a 20% of theoretical reduction. The results for a dened civil
aircraft mission at 33000 ft altitude with 180 pax of payload and
Fig. 9. Strut-braced wing with tip-mounted engines from [41].
106 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132
Fig. 10. Open rotor conguration studied in NACRE.
Fig. 11. Comparative study between open-rotor and turbofan technologies.
a range of 3000 NM are shown in Fig. 11. These studies obtained a
promising 23% reduction in mission fuel burn and 8% reduction in
MTOW.
Compared with its equivalent turbofan, one of the main draw-
backs of CROR relates to vibration and acoustic problems, in which
the nacelle acts as an ecient noise shield. Due to the airframe
surfaces, the acoustic propagation can be alleviated by adopting
shielding and/or reection. An example is NACRE [60]s study of
the U-tail conguration (Fig. 12) In any case, signicant develop-
ments are required to integrate this engine into an aircraft.
Another important issue is the necessity to develop specic
design tools. A Contra-Rotating Open-Rotor shares some basic fea-
tures with the classic propeller, for which various numerical tech-
niques exist. However, it is the vortex and viscous wake interaction
between the pylon and the rotors and between the front-rotor and
the aft-rotor which make the picture more complex. To understand
the underlying physical phenomena specic to a Contra-Rotating
Open-Rotor, it is required to solve accurately the tip vortices and
viscous wakes which emanate from upstream stage and interact
with the second.
2.4. Forward swept wings (FSW)
The concept of FSW is not entirely new. In the investigation of
the different methods of delaying the onset of the increase of drag
Fig. 12. Open rotor conguration studied in NACRE. Acoustic interaction between
the CROR and an U-tail conguration.
for ight in the vicinity of the speed of sound, it was found that
sweeping the wings provided the most effective technique of in-
creasing the drag divergence Mach number. Aerodynamically, the
same effect can be obtained regardless of the direction of sweep.
However, current aircraft designs favor the use of aft sweeping
in order to avoid the phenomenon of structural divergence, in-
herent in FSW operating at a high dynamic pressure condition,
which cannot be solved through metallic structures without a wing
weight penalty. Today, technology advances in composite materials
are providing a promise of eliminating this problem with little or
no wing weight penalty.
Some of the benets of FSW include spin resistance; extended
high angle of attack and lateral control; and lower transonic ma-
neuvering drag. Generally, The FSW separation pattern starts from
the root and propagates gradually outboard. This allows attached
ow to be maintained over the outboard wing, and retains aileron
effectiveness at high angles of attack where, in lateral control, con-
ventional (backward) wings may exhibit degradation in lateral con-
trol. Other additional benets of FSW are theoretical lower prole
drag due to lift and induced drag (for the same lift) [105]. Be-
tween the disadvantages, larger trailing edge sweep can strengthen
separation problems at inner wing, (worse with turbulent ow),
leading to pitch up, which can be avoided by using vortex gener-
ators, wing fence, vortilons (under-wing fences) or slotted airfoil.
There is a tendency for static divergence, provoking an unfavor-
able gust behavior which can be alleviated by aero-elastic tailoring
and unfavorable root mid size effect for laminar pressure distribu-
tion.
More recently, one of the main motivations for using FSW re-
sides in the fact that transition on swept wings is strongly affected
by leading edge sweep angle. Turbulence transition at lower lead-
ing edge angles can be dominated by TollmienSchlichting (TS)
waves, whereas higher sweep angles by cross ow instabilities
(CF). Different studies have investigated the regimes and effect of
sweep on wing turbulent transition. One the main conclusion is
that transonic FSW, because of its lower leading edge sweep an-
gle for the same 50% chord line angle (the typical location of the
shock (Fig. 13)) presents less CF [84], which theoretically can de-
lay transition until 25% of chord at a Mach = 0.8 conguration,
doubling the laminar extension for its equivalent backward swept
wing (Fig. 14).
In this line, an optimization study of forward swept wings
(FSW) was performed as part of the novel conguration work
package in NACRE activities. The design point was dened for a
civil aircraft of 180 pax of payload; 3000 nm of range; and cruise
Mach number 0.76 at 35.000 ft (Reynolds = 23.7 millions). After
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132 107
Fig. 13. Scheme of the main aerodynamic differences between a BSW and a FSW.
a structural and aerodynamic design of the wing (giving a wing
aspect ratio of 9.5 for a leading edge sweep of 17.8), a nal in-
verse design phase focused on optimization of the laminar region.
For a given pressure coecient distribution taken as the target,
the procedure estimated the C
p
distribution by solving the Eu-
ler or NavierStokes equations on the initial geometry. Taking the
difference between the desired and obtained pressure distribution
C
p
, a geometry correction was computed by solving a potential
equation formulated in inverse design (z = f (C
p
)); the pro-
cess was repeated until convergence. Once the nal geometry was
computed, a second loop could be performed in case the stabil-
ity of this wing was not the optima (Fig. 15). The nal design
gave an inboard transition moved down-stream (upper and lower
side) with the upper side dominated by TS and a lower side domi-
nated by CF with an obtained drag reduction of about 14% of total
drag.
3. Drag reduction technologies
Viscous drag reduction, which accounts for some 50% of the
total aircraft drag, shows one of the largest areas of potential
for improved aircraft eciency over the next 1020 years. Two
main lines are currently under development. There are investiga-
tion of laminar ow (Section 3.1); and turbulent drag reduction
(Section 3.2).
3.1. Drag reduction by extended laminar ow
Before adopting any resolutions, it is important to clarify the
different instability mechanics which may produce turbulent tran-
sition in a boundary layer. These are:
TollmienSchlichting (TS) waves are driven by viscous effect
on the surface, they occur in two-dimensional ows and the
mid-chord region of a swept wing.
Attachment-line contamination is provoked by the bound-
ary layer of the fuselage which propagates from the wing
fuselage junction along the attachment-line and contaminates
the boundary layer of the leading edge.
Curvature induced instability appears on shear layers over con-
cave surfaces.
Cross ow (CF) instabilities occur in regions of pressure gra-
dients on swept surfaces. The imbalance between the pres-
sure gradient and stream-wise velocity inside and outside the
boundary layer provokes a secondary boundary layer ow,
called cross ow, which presents a typical infection point in-
stability.
Most of the works addressed the need to control TS and CF in-
stabilities. Although some examples of attachment-line contamina-
tion are shown, also, hereafter, generally, the CF are very sensitive
to free-stream turbulence and to 3D roughness whilst TS are free
of stream sound and 2D roughness. In addition, a negative pressure
gradient is favored in dampening the TS while could destabilize
CF. In any case, in a real wing, the transition is triggered by a
combination of all these effects, although, for some specic con-
gurations, one of them can be the dominant effect.
Fig. 14. Dominan laminar turbulent transition effect for FSW and BSW. Because of its lower leading edge sweep angle FSW conguration presents less CrossFlow instabilities.
108 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132
Fig. 15. Algorithms for inverse design of a laminar wing.
In line with these ow instabilities, we considered different
concepts of Laminar Flow Technologies. These were:
Natural Laminar Flow (NLF) achieved by a favorable pressure
gradient which are valid for transition dominated by TS.
Laminar Flow Control (LFC) achieved by Boundary Layer Suc-
tion. In highly swept wings t which, usually, are required for
ight at high subsonic and supersonic speeds, only suction
can control sweep-induced crossow disturbances which pro-
mote boundary-layer transition. Average suction velocity ratios
of 10
3
10
4
were proven to reduce amplitude growth from
e
26
to e
5
for a at plate boundary layer [87].
Hybrid Laminar Flow Control (HLFC) is a combination of lead-
ing edge suction and pressure gradient/shaping. Generally, suc-
tion is applied near the leading edge of a swept wing in order
to control contamination and cross ow instabilities. Appropri-
ate shaping of the pressure distribution stabilizes mid-chord
TS. Its applicability was demonstrated by a Boeing 757 HLFC
Flight Test in 1990 and on an Airbus A320 n in 1998.
More specic approaches, that discussed here also, are active
control of transition by wave superposition [86] and span-wise
periodic distributed roughness elements (DRE) [86,87].
3.1.1. Laminar ow technologies
Delaying boundary layer transition is a well-known method for
reducing drag. To this end, signicant work has been done on Lam-
inar Flow research with different prototypes ying already. These
are:
The ATTAS (Advanced Technologies Testing Aircraft System)
designed by German Aerospace Center (DLR) [85];
The Fokker F100 aircraft ight tests within the European
project ELFIN-II [90]; and
The Piaggio P180 aircraft or the 757 HLFC ight program [40].
Recently, the need to reduce operating expenses for new com-
mercial aircraft has led to a renewed interest in laminar-ow tech-
nology to reduce drag in cruising. In this context, the HARLS Low
Sweep wing conguration optimized for fuel burn rather than op-
erating costs, and the idea was discovered that, using a low sweep
wing, might unlock the option of laminar ow. Two European FP6
projects explored this concept. NACRE (New Aircraft Concepts Re-
search) has performed multi-disciplinary assessment of turbulent
Fig. 16. TELFONA PATHFINDER Model in ETW wind tunnel test section from [99].
HARLS congurations and studied the application of NLF to For-
ward Swept Wing conguration (already discussed in the previous
section). TELFONA (Testing for Laminar Flow on New Aircraft) de-
veloped the tools to design and test an NFL wing and to be able to
predict the in-ight performance standard of an NLF aircraft.
Different activities, carried out in the TELFONA project, in-
cluded:
The calibration of transition tools for the ETW (European Tran-
sonic Wind Tunnel);
The investigation of the impact of noise and free stream tur-
bulence on transition location in a 2D ow in the TsAGi wind
tunnel;
A receptivity study of traveling CF vortices to free stream tur-
bulence and of stationary CF vortices to the surface roughness;
and
The windtunnel test of a performance NLF wing in the ETW.
These activities were structured around the design, manufac-
turing, testing and analysis of two wing concepts. These were
the pathnder wing, which serves to calibrate transition predic-
tion methods for the ETW, and the performance wing, which has
to demonstrate the capacities of the HARLS NLF conguration by
Reynolds ight number. For the pathnder wing (Fig. 16), the rel-
evant test ow conditions were:
Mach =0.78, 0.02; Re =15 to 23 millions;
T =117 K;
CL =0.1 to 0.5; and
Side slip =0 and 4.
The wing has been designed by CIRA, DLR and ONERA using
a 3D inverse optimization algorithm with linear stability analy-
sis. The Euler equations of gas-dynamics; the laminar boundary-
layer equations for compressible ows on innite swept wings;
and the linear Parabolized Stability Equations (PSE) were solved
in order to analyze the evolution of convectively unstable distur-
bances. Laminar-turbulent transition was assumed to be delayed
by minimizing a measure of the disturbance kinetic energy of a
chosen disturbance which was computed using the PSE. The shape
gradients of the disturbance kinetic energy were computed based
on the solutions of the adjoints of the state equations [5]. The de-
sign point was chosen at Mach =0.734; Reynolds number Re =6.5
millions; and angle of attack =2.1875
) ranging
from 205 to 443. Experimental evidences showed that leading edge
contamination occurred as soon as a critical value around 250 [78]
was exceeded.
They investigated two types of standard ACD shapes, namely,
two rectangular shapes with different heights (1 mm and 5 mm)
and one triangular shape (5 mm height) (Fig. 19). The main con-
clusion was that the rectangular ACD at a height of 1 mm was
incapable of stopping the contaminated ow, i.e., the high viscous
layer crossed over the ACD. The rectangular shape at a height of
5 mm was the most effective one; whilst, possibly due to its spiky
edge, the 5 mm-triangular shape was ineffective.
The nal design was a combination of the rectangular and tri-
angular shape (trapezoidal shape) with sucient height (Fig. 20).
The rectangular shape with a height of 5 mm was placed on the
front side to stop the contaminated ow and the sloped triangular
side faced towards the back in order to initiate a smoother geo-
metrical transition. This design was manufactured and tested and
showed that it stopped the contamination effectively and delayed
the critical R
of sweep was
measured at free-stream velocity of around 80 m/s. The experi-
ments (Fig. 21) showed that, for very low free stream turbulence
level (0.064%), the transition could be delayed as far as 62% of the
chord. On the contrary, acoustic perturbation in the range of 2.0
2.8 Hz and a noise level of 91108 dB reduced the laminar region
to 55%. More dramatic was the effect of the free stream turbulence,
which for a 1% level limit, reduced the laminar region to only 10%
of the chord. Although, in this case, the acoustic receptivity of the
boundary layer was very low, when 3D effects were considered,
the cross ow instability mechanism dominated.
3.1.2. Laminar ow on nacelles
Recently, the NLF concept focused on nacelle applications. There
were a number of investigations carried out in the past on the
110 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132
Fig. 19. Anti-contamination devices studied in SUPERTRAC. Lower, mesh details. Upper, ow details from [56].
Fig. 20. Anti-contamination device designed in SUPERTRAC from [56].
aerodynamic interactions of the nacelle, pylon and wing. These can
be broken down into four areas [83]: interference effects of the
nacelle, pylon and wing; the effect of different nacelle position;
the effect of high by-pass ratio (BPR); ultra-high BPR nacelles; and
the ability of CFD to predict the interference effects. Today, the
larger By-pass Ratio (BPR) engines are receiving renewed atten-
tion. Larger BPR engines have better fuel eciency but larger na-
celle diameters. Typically, current nacelles designs feature surface
gaps and steps congurations which can provoke laminar-turbulent
transition:
1. One aluminum lip with anti-icing system and external panels
in composite material.
2. Pneumatic anti-icing system with exhaust panel on nose cowl
external panel.
Fig. 21. The measured transition locations at various experimental conditions LV6
airfoil model (semi-bold symbols transition onset; bold symbols end of transition)
from [24].
3. Access panels on external cowls for maintenance purpose
(Temperature sensors, Anti-icing system, Oil tank).
4. Junction between xed nose cowl and moveable fan cowls.
It is important to move downstream the junctions between the
nose cowl lip and the external panel; the nose cowl and the fan
cowl; and all access panels. In this context, the nacelles designer,
Aircelle, proposed to design cowl concept which integrated nose
cowl and fan cowls, allowing an overall improved performance,
versus current nacelle design, of about 1% in SFC due to exten-
sion of the laminar ow up to the 25% of the wetted area.
Recently, Bombarbier performed a numerical optimization over
an original long-cowl nacelle candidate which showed an improve-
ment of 7 drag counts in an isolated conguration at ow condi-
tion Mach = 0.8 and Re = 16 millions. The optimization was per-
formed with Multi Objective Optimization iSIGHT software, which
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132 111
Fig. 22. Transition prediction. Isolate nacelle.
Fig. 23. Suction skin connected by perforated honeycomb to structural sandwich
from [13].
used an Euler plus boundary layer computations for the external
ow and 3D compressible boundary layer stability for the anal-
ysis of transition prediction. The nacelle design methodology was
based on a target pressure optimization. Subsequently, the new de-
sign was tested in a wind tunnel and on a test ight and achieved
an improvement of more than the 10% in the extension of the lam-
inar region (Fig. 22).
3.1.3. Hybrid laminar ow
The use of boundary layer removal through suction was a way
of maintaining extensive regions of laminar ow which, since the
fties, have been the subject of experimental and theoretical inves-
tigation [17,67]. Extensive research was undertaken to mature Hy-
brid Laminar Flow by suction; the inuence of swept wing effects
and suction ow rate on its eciency; and the variation of the rel-
ative drag co-ecient [9,15,24]. The technology achieved a certain
level of maturity. Consequently, it is being considered now within
the industry for future aircraft applications. The technological chal-
lenges are mainly non-aerodynamic dealing with the integration
of the complex system solutions into the wing, nacelle, n and hor-
izontal tail plane surfaces; manufacturing surface quality including
that of suction panels; the need for an anti-contamination system,
weight of suction system, etc. In this respect, Boermans [13,14]
designed a suction skin which was connected by perforated honey-
comb core to structural sandwich (Fig. 23). The typical perforation
requires a diameter of 0.1 mm and a relatively low hole density
with a porosity 1%. In order to check the maximum suction ve-
locity for optimal performance, the solution was tested in a glider
conguration.
Additionally, the intensive use of the DNS (Direct Numerical
Simulation) allowed new perspectives of the suction concept to be
proposed:
Suction can be combined advantageously with excitation of
useful vortices (use of holes/slots to excite and support con-
tinuously useful vortices to combine the effect of suction and
suppression of secondary instability), securing and improving
suction performance;
Fig. 24. Suction test denition in SUPERTRAC.
Fig. 25. Stream-wise transition as a function of the suction velocity for different test
cases from SUPERTRAC project in [45].
Direct stabilization of secondary instability of crossow vor-
tices by pin-point suction reveals itself successfully with rela-
tively low suction rate (optimal for xed vortices).
Very few studies of supersonic velocities are available. In SU-
PERTRAC the laminar control by suction of CF-dominated laminar-
turbulent transition was studied at Mach 2. After a preliminary
numerical analysis, a windtunnel model was built based on a
symmetric arc-shaped airfoil with relative thickness of t/c =0.13;
a sharp leading edge; and a chord length of c =300 mm. The suc-
tion panel was located between 5% and 20% of the chord. The hole
diameter was 17 m. The model was mounted in the windtunnel
test section at zero angle of attack and a sweep angle of 20
and
30
(Fig. 24). The suction pressure ranged between 1.2 and 4.8 bar
for Reynolds numbers between 6 and 24 millions. The experiments
were conducted in the Ludwieg Tube Facility (RWG) at DLR. As
shown in Fig. 25, a signicant delay of laminar turbulent-transition
can be obtained (typically from 20% to 60% of the chord). It was
observed, also, that, beyond a certain level of suction velocity, no
further improvement was obtained.
The HISAC project investigated the application of laminar ow
technology for a business supersonic jet. The aircraft was a swept
wing monoplane. The wing and horizontal tail were tailored in or-
der to keep the ow laminar over a large portion of the wing/tail
area. The wing design beneted from an imposed negative pres-
sure gradient over the largest possible length of local chords. The
laminar wings were tested in the ONERA-S2MA wind tunnel at
Mach = 1.6 and Re = 7 millions. By using suction and cooling,
112 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132
Fig. 26. Applications of NLF & HLFC concept on a supersonic test (HISAC project).
the laminar studies focused on high-sweep wings. The main re-
sults showed that Natural Laminar Flow should be achievable on
the outboard wing, which could be enhanced by using laminar
ow cooling, whilst suction and the use of anti-contamination de-
vices were needed to maintain laminar ow on the inboard wing
(Fig. 26). The orders of magnitude of the suction rate were be-
tween 0.0005 and 0.001 at the upper side and 0.001 at the lower
side, giving a 50% upper surface transition location and an esti-
mated viscous drag reduction of 28.5% (7.2 dc) [70]. The main
diculties, in maturing the concept, were the design of high-lift
devices and the development of de-icing system compatible with
the laminar ow concept.
The City University London [8] employed Parabolized Stability
Equations (PSE) to consider the effect of Mach and Reynolds num-
bers on the stability of boundary layers (Fig. 27). They showed
that the critical N-factors decreased faster as the Mach number
and Reynolds number increased. This corrected the previous sta-
bility analysis which did not consider the compressibility. To ob-
tain a comprehensive idea, a typical decrease of N-factor from
5.8 to 4 suggested an increase in the suction mass ow rate of
9% and an increment in the pump pressure ratio from 2.0 to 2.5
which decreased by 9% the expected benets in drag reduction of
HLFC (after deducting system weight and power penalties). It was
shown, also, that, although critical N-factors for linear PSE anal-
ysis differed little from classical theory for standard experimental
datasets, when the effect of the leading edge curvature was taken
into account, a different picture emerged. In this case, the leading
edge modes were inuenced positively by the curvature and, com-
pared to the HLFC for the same design, resulted in a reduction of
24 suction mass ow rate and an increased benet of 9% without
curvature effects.
As a nal remark concerning the Hybrid Laminar Flow Con-
trol (HLFC) technology demonstration, a test ight was planned in
the framework of the JTI-SFWA project. The new outer wing ele-
ments of the A340 wing incorporating HLFC could be ight tested
in 2014.
3.1.4. Alternative laminar ow technology
The current advances in micro and nano machining and electro-
mechanical fabrication have facilitated the emergence of alter-
native methods in promoting laminar ow. Identied research
lines include the polishing of the surface; application of dis-
tributed roughness to delay CF; active control of TS by mass-less
jets/surface actuation; and laminar ow control by heat transfer or
plasma. Such technologies may offer a more lightweight solution
than the conventional hybrid laminar ow system. However, more
research is required to understand the viability of such approaches
both in terms of the fundamental ow physics of how transition
can be delayed and the resultant control system requirements.
Polishing the leading edge is one way to extend the laminar
ow region. Test ights conducted by the Texas A&M Flight Re-
search Lab in a Cessna O-2A Skymaster showed 80% laminar ow
at Re = 8 millions, = 30
and ve-
locity of 92 m/s (Mach 0.28). The experiments were performed
on the Swept Wing In Flight Tests (SWIFT) (Fig. 28) mounted in
a Cessna O-2A Skymaster at the Texas A&M Flight Research Labo-
ratory. A detailed computational study was performed in advance.
The design obtained a pressure minimum between x/c = 0.7 to
0.8, making the boundary layer subcritical to TS instability whilst
destabilizing crossow waves. The nose radius was restricted to
Re
= 1100 and Re
,
with an increment of CL of approximately 2.5% at the reference an-
gle of attack.
QinetiQ studied experimentally, in the DERA (Defense Evalua-
tion and Research Agency) high speed wind tunnel, different SBVG
arrangements to prevent the onset of buffet. The SBVG were dis-
posed at 55% of the chord, ahead of the shock. The results showed
that split vane SBVG performed better than wedges in delaying
separation in these congurations. However, the ideal location of
the VG was not obvious. Additionally, the effect of the wing sweep,
which was not considered in basic studies, could be the cause of
discrepancies between the expected rate of boundary layer growth
(much higher) and the optimum VG height. Another important ap-
plication was found in improving attached ows in pylon-wing in-
terference or internal ows S-duct engine air-intake congurations
(Fig. 38). Studied by Onera, QinetiQ or numerically by KTH [103],
vane and air-jet VG arrays were effective when located ahead of
the separation.
A more energetic approach is the passive air jet vortex (AJVG)
generator (Fig. 39). Studied by City University [80], they can be
used at low speed to prevent detaching or, at high speed, to con-
trol buffet. The idea of the slots is to inject fresh momentum to
the boundary layer particles which have been slowed down by the
action of viscosity. The analysis at Mach =0.1, Re =1 millions and
Fig. 36. 0.2 (0.8 right)-high vane-type counter-rotating VGs at 10 h (6 h-right) upstream of baseline separation from [66].
Fig. 37. Flap separation controlled by VG. Stow inside the ap well.
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132 117
Fig. 38. Flow control application to S-duct engine air-intake.
Fig. 39. Passive air jet vortex system.
an angle of attack of 18
to 1819
, whilst, similarly,
pitching moment stall was seen to be delayed 2
. These effects
were the same than would be expected using actively blown air
jets operating at an equivalent blowing momentum coecient C
(Fig. 40). The ow case was a low speed static stall test case
at Mach =0.1617 and Re =1.8 millions based on the chord length
of 0.5 m. The used CFD method was the ONERA multi-application
aerodynamic code Elsa which solves the URANS equations for
structured multiblock grids in nite-volume methods. The com-
putational results were compared to experimental pressure data;
lift and moment coecients; and the Laser Doppler Velocime-
try eld. Without performing a detailed convergence analysis, a
fair agreement was obtained between experimental references and
computations. The solutions provided a better understanding of
the vortex generation mechanisms and the inuence of the Vor-
tex Generator thickness was discussed also. A VG with 1/5 of the
original thickness delayed signicantly the stall; the reason could
be explained by a higher vortex dissipation in the thicker VG. Fi-
nally, the results were compared with those obtained with a BAY
model. The results agreed with the thin VG (tVG) computations;
and for the lift and moment coecients; the generated vortex cir-
culation; and the vortex aspect. However, it failed to reproduce the
effect of the thickness present in the original VG. This was not un-
expected since the BAY VG model was designed for innitely thin
Vortex Generators.
4.2. Active ow control devices (AFC)
Conventional AFC systems are focused primarily on the mitiga-
tion of ow separation to energize the incoming boundary layer
by coupling to the instability of the separating shear layer on the
118 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132
time scale of the ow about the airfoil or injection of mass and
momentum. A very interesting, historical and in-depth review of
ow separation by periodic excitation including the parameters in-
volved, underlying physics and multiple applications can be found
in [38]. The studies, most of them about simple congurations like
ap and single airfoils, show that the use of active ow control
methods is not new and, even in the Sixties, some works could
be found for steady blowing. However, the increasing environmen-
tal awareness of the civil society, together with the maturity of
the technologies required for these devices (actuators; sensors;
pneumatic systems; etc.), led to a renewed interest in these tech-
nologies. Here, we reveal their most recent advances, mainly in the
context of KATNET activities, and, in particular, their application to
real high-lift systems. This is quite challenging for the aeronautical
industry since, for multi-element airfoils, effective control requires
extensive optimization to apply the system to a complex airfoil.
This involves the joint consideration of the detailed geometry of
the airfoil; Reynolds number; and the parameters of the excitation
such as amplitude, frequency and the location from which the os-
cillations emanate. The two more important parameters, involved
in the design of AFC devices, are the averaged blowing momentum
coecient, dened as the ratio of the momentum and, in addition,
the free stream and the dimensionless frequency of excitation:
C
=
mV
R
1/2U
S
, V
R
=
U
j
U
, F
+
=
f
e
X
e
U
(1)
where m is the mass ow rate through the duct; U
j
the average
jet exit velocity; the external density; U
angle
of attack. The pitch angle was xed to 30
with C
). However, the
authors gave no additional details supporting this fact. In the same
context, the 2nd EUROPEAN FORUM on FLOW CONTROL (Poitiers,
2006) [94] proposed to study the effects of different uidic ac-
tuators on the same NACA0015 airfoil. The competition was fol-
lowed by different groups in Poitiers; Monash; Florida; Tel Aviv;
and Manchester Universities. The NACA0015 model had a chord of
0.35 m and a span of 2.4 m. The analysis was conducted at a free-
stream velocity of 40 m/s and a Reynolds number of 0.96 millions.
Table 3 summarizes the mode and means of deployment; jet ori-
entation; position and number of orices.
The following conclusions were obtained:
Angled Steady Jet with diameter of 1 mm (0.27% < C
< 0.36%,
2.5 < V
R
< 3.5)
C
L
improves by 516% depending upon incidence;
C
D
reduced 30% to 50%;
Typical time for attachment/separation at 11
is 0.1 s.
Normal Steady Jet with diameter of 1 mm (0.03% < C
<
0.14%, 0.9 < V
R
< 1.8)
C
L
improves by 35% depending upon incidence;
Tendency to increase C
D
for incidences above 12
, except at
15
.
Normal Steady Jet with diameter of 0.5 mm (C
0.4%,
V
R
8)
C
L
improves by 38% depending upon incidence;
C
D
reduced 1522%;
More effective after 8
. The optimal
solution was obtained with C
=0.32%, V
R
=3. The actuator was
operated at 1.95 kHz and modulated with a sine wave at 41 Hz.
The obtained results showed better drag reduction characteristics
at low incidences with a lift improvement up to 4%.
Other typical applications of these devices are the reduction of
simplication of high-lift devices, for instance, in the design of a
slotless ap and a slatless prole. Alenia investigated a slotless ap
conguration which removed the standard slot between the wing
and the ap by giving a wingap structural continuity. The slot
was substituted with a small cave where the effect of steady blow-
ing was augmented by positioning a small NACA prole (Fig. 42).
A preliminary analysis, in a baseline prole, showed a performance
improvement in ap lift with almost no penalty in drag (Fig. 43).
The conguration was tested on an Airbus320 at a take-off Mach
number of 0.153. The design considered that there was a need for
a blowing coecient of C
= 0.067 with U
j
= 340 m/s (V
R
6).
This ow rate had to be obtained by an estimated 8% of bleed-
ing from the nacelle ow (approximately 32 kg/s). The estimated
aircraft mass increase due to blowing system was 430 kg with an
estimated mass decrease of 630 kg because of a reduced chord
ap.
In the slatless wing conguration (Fig. 44), the slat was sub-
stituted with a blowing device located on the leading edge. The
results were compared with the high-lift devices studied in EU-
ROLIFT I. The experiments were performed on a modied ONERA
AFV wing in the Airbus Filton low speed wind tunnel facility. Four
different positions of the jet, relative to the leading edge, were
considered (x/c =0.024 up BLE1, 0.01 up BLE2, 0 BLE3, 0.006 low
BLE4). The analysis was performed at M =0.153 and a velocity jet
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132 119
Fig. 41. Eciency of blowing methods to avoid the ow detachment for different values of the blowing momentum coecient. Experiment performed by The City University
on a 35
pitch 60
skew 0.3 44
Steady normal jets (1 mm diameter) Continuous Pressurized cavity 0.3 51
Steady normal jets (0.5 mm diameter) Normal to surface 0.3 64
Normal ZNMF jet (1 mm diameter) Amplitude pulsed modulated Piezo-electric 0.3 56
of Uj = 340 m/s. A CL
max
as high as 3.4 at AoA of 22
was ob-
tained compared with the original 2.5 at 15
.
Within the turbo-machinery eld, one important goal is the re-
duction of the number of vanes or compressor stages. The design
of a stator with Coanda surface makes it possible to increase the
vane spacing; and, thereby, reducing the number of total vanes.
The idea is to design a curved surface, near the trailing edge, which
promotes the Coanda effect. This effect can be increased further
by blowing. The Institute of Turbomachinery and Fluid Mechan-
ics of Leibniz University performed a study concerning this issue.
The new stator was slightly shorter; had the maximum thickness
shortly downstream; and a trailing edge thicker than the original
one. The new stators internal plenum was designed carefully to
avoid losses (Fig. 45). The designs were carried out by a numerical
optimization making use of the NavierStokes equations. The new
conguration could increase the Permissible Aerodynamic Loading,
by 13% at the Design Point, and 0.5% of Compressor Inlet Mass
were sucient to reduce vane count by 20%.
Also in the eld of turbo-machinery, BAE Systems and Dassault
Aviation (in collaboration with LEA from Poitiers, ONERA, Snecma)
evaluated the potential of uidic thrust vectoring to determine the
eciency of a throat skewing concept on a generic high aspect ra-
tio nozzle. It was based on a modication of the sonic line through
the generation of a separated ow region on one of the lateral
walls of the divergent part of the nozzle (Fig. 46).
The ow separation control was achieved through continuous
blowing of high pressure bleed air whose mass ow rate deter-
mined the shape of the separated region. Different parameters
were studied: The length and slope angle of the divergent part of
the nozzle; the location; angle and mass ow rate of the blowing;
120 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132
Fig. 42. Slotless ap conguration.
Fig. 43. CL and CD as a function of C
49
=0.25%.
122 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132
Fig. 48. Control of separation by pulse actuation. Left-main wing, right-ap from [106].
Fig. 49. Schematic drawing of the airfoil PS03-8.27 with the actuation setup and
CAD close up of the Nose. The airfoil was equipped with alternately oriented slots
5 0.2 mm
2
, skew angle 45
from [89].
In the same way, Scholz et al. [89] investigated a PS03-8.27 air-
foil equipped with a total of 80 individual slots with a relative
distance between them of y/c = 0.0375 and a skew angle of
45 (Fig. 49). The optimal orientation; distance; and setup for the
span-wise array were optimized carefully [48]. Free stream velocity
of 50 m/s and a Reynolds number of 1.3 millions were considered
in this study. The laminar separation bubble, typical at this low Re,
was avoided by using a proper transition tripping at x/c =0.3%.
Two different positions for the actuator were studied; one at
the suction side of the prole and the second at the pressure side.
For the suction side (Fig. 50-left), the actuation inuenced the sep-
aration in a positive manner but it was unable to prevent it. The
optimum conguration was found at a duty cycle (dened in the
gures as ) of 25% and F
+
1, with an improvement in the
maximum normal force of 0.12 and maximum AoA of 19
, around
5
. As in other experi-
ments, the Reynolds number was millions, and the boundary layer
was force to turbulence by a rough strip located on the leading
edge. Other studied parameters were: ap gap and ap overlap;
angle of attack; ap deection angle; and excitation parameters
such as frequency; duty cycle; and supplied air pressure (equiva-
lent to blowing momentum coecient).
The main conclusions are shown in Fig. 52. As noted already by
other authors, very small dependence of the lift with the frequency
was observed. On the contrary, C
on performance of airfoil PS03-8.27. Left, actuator located at the suction side with for xed F
+
= 0.6. Right, actuator located at the
pressure side with F
+
=1.44. From [89].
Fig. 51. Principal actuator system tested in the slatless conguration of [43].
Fig. 52. Effect of pulse frequency and blowing momentum coecient in slatless conguration studied by [43].
124 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132
Fig. 53. 3D high-lift conguration studied in [76].
and ap. There was a sweep angle of 30
. At 22
,
was studied in conguration (c). The plain ap was deected at
30
, and the synthetic jet velocity was triple the free-stream ve-
locity. An interesting comparison is summarized in Fig. 57. The
maximum lift of the airfoil with a 30
deected ap, and two synthetic jets (0.12c, 0.81c), the maximum
lift was 65.8% higher than that of baseline. Furthermore, the stall
angle was about 2
and 32.4
= 2.55.1%
126 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100132
Fig. 58. Left, lift augmentation due to distributed ow control simple hinge ap. Central, effect of AFC application on each element of the conventional high-lift wing section
(representative takeoff conguration, =24). Right, AFC for advanced wing section (landing conguration, =50). From [93].
Fig. 59. Low speed ow control devices considered in the European project AVERT.
Fig. 60. Micro uidic actuators (MEMS technology from LPMO) on AFV ap in ONERA F1 wind tunnel (AEROMEMS project).
to eliminate completely the stall on a slatless DND conguration
at an AoA of 25