Technical

TECHNICAL GUIDELINES
Generator Efficiency Standards

Australian Greenhouse Office
Department of the Environment and Heritage
December 2006

2

Technical Guidelines

Generator Efficiency Standards

December 2006

Technical Guidelines - Generator Efficiency Standards December 2006
Australian Greenhouse Office, Department of the Environment and Heritage 1
1
Published by the Australian Greenhouse Office in the Department of the Environment and
Heritage.
Commonwealth of Australia 2006
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no
part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the
Commonwealth, available from the Department of the Environment and Heritage. Requests
and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to:

Assistant Secretary
Industry Partnerships Branch
Department of the Environment and Heritage
GPO Box 787
Canberra ACT 2601

ISBN: 1 9212 97 247

This document is available electronically at: www.greenhouse.gov.au/ges/

The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect those of the Australian Government or the Minister for the Environment
and Heritage.
While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are
factually correct, the Commonwealth does not accept responsibility for the accuracy or
completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be
occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this
publication.

2
Contents

1.0 SCOPE..........................................................................................................................5
2.0 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS ........................................................................................6
3.0 DEFINITIONS..............................................................................................................10
4.0 APPLICATION OF GREENHOUSE EFFICIENCY STANDARDS..............................13
4.1 PRINCIPLES ...............................................................................................................13
4.2 APPLICABLE GASES AND ASSOCIATED GREENHOUSE WARMING POTENTIAL ................15
4.3 APPLICATION TO EXISTING, REFURBISHED AND NEW PLANT........................................15
4.3.1 General .............................................................................................................15
4.3.2 Existing/Refurbished Plant................................................................................18
4.3.3 New Plant .........................................................................................................23
4.4 OPTIONS FOR REDUCING GREENHOUSE EMISSIONS ...................................................25
5.0 EMISSION FACTORS FOR GAS-FIRED PLANT ......................................................26
5.1 MEASUREMENT OF GAS VOLUME AND QUALITY ..........................................................26
5.1.1 General .............................................................................................................26
5.1.2 Volumetric Measurement..................................................................................26
5.1.3 Energy Measurement .......................................................................................27
5.1.4 Gas Metering Equipment ..................................................................................27
5.1.5 Standard Conditions .........................................................................................28
5.1.6 Inspection and Audit .........................................................................................29
5.2 EMISSION FACTORS...................................................................................................29
5.2.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
) .......................................................................................29
5.2.2 Methane (CH
4
) and Nitrous Oxide (N
2
O) ..........................................................29
6.0 EMISSION FACTORS FOR OIL-FIRED PLANT........................................................31
6.1 FUEL OIL QUANTITY AND QUALITY..............................................................................31
6.1.1 Oil Metering ......................................................................................................31
6.1.2 Oil Sampling .....................................................................................................31
6.1.3 Fuel Oil Analysis...............................................................................................31
2
) .......................................................................................32
6.2.1 Methane (CH
4
2
O) ..........................................................32
7.0 EMISSION FACTORS FOR COAL-FIRED PLANT....................................................33
7.1 COAL QUANTITY AND QUALITY ...................................................................................33
7.1.1 Coal weighing ...................................................................................................33
7.1.2 Stockpile quantities...........................................................................................34
7.1.3 Coal sampling and sample preparation ............................................................35
7.1.4 Coal analysis ....................................................................................................37
7.1.5 Carbon in ash ...................................................................................................37
2
) .......................................................................................38
7.2.2 Methane (CH
4
) ..................................................................................................39
7.2.3 Nitrous Oxide (N
2
O) ..........................................................................................39
8.0 MEASUREMENT PROTOCOL FOR ELECTRICITY OUTPUT..................................40
9.0 MEASUREMENT PROTOCOL FOR COGENERATION PLANTS.............................41
9.1 GENERAL ..................................................................................................................41
9.2 DETERMINATION OF GREENHOUSE INTENSITY.............................................................42
9.3 ENERGY AS PROCESS STEAM....................................................................................42
3
9.4 APPLICATION TO COGENERATION PLANTS ..................................................................43
9.5 ENERGY METERING ...................................................................................................43
9.5.1 Electricity ..........................................................................................................43
9.5.2 Steam, condensate return, and make-up water................................................43
9.5.3 Other energy products (e.g., compressed air) ..................................................44
10.0 CALCULATION OF GREENHOUSE INTENSITY...................................................45
10.1 GREENHOUSE INTENSITY MEASUREMENT INTERVAL................................................45
10.2 ANNUAL AVERAGE GREENHOUSE INTENSITY...........................................................45
11.0 GREENHOUSE EFFICIENCY REPORTING REQUIREMENTS.............................46
12.0 REVIEW OF GREENHOUSE EFFICIENCY STANDARDS ....................................47
APPENDIX A THERMAL EFFICIENCY THEORY AND PRINCIPLES ...........................48
A.1 GENERATED AND SENT-OUT THERMAL EFFICIENCY ....................................................48
A.2 THERMAL PLANTS......................................................................................................49
A.2.1 Boiler Efficiency ................................................................................................49
A.2.2 Steam Turbine Efficiency..................................................................................51
A.3 GAS TURBINE PLANTS ...............................................................................................52
A.4 COMBINED CYCLE PLANTS.........................................................................................53
A.5 COGENERATION/COMBINED HEAT AND POWER PLANTS ..............................................53
A.5.1 General .............................................................................................................53
A.5.2 Cogeneration Thermal Efficiency......................................................................54
A.5.3 Greenhouse Intensity........................................................................................54
A.6 CALORIFIC VALUE OF FOSSIL FUELS...........................................................................54
APPENDIX B POWER PLANT DEGRADATION............................................................56
B.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................56
B.2 BACKGROUND ...........................................................................................................56
B.3 TYPES OF DEGRADATION...........................................................................................56
B.3.1 Recoverable losses ..........................................................................................56
B.3.2 Non-recoverable degradation ...........................................................................56
B.4 GAS TURBINES ..........................................................................................................57
B.4.1 Causes of degradation - overview....................................................................57
B.4.2 Rates of degradation ........................................................................................57
B.4.3 Compressor degradation ..................................................................................58
B.4.4 Turbine degradation...............................................................................................61
B.5 STEAM TURBINES AND ANCILLARIES ...............................................................................62
B.5.1 Steam turbine ........................................................................................................62
B.5.2 Condensers ...........................................................................................................66
B.6 BOILERS ........................................................................................................................67
B.6.1 Boiler (PF fired, for Steam power plant) ................................................................67
B.6.2 Heat Recovery Steam Generators.........................................................................68
B.7 CYCLING OPERATION .....................................................................................................68
B.7.1 Gas turbines ..........................................................................................................68
B.7.2 Steam turbines.......................................................................................................69
B.7.3 Boilers....................................................................................................................69
B.8 LITERATURE REFERENCES .............................................................................................69
APPENDIX C GAS METER CATEGORIES AND MEASUREMENT
RECOMMENDATIONS..........................................................................................................70
APPENDIX D INDICATIVE OPTIONS FOR REDUCING GREENHOUSE GAS
EMISSIONS FROM EXISTING PLANTS...............................................................................72
D.1 RANGE OF OPTIONS ......................................................................................................72
4
APPENDIX E COSTING OF OPTIONS...........................................................................77
APPENDIX F NEW PLANT STANDARDS......................................................................80
F.1 TYPES OF POWER GENERATION CYCLES.........................................................................80
F.2 PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION SYSTEMS ....................................80
F.2.1 Background.......................................................................................................80
F.2.2 Reference conditions........................................................................................81
F.2.3 Simulation results .............................................................................................83
F.3 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................91
APPENDIX G GES GREENHOUSE INTENSITY CALCULATOR...................................92

5
1.0 SCOPE

This guide covers the application of Generator Efficiency Standards, measured in terms of
greenhouse intensity, to Australian fossil fuel based electricity and steam producers (when in
conjunction with electricity production), existing and proposed, and sets out recommended
practices for:

a) determining best practice greenhouse efficiency standards for existing/refurbished
power/cogeneration plant
b) determining best practice greenhouse efficiency standards for new
power/cogeneration plant
c) determining the actual greenhouse intensity for power plant based on total fuel
burned over a twelve month period and the corresponding energy output as
electricity, and steam if applicable
d) comparison of actual greenhouse intensity with best practice efficiency standards
e) reporting greenhouse intensity performance.

This guideline also provides background theory and principles on power plant and
cogeneration plant thermal efficiency, and indicative options for reducing greenhouse
intensity.

Greenhouse efficiency is measured on the basis of the six Inter-governmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) gases. However, this guideline is applicable only to greenhouse
gases from fuel burning, i.e., CO
2
, CH
4
and N
2
O
1
. Greenhouse intensity is measured as the
ratio of the quantity of greenhouse gases expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent to the
quantity of electrical and if applicable thermal energy dispatched. The other greenhouse
gases are not normally applicable but should be included where they arise.

1
Carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide,respectively.
6
2.0 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

American Gas Association/American Petroleum Institute
AGA Report No. 3 Orifice Metering of Natural Gas
Part 1: General Equations & Uncertainty Guidelines (1990)
Part 2: Specification and Installation Requirements (2000)
Part 3: Natural Gas Applications (1992)
Part 4: Background, Development Implementation Procedure
(1992)
AGA Report No. 7 Measurement of Gas by Turbine Meters (1996)
AGA Report No. 8 Compressibility Factor of Natural Gas and Related Hydrocarbon
Gases (1994)
ANSI/API 14.3.1 - 2003 General Equations and Uncertainty Guidelines - Concentric,
Square edged Orifice Meters (reaffirmed 2001)
ANSI/API 14.3.2 - 2000 Specification and Installation Requirements - Concentric, Square-
edged Orifice Meters
ANSI/API 14.3.3 - 2003 Natural Gas Applications (reaffirmed 2003)
API 14.3 Part 4 1991 Background, Development, Implementation Procedures and
Subroutine Documentation (reaffirmed 1999)

ASME/ANSI Codes
ANSI B109.3 - '00 for Rotary-Type Gas Displacement Meters
ASME PTC 4 - 1998 Fired Steam Generators
ASME PTC 4.4 - 1981 Gas Turbine Heat Recovery Steam Generators
(reaffirmed 2003)
ASME PTC 4.3 - 1968 Air Heaters (reaffirmed 1991)
ASME PTC 6 - 1996 Performance Test Code for Steam Turbines
ASME PTC 6S - 1988 Procedures for Routine Performance Test of Steam Turbines
(reaffirmed 2003)
ASME PTC 22 - 1997 Performance Test Code on Gas Turbines
(reaffirmed 2003)
ASME PTC 46 - 1996 Overall Plant Performance

ASTM Standards
ASTM D1298-99 Ed 2 Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific
Gravity), or API Gravity of Crude Petroleum and Liquid Petroleum
Products by Hydrometer Method
ASTM D1945-03 Standard Test Method for Analysis of Natural Gas by Gas
Chromatography
ASTM D4057-95(2000) Standard Practice for Manual Sampling of Petroleum and
Petroleum Products
ASTM D4916-04 Standard Practice for Mechanical Auger Sampling
7
ASTM D6347/D6347M-99 Standard Test Method for Determination of Bulk Density of
Coal Using Nuclear Backscatter Depth Density Methods

Australian Codes
AS/NZS 1376:1996 Conversion factors
NMI R76-1 Ed 3 Rev 3 2002 Non-automatic Weighing Instruments Part 1 - Metrological
and Technical Requirements - Tests
NMI R50-1 Ed 3 Rev 3 2004 Continuous Totalising Automatic Weighing Instruments
(Belt weighers) Part 1 - Metrological and Technological
Requirements
NMI R106 Ed 3 Rev 1 2004 Automatic Rail Weighbridges National Electricity Code
Version 1, Amendment 9 - 2004

Australian Standards
AS ISO 1000-1998 The international system of units (SI) and its application
AS 1038.1-2001 Coal and coke - Analysis and testing - Higher rank coal - Total
moisture (supersedes 1038.1 - 1992)
AS 1038.3-2000 Coal and coke - Analysis and testing - Proximate analysis of higher
rank coal
AS 1038.5-1998 Coal and coke - Analysis and testing - Gross calorific value
AS 1038.6.1-1997 Coal and coke - Analysis and testing - Higher rank coal and coke -
Ultimate analysis - Carbon and hydrogen
Ultimate analysis - Nitrogen
AS 1038.6.3 Coal and coke - Analysis and testing - Higher rank coal and coke -
Ultimate analysis - Total sulfur
(Part 1 1997, Part 2 2003, Part 3 1997)
Ultimate analysis - Carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen - Instrumental
method
AS 1038.16-1996 Coal and coke - Analysis and testing - Assessment and reporting
of results
AS/NZS 1376-1996 Conversion factors
AS 2096-1987 Classification and coding systems for Australian coals
AS 2434.1-1999 Methods for the analysis and testing of lower rank coal and its
chars - Determination of the total moisture content of lower rank
coal
AS 2434.6.1-2002 Methods for the analysis and testing of lower rank coal and its
chars - Lower rank coal - Ultimate analysis - Classical methods
(supersedes AS2434.6.1-1986)
AS 2434.8-2002 Methods for the analysis and testing of lower rank coal and its
chars - Lower rank coal - Determination of ash (supersedes
AS2434.8 - 1993)
AS 2649-1983 Petroleum liquids and gases - Measurement - Standard reference
conditions
8
AS 2651-1983 Liquid hydrocarbons - Volumetric measurement by turbine meter
systems (and Amendment 1 - 1984)
AS 2652-1983 Liquid hydrocarbons - Volumetric measurement by displacement
meter systems other than dispensing pumps
AS 3583.2-1991 Methods of test for supplementary cementitious materials for use
with Portland cement - Determination of moisture content
AS 3583.3-1991 Methods of test for supplementary cementitious materials for use
with Portland cement - Determination of loss on ignition
AS 4250.1-1995 Liquid hydrocarbons - Dynamic measurement - Proving systems
for volumetric meters - General principles
for volumetric meters - Pipe provers
for volumetric meters - Pulse interpolation techniques
for volumetric meters - Temperature corrections in volumetric
calibration by water transfer method
for volumetric meters - Dynamic measurement
AS 4264.1-1995 Coal and coke - Sampling - Higher rank coal - Sampling
procedures
AS 4264.3-1996 Coal and coke - Sampling - Lower rank coal - Sampling
procedures
AS 4264.4-1996 Coal and coke - Sampling - Determination of precision and bias
AS 4264.5-1999 Coal and coke - Sampling - Guide to the inspection of mechanical
sampling systems
AS 4323.1-1995 Stationary source emissions - Selection of sampling positions (and
Amendment 1 1995)
AS 4323.2-1995 Stationary source emissions - Determination of total particulate
matter - Isokinetic manual sampling - Gravimetric method

British Standards
BS 845-1:1987 Methods for assessing thermal performance of boilers for steam,
hot water and high temperature heat transfer fluids. Concise
procedure
BS 845-2:1987 Methods for assessing thermal performance of boilers for steam,
hot water and high temperature heat transfer fluids.
Comprehensive procedure
BS 2869:1998 Specification for fuel oils for agricultural, domestic and industrial
engines and boilers
BS 3135:1989 Specification for gas turbine acceptance test
(identical with ISO 2314 - 1989)
BS EN 12952-15:2003 Water-tube boilers and auxiliary installations. Acceptance tests
BS EN 60953-1:1996 Rules for steam turbine thermal acceptance tests. High accuracy
for large condensing steam turbines
9
BS EN 60953-2:1996 Rules for steam turbine thermal acceptance tests. Wide range of
accuracy for various types and sizes of turbines
BS EN 60953-3:2002 Rules for steam turbine thermal acceptance tests. Thermal
performance verification tests of retrofitted steam turbines

ISO Standards
ISO 2314:1989 Gas turbines; acceptance tests (and amendment 1 1997, and
technical corrigendum 1 1997)
ISO 2314:1989 Gas turbines - Acceptance tests; Amendment 1: Acceptance test
for combined-cycle power plants
ISO 6976:1995 Natural gas - Calculation of calorific values, density, relative
density and Wobbe index from composition (and technical
corrigendums* 1,2 1997 & 3 1999)

New Zealand Standards
NZS 5259:2004 Gas measurement

US EPA Methods
Method 1 - 1996 Sample and Velocity Traverses for Stationary Sources
Method 5 - 1996 Determination of Particulate Matter Emissions from Stationary
Sources
Method 3A - 1989 Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen Concentrations - IAP
Method 4 - 1995 Moisture Content in Stack Gases
Method 10B - 1994 Carbon Monoxide from Stationary Sources

General References
Australian Greenhouse Office, Efficiency Standards for Power Generation, Integrating report
(to identify best practice emission standards for Australian or fossil fuel generation and
assess the financial and economic implications of the measure) SKM Final Report, J an 2000.
Australian Greenhouse Office, Australian Methodology for the Estimation of Greenhouse Gas
Emissions and Sinks 2004 Energy (Stationary Sources), National Greenhouse Gas Inventory
Committee, 2006
Babcock & Wilcox, Steam - Its Generation and Use, 40th edition, 1992
DPIE/Australian Cogeneration Association, Profiting from Cogeneration, 1997
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change 2001: The Scientific
Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2001
Smith I M, Greenhouse Gas Emission Factors for Coal - The Complete Fuel Cycle, IEA Coal
Research (London) CR/98 Nov 1998
Walsh P P and Fletcher P, Gas Turbine Performance, Blackwell Science, 1998
10
3.0 DEFINITIONS

Ash (A
ar
)

Ash in fuel, expressed as mass % as-received, as-sampled or
as-fired.

Auxiliary power/energy All electricity consumed internally within the boundary of a
power station or cogeneration plant to run the plant.

Black coal Synonymous with higher rank coal. (ref AS 2096)

Brown coal Synonymous with lower rank coal. (ref AS 2096)

Calorific value, gross
(Q
gr,p,ar
)

Gross calorific value - The number of heat units liberated per
unit quantity of fuel burned in oxygen under standard conditions
(25 C; 101.325 kPa); the products of combustion are assumed
to consist of gaseous oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and
oxides of nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, and liquid water.

Calorific value, net
(Q
net
)

The number of heat units liberated per unit quantity of fuel
burned in oxygen under standard conditions (25C; 101.325
kPa); the products of combustion are assumed to consist of
gaseous oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxides of
nitrogen, sulfur dioxide and water vapour.

Capacity The rated continuous load-carrying ability, expressed in
megawatts, of generation equipment; sometimes referred to as
maximum continuous rating (MCR) or continuous maximum
rating (CMR).

Capacity factor Total energy produced for a specified period relative to the total
possible amount of energy that could have been produced for
the same period.

hours period MW capacity installed Total
MWh generated energy period Total

) (
% 100 ) (

Carbon (C) Carbon in fuel, expressed as mass % as-received, as-sampled
or as-fired (C
ar
); and for coal, mass % dry ash-free (C
daf
).

Carbon-in-ash (C
a
) Unburned carbon in ash (furnace ash, economiser ash, or fly
ash), expressed as mass % as-sampled.

Cogeneration/
combined heat and
power

Simultaneous production of both useful thermal energy (heat,
typically as steam) and electrical energy.
Fossil fuels Energy-rich substances created from the partial decomposition
of prehistoric organisms over long periods of time. Examples
are coal, coal seam methane, natural gas, and oil.

11
Global warming
potential (GWP)
The instantaneous radiative forcing that results from the addition
of 1 kg of a gas to the atmosphere, relative to that of 1 kg of
carbon dioxide.

Greenhouse efficiency General term indicating the performance of a power plant with
respect to greenhouse emissions resulting from the combustion
of fossil fuels. Also see greenhouse intensity.

Greenhouse intensity
(GI)
Measure of Greenhouse efficiency as the emission rate of
greenhouse gases from fuel burning expressed in kg CO
2

(equiv.)/MWh sent-out. For cogeneration, this is discounted for
steam/heat production.

Greenhouse gases
(GHG)
Those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural
and anthropogenic, that absorb and re-emit infra-red radiation.

Heat Rate Heat Rate is a measure of generating station heat efficiency.

This is the total fuel heat input expressed in MJ divided by the
energy produced by the power plant expressed in MWh. It is
related to thermal efficiency by the following expression

100
(%)
600 , 3
=
Efficiency Thermal
HR given in units of MJ /MWh

See also Equation A.5

Higher heating value
(HHV)
This is synonymous with gross calorific value.

Higher rank coal Coal that is geothermally mature, as defined quantitatively in AS
2096 (gross calorific value 27 MJ /kg dry, ash-free).

Lower heating value
(LHV)
This is synonymous with net calorific value.

Lower rank coal Coal that is geothermally immature, as defined quantitatively in
AS 2096 (gross calorific value <27 MJ /kg dry, ash-free).

Non-recoverable
degradation (NRD)
The component of degradation in the sent-out thermal efficiency
of a power plant due to ageing that is not recoverable through
normal maintenance practices. Note that this degradation is
normally measured as an increase in heat rate.

12
Output factor (or load
factor)

Total energy produced for a specified period relative to the total
possible amount of energy that could have been produced for
the service hours during the same period.

hours service MW capacity installed Total
MWh generated energy annual Total

) (
% 100 ) (

The term output factor is intended to apply to electricity
generators and may not be directly applicable to some
cogeneration plants.

Period hours The number of hours the unit was in an active state.

Refurbishment Any improvement activity on an existing power plant.

Refurbishments are deemed significant if they result in an
accumulative capacity upgrade of a plant at least 10% above
the maximum capacity used to determine the GES reference
curve.

Retrofit Any improvement activity on an existing power plant that
generally involves fitting new equipment to an existing plant.
The prefix retro means backwards and in this context implies
going back to an existing plant, after it has been commissioned,
and fitting new equipment, that it did not have when first
commissioned or at the time of the last greenhouse review.

Service hours Total number of hours a unit was electrically connected to the
transmission system. For a twelve month reporting period, the
service hours correspond to the period for which electricity was
metered; i.e., corresponding to the MWhs for the period.

Thermal efficiency,
Generated (
GEN
)
) / ( ) (
% 100 3600 ) (
kg MJ consumed fuel of value calorific gross kg fuel Quantity
MWh generated energy Total

Thermal efficiency,
Sent-out (
SO
)
) / ( ) (
% 100 3600 ) (
kg MJ consumed fuel of value calorific gross kg fuel Quantity
MWh out sent energy Total

Total installed capacity Total installed capacity is the sum of the capacity for each unit
making up the power plant, where capacity is as defined above.
Also see definition of service hours.

Upgrade Any improvement activity on an existing power plant that
generally involves the replacement of obsolete technology with
current technology.

13
4.0 APPLICATION OF GREENHOUSE EFFICIENCY STANDARDS

4.1 Principles

Greenhouse efficiency is measured in terms of greenhouse intensity from fuel burning. It is
the intent of the Generator Efficiency Standards that greenhouse intensity be reported on an
annual basis as calculated from power plant data.

The application and implementation of Generator Efficiency Standards shall be based on the
following principles:

(i) Standards shall not discriminate between fossil fuels
(ii) Standards shall apply to both grid and off-grid generating plants that meet all
of the following criteria:
30 MW electrical (MWe) capacity or above
50 GWh per annum electrical output
capacity factor of 5% or more in each of the last three years.
(iii) Standards shall be based on greenhouse intensity as defined in section 3.0
Definitions
(iv) Standards shall be based on Greenhouse gases produced from fossil fuel
burning as defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), namely carbon dioxide (CO
2
), methane (CH
4
), nitrous oxide (N
2
O),
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphurhexafluoride
(SF
6
). Fugitive emissions such as methane from coal stockpiles shall be
excluded.
(v) Standards shall apply to plant as currently configured, with provision for
acceptable degradation over time
2

(vi) Standards for refurbished plant shall be as for existing plant but with
adjustment for changes in performance if refurbishments are deemed
significant, see section 12.0 Review of Greenhouse Efficiency Standards
(vii) Standards for new plant shall be based on best practice performance,
adjusted for technical and commercial factors (e.g. market generation role
may require frequent stops/starts or part-load operation) verified by the AGO
(viii) Standards applicable to a given plant shall be reviewed on a 5 yearly basis.
Power plant performance shall be reported annually to the AGO for
comparison to best practice performance.

With the agreement of the AGO, alternate methodologies can be used by GES participants if
they can be demonstrated to yield results where the error or uncertainty in the determination
of greenhouse intensity does not exceed the values given in Table 1.

In addition, this guide does not draw a distinction concerning the location of fuel sampling
and quantity metering. In other words, the fuel sampling and quantity metering systems may
be owned and maintained by the fuel supplier or the fuel purchaser. However, the guiding
principal is that approved methods of fuel sampling and fuel quantity metering are used and

2
The standards for the current configuration shall allow for plant retrofits and upgrades to meet other
environmental standards, such as fabric filters for particulate removal, which may reduce sent-out
efficiency of the plant.
14
that the calibration/checking of these measurement devices and the data produced is
verifiable.

The error or uncertainty for the determination of greenhouse intensity will depend on the
specific metering equipment installed at a given plant, the type of equipment and method
used for the analysis of the fuels consumed, and the frequency of measurement. It is
expected that the best installed systems at the power plant will be used to determine
greenhouse intensity.

Using the methodology outlined in this Guide, the expected maximum error in the estimate of
greenhouse intensity is indicated in Table 1.

Table 1 Expected maximum error or uncertainty in the
determination of greenhouse intensity.

Plant Type Maximum GI estimate error
Electricity Generation 1.5%

e.g., 800 12 kgCO
2
/MWh SO

Cogeneration Plant 3.0%

e.g., 800 25 kgCO
2
/MWh SO

Note: Factors that may significantly affect the estimate error in greenhouse intensity are the
measurement of coal consumption, and the methods and frequency of determination of coal
properties.

Section 7.1.1 Coal Weighing allows for measurement of coal consumption by methods that
have a demonstrated maximum error not exceeding 1.5%. The AGO appreciates the
limitations to measurement accuracy facing different power plants and the difficulty in setting
a maximum measurement error. It is recognised that some methods currently used by some
plants for fuel consumption measurement, such as mine and coal stockpile survey, are not
able to provide measurement within this error allowance.

GES participants are, therefore, required to estimate the error in the determination of
greenhouse intensity for their plant based on real measurement and report the value whether
it is less than or greater than the expected maximum error of 1.5%.

In addition, greenhouse intensity may also be estimated from the direct measurement of
stack gases. Where appropriate GES participants, particularly those that have difficulty in
setting a maximum measurement error for their fuel consumption should also use these
measurements to estimate greenhouse intensity and provide an estimate of the error.
15
4.2 Applicable Gases and Associated Greenhouse Warming Potential

Standards shall apply to the gases outlined in Table 2.

Table 2 Greenhouse gases applicable to the Generator Efficiency Standards.

Greenhouse
Gas
GWP Applicability

Coal Oil Gas
CO
2
1 yes yes yes
CH
4
21 yes yes yes
N
2
O 310 yes yes yes
HFCs, PFCs &
SF
6

Usually not
applicable
Usually not
applicable
Usually not
applicable

From Table 2, it can be seen that the equivalent CO
2
, in mass from fuel burning is:

O N CH CO CO
m m m equiv m
2 4 2 2
310 21 . + + = Eqn (1)

where

m
CO2
, m
CH4
, and m
N2O
=quantity of CO
2
, CH
4
and N
2
O, respectively, over the measurement
period (e.g., tonnes in 1 year).

4.3 Application to Existing, Refurbished and New Plant

4.3.1 General

For the purposes of this guide, Australian Best Practice has been based on the findings of
independent studies undertaken on behalf of the AGO as reported at the J uly 1999
Workshop on Efficiency Standards, and reviewed in 2004/5. These studies considered the
performance of Australian and overseas plant on an as-designed basis and on a current-
performance basis.

The current-performance sent-out thermal efficiency (
SO
) is normally lower than the as-
designed
SO
as a result of a number of factors. These factors are:

operational requirements not included in the design
SO
or in acceptance testing,
such as frequent stops/starts and part-load operation required by market generation
role
non-recoverable degradation in efficiency caused by build up of scale and deposits,
and by increased clearances, steam leakages etc, that cannot be recovered except
by major refurbishment
long-term recoverable reductions, which can be recovered by means of maintenance,
repair, replacement and refurbishment of plant components
short-term recoverable reductions, which can be recovered by means of correction of
operational settings and by routine maintenance.

The objective of the Generator Efficiency Standards is to have power plants move towards
best practice efficiency by minimising the recoverable reductions from design/acceptance
test efficiency.

16
For existing plant, best practice is defined by a non-recoverable degradation in
SO
of not
more than 0.2 - 0.3% of net heat rate per annum (unless otherwise indicated by plant
manufacturers data)
3
, which translates to an equivalent increase in greenhouse intensity,
applied to plant as follows:

as currently configured
current fuel
design/acceptance test operating conditions and performance with allowance for
additional thermal losses that would not normally be taken into consideration during
performance or acceptance testing of new plant (eg. market generation role may
require frequent stops/starts or part-load operation)

In the case of gas turbines, manufacturers plant deterioration curves shall be used if
available.

For new plant best practice has been defined in terms of best available technology with
allowances made for performance under typical Australian conditions and for commercial
factors.

Figure 1 below presents a flow chart giving an overview of the application of the Generator
Efficiency Standards Measure to existing/refurbished plant and new plant GES participants.

Appendix A presents an overview on the theory and principles of power plant efficiency. It
may be noted that greenhouse intensity of fuel burning is a function of the sent-out efficiency
(
SO
) of the power plant and the greenhouse emission factor for the fuel (F) expressed as kg
CO
2
equivalent/kg fuel.

Appendix B presents an overview on the theory and principles of power plant degradation. It
describes recoverable/non-recoverable degradation, causes/effects, and rates of degradation
for different power plant components.

This guide recognises the difficulties inherent in determining plant-specific greenhouse
efficiency standards for either existing/refurbished plant or new plant. The intent of clauses
4.3.2 and 4.3.3 is to provide a pragmatic methodology for determining the following.

(a) For existing/refurbished plant: A baseline level of greenhouse intensity as a function
of plant output factor against which current performance can be evaluated on a
relative basis.

(b) For new plant: Guidelines to assist in establishing a baseline level of greenhouse
intensity as a function of output factor, relative to a comparable technology based
standard, making due allowance for technical and commercial factors which may
affect both the selection of plant and the final accepted performance of the plant.

3
The allowed degradation rate will be cumulative on a linear scale capped at 9.0% degradation in
sent-out heat rate corresponding to an average plant life of 30 years
17
(c) Figure 1 Generator Efficiency Standards Process flow chart

New
Plant
Incorporate
greenhouse
considerations in
plant procurement
processes
No
Submit Action Plan for
independent assessment.
Action Plan forms Part B
of Deed of Agreement

No
Yes. New
design
performance
tests to be
used for
Strategic
Plan
Deed of Agreement
expires after 5
years. Has actual
GI been reported
below reference
curve?
Annually report
progress of all
abatement actions
including any
changes
Use GI calculator
(optional) provided
by AGO to annually
report GI
Have the actions
increased plant
capacity by 10% or
more?
Provide detailed project
information for each
abatement action
Calculate cost of
abatement in $/tonne of
each action
Conduct detailed
technical/financial
feasibility analyses of
abatement actions
Identify potential actions for
reducing greenhouse intensity
including, but not limited to,
Appendix C of Technical
Guidelines (For new plant, not
required for the 1
st
5 years)
Compare actual GI to best
practice range
Use GES GI Calculator to:
- Determine reference curve
using commissioning or other
performance test results
- Determine best practice
performance range
- calculate actual GI

Sign Deed of
Agreement
Commissioned
plant with stable
operations becomes
'existing plant'

Submit yearly
operational stability
monitoring report
AGO/proponent
agree in principle
with plant selection
Submit detailed
case for plant
selection
Yes. New
design
performance
tests to be
used for
Strategic
Plan
Submit Strategic Plan for
independent assessment. It
becomes Part A of deed of
agreement
Existing/refurbished
plant
Strategic Plan
Part A - Deed of Agreement
Action Plan
Part B - Deed of Agreement
18
4.3.2 Existing/Refurbished Plant

4.3.2.1 General

Steps 1 - 6 described below should be used to compare current greenhouse intensity
performance to a best practice performance range. In working through these steps, it may
be necessary to refer established test codes such as:

ASME PTC 4 - 1998
ASME PTC 4.4 - 1981
ASME PTC 22 - 1997/ISO 2314 - 1989
other equivalent International test codes.

In addition, other readily available technical sources may also be used, including:

technical reference books such as Gill, 1984; Babcock & Wilcox, 1992; Walsh and
Fletcher, 1998
recognised power plant modeling packages such as GateCycle and GT Pro.

Note: A spreadsheet tool, GES Greenhouse Intensity Calculator, is available from the
Generator Efficiency Standards measure to complete the following steps. An excerpt of the
calculator can be found at Appendix G. The AGO encourages participants to obtain an
electronic copy of the calculator from the GES website to assist with the following steps.

4.3.2.2 Procedure for existing/refurbished plant

Step 1 Documentation of performance test results
Document or estimate on the basis of the best available information results of
reliable power plant performance tests. These may have been performed for
commissioning/acceptance testing. Test results should indicate power plant
efficiency as a function of load. A minimum of four points that are spread across the
range of stable loads should be used. The expected maximum and minimum stable
loads should be included. If reliable performance test data is not available,
document or estimate on the basis of the best available information the design/test
conditions that applied during the performance tests.

Test conditions should include:
dry bulb temperature
wet bulb temperature
air relative humidity
design fuel quality
For coal - total moisture, ash, gross calorific value, and ultimate analysis
For oil - non-combustibles, gross calorific value, and ultimate analysis
For gas - molecular composition including non-combustibles such as
water, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and argon.
combustion air (% in excess of stoichiometric requirements, or air-fuel ratio in
the case of gas turbines)
flue gas exit temperature
other losses
surface radiation losses
radiation losses through furnace throat to ash hopper
sensible heat in furnace ash (if applicable)
sensible heat in fly ash (if applicable)
auxiliary loads
19
cooling water temperature
condenser cleanliness factor
generator Transformer loss
start-up fuel component.

Step 2 Recalculate
GEN
and
SO
to reflect operation using current fuels, and adjusted for
additional heat losses that would occur under normal as-new or as-refurbished operating
conditions but were not included in the initial performance/acceptance tests if applicable.

Step 3 Calculate the Reference greenhouse intensity (GI
R
) as kgCO
2
equiv./MWh sent-out
as a function of output factor to provide the reference greenhouse intensity curve, using
either of the following Equation:

( )
j O N j CH j CO
j
j
as p gr SO
R
F F F X
av Q
GI
, , ,
, ,
2
2 4 2
310 21
.
1
10
600 , 3
+ + =

Eqn (2a)

or

( )
+ + =
j
j O N j CH j CO j
as p gr
R
F F F X
av Q
SHR GI
, , ,
, ,
2 4 2
310 21
.
1
Eqn (2b)

where

Q
gr,p,as
av. =mass weighted average gross calorific value of the fuels used (in MJ /kg, as-
fired)
F =emission factors from burning fuel j, for CO
2
, CH
4
, and N
2
O, respectively, as
applicable, in kg/kg fuel.
X
j
=mass fraction of each fuel type (j) burnt (e.g., coal, fuel oil)

Procedures for determining emission factors are given in Sections 5 - 7 of this guide. For
example see section 7.2 Emission Factors.

Note that in Eqns 2a and 2b, an adjustment is made to the reference greenhouse intensity
for start-up fuel (also see Section 4.3.2.5 Start-up Fuel).

For a cogeneration plant similar curves can be prepared on the basis of the quantity of
electrical and thermal energy produced (refer to Section 9 Measurement Protocol for
Cogeneration Plants).

Step 4 Calculate the Lower and Upper values of greenhouse intensity for a range of
loads (GI
L
) used in acceptance/performance tests. At least four load points should be used.
Using non-recoverable degradation of not more than 0.2 - 0.3% of net heat rate per annum,
calculations are as follows:

) 002 . 0 ( 1
:
,
,

=
Y
GI
GI value Lower
L R
Lower L
Eqn (3)

) 003 . 0 ( 1
:
,
,

=
Y
GI
GI value Upper
L R
Upper L
Eqn (4)

20
where Y =age of plant (since new or refurbished) in Years.
Note: For gas turbine plant, manufacturers curves for degradation in thermal efficiency as a
function of operating hours between major overhauls should be used.

Calculate the tolerance bands of the Lower and Upper GI
L
values as follows:

Lower value range =(1 0.015) x GI
L, Lower

Upper value range =(1 0.015) x GI
L, Upper

The multiplier 0.015 is an allowance for the expected measurement error associated with GI
L
,
see Section 4.1 Principles.

Note: GES participants should use a multiplier determined from their actual reported
measurement error associated with GI, whether that is less than or greater than the expected
maximum error of 1.5%.

Step 5 Plot the results of Step 4 to produce the greenhouse intensity standard as a basis
for comparing actual plant performance in Year Y as follows:

(i) Upper curve of best practice performance range =(1 +0.015) x GI
L,Upper

(ii) Lower curve of best practice performance range =(1 - 0.015) x GI
L, Lower

(iii) Reference GI curve (from Step 3).

These three sets of coordinates should be regressed by third order polynomial and plotted as
shown in Figure 2. A third order polynomial is in this form: Y=aX
3
+bX
2
+cX+d where a, b, c,
and d are constants. The lower curve will be adjusted upwards to the same position as the
reference GI curve, if applicable.

Figure 2 - GES Template plot of reference curve, best practice performance range and actual GI as a
function of output factor for a given plant of age 20 years. See Appendix G for more information.

Step 6 Determine the actual greenhouse intensity for the plant in question following the
procedures defined in Sections 5 - 10. Compare the actual greenhouse intensity with the
corresponding best practice greenhouse intensity for the average output factor for the year.
950
1,000
1,050
1,100
1,150
1,200
45 55 65 75 85 95
Output Factor (%)
G
r
e
e
n
h
o
u
s
e

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
(
k
g
C
O
2

e
q
u
i
v
.
/
M
W
h

s
e
n
t
-
o
u
t
)
Reference Curve GI Upper Curve Lower Curve Actual GI
21
4.3.2.3 Non-Recoverable Degradation and Plant Age

The recommended approach to establishing the greenhouse efficiency standard for a
particular plant, as described in Figure 1 and as set out in Steps 1 - 6 above, is based on the
concept of non-recoverable degradation with plant age (in years).

In the case where a power plant (station) consists of a number of units of different age, an
average plant age has been used in the methodology described above. However, a more
rigorous approach would be to apply a greenhouse efficiency standard on a unit by unit
basis. Where a power station consists of two or more units, the plant owner may adopt this
approach, in which case, it will be necessary to portion station auxiliaries, and fuel burnt, to
individual units.

4.3.2.4 Use of Multiple Fuels

In a number of installations, individual power plant units are fired using a number of fossil
fuels either in combination or at different times. It should also be noted that although fuel
switching is beyond the scope of this measure, it is encouraged where it will reduce the
greenhouse intensity of energy supply.

Where a number of fossil fuel types are used, this guide recommends that the following
approach be adopted.

(i) The actual performance of the power plant in any given year should be
determined in the same manner as described in Sections 5 - 10 but on the
basis of total annual MWh sent-out, total CO
2
equivalent released, and
average annual output factor.

(ii) The reference value of greenhouse intensity should be determined for the
year preceding the first year of agreement with the AGO, based on the
weighted average fuel and calculation of sent-out thermal efficiency and
corresponding greenhouse intensity, using the parameters and factors
described in Clause 4.3.2.2 and the Theory and Principles outlined in
Appendix A.

(iii) The lower and upper values of greenhouse intensity and the non-recoverable
degradation are then calculated as per Steps 4 and 5 in Clause 4.3.2.2.

The method for multi fossil fuels is illustrated by the example in Appendix G.

4.3.2.5 Start-up Fuel

Power generation plant requires fuel for start-up, to bring the plant up to operating
temperature and speed. Start-up consumes fuel but generates no electricity. Intermediate,
peak load and emergency generators may have a relatively high number of starts.

It is acknowledged the requirement for fuel to start-up, and in particular the quantity of fuel
used during start-up, is a function of:
primarily, the technology employed and as such is an accepted characteristic of the
technology
secondly, the commercial environment in which the technology is obliged to function.

It is further acknowledged that for conventional thermal (Rankine cycle) plant there are a
number of start-up regimes depending on the temperature condition of the boiler and steam
22
turbine at the time of starting; hot starts taking less time and consuming less fuel than cold
starts. During any year a plant may perform varying numbers of cold, warm and hot starts.

Therefore, the adjustment for additional heat losses may also include an adjustment for fuel
used during start-up (refer to Section 4.3.2.2 Step 3).

4.3.2.6 Non-Start-up Electricity and Fuel Consumed While Off-line

Intermediate, peak load and emergency generators spend considerable periods off line in
varying states of readiness. Maintaining a state of readiness may consume both electricity
and fuel without generating electricity.

It is acknowledged that the use of electricity and fuel to maintain a state of readiness or the
ability to start rapidly, especially in the case of conventional thermal (Rankine cycle) plant, is
a function of both the technology employed and the commercial environment in which the
technology is obliged to function.

Therefore, such electricity may be excluded from the calculation of the actual greenhouse
intensity for the plant in question (refer to Section 4.2.2.2 Step 6).
23
4.3.3 New Plant

4.3.3.1 General

The supply of electricity (and heat in cogeneration applications) at competitive cost is a
decisive factor for the market penetration of new fossil fuel based conversion concepts in a
liberalised energy market, and is influenced at an operating level by such factors as:

cost of fuel
capital cost of power plant
operating cost of power plant
reliability of power plant
net heat rate (or net thermal efficiency)
emission standards (particulates, NOx, SOx, trace elements, and greenhouse
gases)
electricity market requirements and constraints - including pool price, ramp rates,
output voltage and frequency limits, and unit turn-down or minimum load
infrastructure requirements - including electricity transmission and water
availability.

On the key issue of efficiency and greenhouse gas intensity, the following factors are
important:

Fossil fuel type and characteristics - Black coal, brown coal, fuel oil, natural gas,
coal seam gas or coal bed methane, coal derived fuel gases (including syngas
from coal gasification processes, coke oven off-gas, and coal mine methane.
Power technology - Sub-critical boiler, Super-critical boiler, ultra-super-critical
boiler, atmospheric fluidised bed combustor, pressurised fluidised bed combustor
(PFBC), open-cycle gas turbine (OCGT), combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT), and
Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC).
Emissions control technology - Particulates (Fabric Filters or Electrostatic
Precipitators), Oxides of Nitrogen (combustion control, flue gas reburn, selective
catalytic reduction - deNOx), Oxides of sulfur (fuel sulfur limits, lime injection,
scrubbing systems - deSOx)
Rankine cycle cooling system - Wet cooled, dry cooled, hybrid cooling
Ambient conditions - Dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature or relative
humidity, and ambient air pressure.

Because of the factors that influence the net thermal efficiency of a power plant, it is not
possible to prescribe a specific set of efficiency standards based on fuel type and technology
alone. A technology review has been prepared by the Technical Advisory Group to the
Australian Greenhouse Office - Generator Efficiency Standards Program (Appendix F) in
order to:

(i) present a technical description of the key fossil fuel technologies
(ii) compare the indicative performance data for the various plant classes as a
function of fuel type and characteristics, and ambient conditions
(iii) provide guideline values for the comparison and selection of new power plant.

The following specific fossil fuel types and technologies have been examined; they represent
the most common applications for electricity generation in Australia:

black and brown coal in super-critical and ultra super-critical boilers
24
natural gas/coal seam gas in open and combined cycle gas turbines
distillate in open and combined cycle gas turbines.

It is intended that the values of efficiency and GI values presented are indicative only
(typically 1% relative) and represent performance of various classes of plant in new
condition, at maximum continuous rating, and as defined by the specific assumptions
tabulated in Appendix F. It is also intended that the efficiency and GI of plants having fuel
types and operating conditions different to the specific cases presented, can be estimated by
extrapolation using a reasonableness approach.

Procedure for New Plant Standards

1. Incorporate greenhouse considerations in plant procurement processes and submit
detailed case for plant selection which addresses:
New Plant Standards efficiency benchmark figures and principles in Appendix F
best available technologies with consideration for economic feasibility
diverse fuel/configuration options
opportunities for cogeneration
site options
water supply options
influence of statutory SOx, NOx and particulates requirements on plant options
transmission line losses.

2. AGO/proponent agree in principle with plant selection

3. During commissioning, a power plant may experience a period of bedding-in to
achieve stable operations. GES participants are not expected to report actual GI for
comparison to best practice performance during this period, but should provide
updates of operational stability in six-monthly reports which include information about:
capacity factor stabilised (largely market-driven)
monitoring/maintenance regime predictable
chemical controls are tuned
corrosion stabilised
forced outage rates trend
planned outages vs actual outages in first 12 months
actual efficiency (production levels) matching the specifications provided by
manufacturer
temperature/pressure levels to production specs.

4. After a plant has been commissioned, operations stabilised and final acceptance
testing has occurred, follow the steps in 4.3.2.2 to calculate current greenhouse
intensity and a best practice performance range.

5. Report performance on an annual basis.

Note: For new plant, a menu of options for performance improvement is not required for
the first five years of operation.

25
4.4 Options for Reducing Greenhouse Emissions

In the event that the actual greenhouse intensity for an existing plant is outside the
performance range, as noted in Figure 1 and Section 4.3 of this guide, it will be necessary to
identify and evaluate options for greenhouse efficiency improvement. The process for
selecting and agreeing on greenhouse efficiency improvements is as follows:

(i) identify a range of greenhouse efficiency options and associated cost or
benefit. A menu of options is presented in Appendix C to assist in this
process. For each option derive the cost/t of CO
2
equivalent avoided
(ii) undertake a detailed technical and economic analysis of each option (refer to
Appendix D)
(iii) agree on a set of options, and document the anticipated reduction in
greenhouse intensity.
26
5.0 EMISSION FACTORS FOR GAS-FIRED PLANT

In this guide, gas-fired plant includes all plant consuming gas and producing electricity that
meets the criteria in Clause 4.1.

The following methodology covers the measurement of annual quantities of gas and the
determination of the emission factors for CO
2
, CH
4
and N
2
O from gas fired power plant.

Note that Section 5 is written primarily in the context of pipeline quality natural gas, but may
be extended to include other gaseous fuels where appropriate.

5.1 Measurement of Gas Volume and Quality

5.1.1 General

(i) The overall accuracy of metering equipment shall comply with the
requirements set forth in regulations under the relevant Gas Acts.

(ii) The most accurate installed gas metering equipment shall be used. This
could be the equipment used for custody transfer metering.

(iii) Gas metering equipment can be categorised according to the proportion of
Maximum Daily Quantity (MDQ) which may be provided. Gas metering
categories (1 - 4) are defined in Appendix B.

(iv) The metering equipment should continuously record the volume flow rate and
all measurements used in computations. Metering systems of category 3 or 4
should also continuously record the energy flow rate and gross calorific value
(Q
gr,p,as
).

5.1.2 Volumetric Measurement

(i) Volumetric measurement should be in cubic meter per hour (m
3
/h) at Standard
Conditions. It should be calculated by a Flow Computer to be installed and
maintained at the delivery location from flow signals, associated instruments,
relative density and composition analyses.

(ii) The volumetric flow rate should be continuously recorded and integrated. The
integrating device should be isolated from the Flow Computer such that, if the
Flow Computer fails, the last reading is retained.

(iii) Calculations for metering equipment of category 1 or 2 should be based on
average gas composition and relative density. Metering equipment of
category 3 or 4 should use on-line instantaneous measurement.

(iv) All measurements, calculations and procedures used in determining volume,
except for the correction for deviation from the Ideal Gas Law, should be
made in accordance with the instructions contained in the following Codes:
for Orifice Plate Metering systems - American Gas Association Report
No. 3 (AGA3), API 14.3, Parts 1 to 4
for Turbine Metering systems - AGA Transmission Measurement
Committee Report No. 7
for Positive Displacement (PD) Metering systems - ANSI B109.3 (1986).

27
Other internationally recognised Codes such as New Zealand standard NZS
5259: 1997, may also be used as appropriate.

(v) Measurements made using any of the instructions listed in Clause 5.2.2 (iii)
will be converted where necessary for compliance with:
Australian Standard AS 1000 International System of Units (SI) and its
Application
Commonwealth National Measurement Act 1960 and regulations there
under, and the
Australian Gas Association publication Metric Units and Conversion
Factors for use in the Australian Gas Industry.

(vi) The correction for deviation from the Ideal Gas Law should be determined
from the relevant method contained in AGA Transmission Measurement
Committee Report No. 8 (1992) Super-compressibility. Metering equipment
of category 3 or 4 should calculate super-compressibility using composition
data. Metering equipment of category 1 or 2 may calculate super-
compressibility by using an alternative method in AGA Report No. 8.

5.1.3 Energy Measurement

(i) For metering equipment of category 3 or 4, the Flow Computer should
calculate the energy flow in GJ /h from the product of gross calorific value
(Q
gr,p,ar
in MJ /m
3
) and volumetric flow (V in m
3
) at standard conditions. The
gross calorific value should be calculated from gas composition in accordance
with ISO 6976: 1995. The energy flow rate should be continuously recorded
and integrated.

(ii) Metering equipment in category 1 or 2 should measure volumetric flow at
standard conditions. The energy total should be calculated by multiplying the
volumetric flow by the average gross calorific value calculated from gas
composition in accordance with ISO 6976: 1995. The gas composition should
be measured by gas chromatography in accordance with ASTM D1945.

5.1.4 Gas Metering Equipment

For the purposes of this guide, metering equipment should satisfy the following requirements.

5.1.4.1 Flow Devices

(i) Orifice metering systems should be constructed and installed in accordance
with the provisions of AGA Report No. 3 such that the maximum uncertainty of
the discharge coefficient is not greater than 0.5%.
(ii) Turbine metering systems should be constructed and installed in accordance
with the provisions of AGA Report No. 7 such that the maximum uncertainty of
flow measurement is 1.0%.
(iii) Positive Displacement Metering systems should be constructed and installed
in accordance with the provisions of ANSI B109.3 (1986) such that the
maximum uncertainty of flow is 1.0%.

5.1.4.2 Differential Pressure, Pressure and Temperature

(i) Differential pressure, pressure and temperature measurement should satisfy
the requirements listed in Appendix B. The stated accuracy required includes
28
the effects of static pressure and ambient temperature. Calibrated ranges
should be selected to minimise the uncertainty of readings.

(ii) For orifice plate metering systems, high and low range differential pressure
transmitters may be installed to maintain the overall system accuracy. If fitted,
the Flow Computer should automatically select the transmitter with the
optimum operating range.

5.1.4.3 Flow Computer

(i) For each flow device of metering equipment of category 3 or 4, a self-
contained single channel proprietary type Flow Computer should be installed.
For metering equipment of category 1 or 2, a self-contained multi channel
proprietary type flow computer should be installed where one flow device will
be connected to each channel. The following outputs, and the instantaneous
values for all primary measurement inputs, should be recorded:
instantaneous corrected volumetric flow
cumulative corrected volumetric flow
instantaneous energy flow (metering categories 3 and 4)
cumulative energy flow (metering categories 3 and 4)
instantaneous uncorrected volumetric flow (turbine and PD metering
systems only)
cumulative uncorrected volumetric flow (turbine and PD metering
systems only)
super-compressibility factor.

5.1.4.4 Energy and Relative Density

(i) Gas samples should be analysed in accordance with the following Codes:

ASTM D1945
ISO 6976: 1995 or GPA Standard 2172
other equivalent internationally recognised codes.

(ii) The energy content of the gas delivered should be determined by either on-
line gas chromatography or by the analysis of a representative composite
sample of the gas over a period of not less than 1 month.

(iii) Gas chromatographs should be factory tested and calibrated using a certified
gas gravimetric standard and should perform with an accuracy of 0.15% for
gross calorific value and 0.25% for relative density.

(iv) Gas chromatographs should include a facility for automatic re-calibration
against a certified calibration gas.

5.1.5 Standard Conditions

Standard conditions for gas measurement should be as follows:

Standard pressure 101.325 kPa
Standard temperature 15.0C
Density of air at standard temperature and pressure 1.225 kg/m
3

29
5.1.6 Inspection and Audit

This guide recommends that an in-house inspection and audit program be developed and
implemented to cover all operations associated with gas measurement and reporting.

5.2 Emission Factors

2
)

The emission factor for CO
2
(in kg CO
2
/kg gas) from combustion of the fuel in a boiler or gas
turbine (F
CO2
) should be calculated as shown in Table 3. Note the emission factor calculated
in the example given in Table 3 is 2.4925 kg CO
2
/kg Fuel.

Table 3 Calculation of CO
2
emission factor for gas

Mole%
1
(or Vol %)
Molecular
Wt
(kg/kmole)

Density
2

(kg/m
3
)

Mass
(%)
Carbon
atoms in
component
molecules

kg CO
2
/
kg Fuel
a b c d e f g
44.01 x e x f /
Component

b/V
*

3
a x c d x 100/ d
total

(b x 100)
Methane CH
4
94 16.043 0.6785 63.7801 87.9679 1 2.4132
Ethane C
2
H
6
0.2 30.070 1.2718 0.2544 0.3508 2 0.0103
Propane C
3
H
8
0.15 44.097 1.8650 0.2798 0.3858 3 0.0116
Butane C
4
H
10
0.005 58.123 2.4582 0.0123 0.0170 4 0.0005
Pentane C
5
H
12
0.003 72.150 3.0515 0.0092 0.0126 5 0.0004
Carbon Monoxide CO 0.005 28.016 1.1849 0.0059 0.0082 1 0.0001
Hydrogen H
2
0 2.016 0.0853 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen Sulphide H
2
S 0.005 34.082 1.4414 0.0072 0.0099 0 0
Oxygen O
2
0.05 31.999 1.3533 0.0677 0.0933 0 0
Water H
2
O 0.04 18.015 0.7619 0.0305 0.0420 0 0
Nitrogen N
2
3.337 28.013 1.1848 3.9536 5.4529 0 0
Argon Ar 0.005 39.948 1.6895 0.0084 0.0117 0 0
Carbon Dioxide CO
2
2.2 44.010 1.8613 4.0949 5.6479 1 0.0565
Totals 100 72.5039 100.0000 2.4925
1. Gas composition is the only input variable required in this table
2. Density at conditions of 15C and 1 atmosphere
3. V
*
gas volume at 0C and 1 atmosphere is 22.4136 m
3
/kmole, equal to 23.6444 m
3
/kmole at 15C and 1 atmosphere

5.2.2 Methane (CH
4
2
O)

There is no significant production of methane from combustion of natural gas in a boiler or
gas turbine as methane emissions result from incomplete combustion, which, if persistent, is
both inefficient and uneconomic. Whereas the quantity of carbon dioxide emitted can be
calculated based on the quantity of natural gas consumed, assuming stoichiometric
combustion, it is not possible to similarly calculate the quantity of methane emitted. Methane
emissions must either be measured using a program of regular sampling and analysis, or
estimated.

30
Nitrous oxide is generally formed under low temperature and reducing conditions, and as a
consequence there is no significant production of nitrous oxide from natural gas fired power
plant. Whereas the quantity of carbon dioxide emitted can be calculated based on the
quantity of natural gas consumed, assuming stoichiometric combustion, it is not possible to
similarly calculate the quantity of nitrous oxide emitted. Nitrous oxide emissions must either
be measured using a program of regular sampling and analysis, or estimated.

For the purposes of this guideline, emission factors for methane and nitrous oxide shall be
taken from the most recent Methodology Workbook - Energy (Stationary Sources)
4
released
by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Committee.

The conversion of emission factor from t CH
4
/PJ to kg CH
4
/kg fuel is as follows:

6
, ,
4 4
10
1 1
=
d
Q
PJ
tCH
kgFuel
kgCH
ar p gr
Eqn (7)

where, Q
gr,p,ar
is gross calorific value of the gas in MJ /m
3
, and d the density of the gas in
kg/m
3
, at standard conditions.

The conversion of emission factor from t N
2
O/PJ to kg CH
4
/kg fuel is as follows:

6
, ,
2 2
10
1 1
=
d
Q
PJ
O tN
kgFuel
O kgN
ar p gr
Eqn (8)

where, Q
gr,p,ar
is gross calorific value of the gas in MJ /m
3
, and d the density of the gas in
kg/m
3
, at standard conditions.

4
available at: http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/inventory/methodology/index.html
31
6.0 EMISSION FACTORS FOR OIL-FIRED PLANT

In this guide, oil-fired plant includes all plant consuming fuel oil and producing electricity that

In the case where fuel oil is the principal fossil fuel used, or when the relative quantity is high
(nominally >5% of total fuel), it is recommended that the metering system used be inspected
and certified on an annual basis in accordance with the relevant State requirements under
the National Measurement Act (1960). For plant that uses less than nominal 5% fuel oil, the
following clauses are a guide only to metering, sampling and analysis.

The following methodology covers the measurement of annual quantities of oil and the
determination of the emission factors for CO
2
, CH
4
and N
2
O from oil-fired power plant.

6.1 Fuel Oil Quantity and Quality

The calculation of emission factors for oil firing requires that procedures be in place for the
following operations:

(i) oil metering
(ii) oil sampling
(iii) oil analysis.

Specific requirements of each operation are as follows.

6.1.1 Oil Metering

Australian standards applicable to the measurement of fuel oil quantities include:

AS 2649
AS 2651
AS 2652
AS 4250.1
AS 4250.2
AS 4250.3
AS 4250.4
AS 4250.5.

6.1.2 Oil Sampling

The recommended practice for the sampling of fuel oil for analysis, be it from tanker, drum or
fuel oil tank, is ASTM D4057.

6.1.3 Fuel Oil Analysis

For the purpose of determining greenhouse emission factors, Table 4 sets out the
recommendations for fuel oil analysis.
32

Table 4 Oil analysis requirements for greenhouse efficiency reporting.

Parameter Frequency of testing Method

Gross calorific value Monthly, quarterly or by
consignment
BS 2869, API Data Book
(Figure 14A1-2), ASTM D 240,
or other equivalent
Internationally recognised
code.

Density (for calculation of
calorific value)

Monthly, quarterly or by
consignment
ASTM D1298-99 Ed 2
Carbon Monthly, quarterly or by
consignment
Instrumental carbon analysis or
calculation from gas
chromatograph analysis.


2
)

2
in kg CO
2
/kg fuel from combustion shall be calculated as follows.

12
44
100
2
=
a
CO
C
F Eqn (9)

where, C
a
carbon in fuel, mass % as-received, as-sampled, or as-fired

6.2.1 Methane (CH
4
2
O)

There is no significant production of methane from combustion of oil in a boiler or gas
turbine. As in the gas of gas-fired plant, it is not possible to calculate the quantity of methane
emitted as a result of incomplete combustion. Methane emissions must either be measured
using a program of regular sampling and analysis, or estimated.

5
released

The conversion of emission factor from t/PJ to kg/kg fuel is as follows:

6
, ,
10
=
ar p gr
Q
PJ
t
kgFuel
kg
Eqn (10)

where, Q
gr,p,ar
is gross calorific value of the fuel oil in MJ /kg.

5
33
7.0 EMISSION FACTORS FOR COAL-FIRED PLANT

In this guide, coal-fired plant includes all plant consuming coal and producing electricity that

The following methodology covers the measurement of annual quantities of coal, coal quality,
and the determination of the emission factors for CO
2
, CH
4
and N
2
O from coal-fired power
plant.

7.1 Coal Quantity and Quality

The calculation of emission factors for coal firing requires that procedures be in place for the
following operations:

(i) coal weighing
(ii) stockpile quantities
(iii) coal sampling and sample preparation
(iv) coal analysis
(v) carbon in furnace ash and fly ash.

Specific requirements for each of the operations are defined below. In each case, with the
agreement of the AGO, alternate methodologies can be used if it can be demonstrated that
these alternatives provide values of the same accuracy or better as those recommended in
the guidelines.

7.1.1 Coal weighing

The method of weighing coal depends on the mode of transport of the coal to the power plant
and can be carried out at the coal loading facility or at the coal receiving facility.

Equipment for weighing or determining coal quantity includes rail weighers, weigh bridges,
hopper weighers, and belt weighers.

Calibration of the coal weighing system should be carried out as per the manufacturers
instructions and at least on an annual basis. Some types of weighing system, e.g., belt
weighers will require more frequent calibration. Calibration masses should be traceable to
the appropriate National Standard of measurement.

Guidance on technical requirements for weighers is included in the following codes:

NMI R76-1 Ed 3 Rev 3 2002
NMI R50-1 Ed 3 Rev 3 2004
NMI R106 Ed 3 Rev 1 2004.

The maximum permissible error for weighers as prescribed by the National Standards
Commission (Australia) is given in Table 5.

Other methods for determining total coal quantity, such as mine volume change, may be
used provided that any such method has a demonstrated maximum error not exceeding
1.5%.
34

Table 5 Maximum permissible errors for coal weighers on installation.

Weigher NSC Document MPE

Weigh bridges
Class III
(Static conditions)
Doc. 100 0 - 500 scale intervals
501 - 2,000
>2,000

0.5 SI
1 SI
1.5 SI

Hopper weighers
Class III
(Dynamic conditions)

Doc. 100 0.1% (new)
0.1% (re-verification)
Belt weighers
(dynamic conditions)

Class I Doc. 102 0.5%
Class II

Doc. 102 1.0%
Rail weighers Docs 113 and 117 Train: 5t or 0.2% of total mass, whichever is
the greater.

Wagons: 1t or 1% of total mass, whichever is
the greater (under dynamic conditions).

7.1.2 Stockpile quantities

The determination of the quantity of coal on a stockpile at a particular point in time should be
determined using the following two-step procedure:

(i) Volume survey
(ii) Stockpile bulk density.

It should be noted that the determination of the quantity of coal on a stockpile is relatively
imprecise particularly because of the inherent difficulties in measuring bulk density. In most
locations, the amount of coal on a stockpile at any given point in time is relatively small (5 -
10% of the total quantity of coal burnt in one year). However, at some locations it has been
the practice to stockpile very large quantities of coal in which case the estimation of stockpile
quantity becomes problematic.

7.1.2.1 Volume survey

Stockpile volume may be estimated using accepted aerial survey or general survey
techniques.

7.1.2.2 Stockpile bulk density

The determination of the bulk density of a stockpile is inherently difficult because most of the
coal is inaccessible to sampling. The recommended procedure for determining the bulk
density of stockpiled coal is detailed in ASTM D6347/D6347M-99. Failing that, the
recommended procedure is dependent on the quantity of coal stockpiled relative to the
quantity of coal burnt for the year. Recommended procedures are given in Table 6.

35

Table 6 Recommended procedures for stockpile bulk density.

Approximate Stockpile Mass
(m
STOCKPILE
)

Bulk Density Procedure
m
STOCKPILE
10% of annual coal burn Extraction of sample by mechanical auger as
per ASTM D4916 - 89
Weigh mass of sample extracted
Measure volume of hole
Bulk density equals mass over volume

m
STOCKPILE
>10% of annual coal burn Extraction of sample by coring
Weigh mass of sample extracted
Measure volume of hole
Bulk density equals mass over volume

7.1.3 Coal sampling and sample preparation

7.1.3.1 Coal sampling and sample preparation procedures

The purpose of coal sampling is to obtain representative samples of the coal burnt for
analysis as required to determine CO
2
emissions.

For the purposes of measurement as-received and as-fired will be treated as equivalent
methods, dependent upon sampler location and plant configuration.

Standards for the sampling, preparation of test samples, and verification of sampling and
sample preparation systems and operations are ASTM D6347/D6347M-99 and AS 4264
Parts 1, 3, 4 & 5
6
.

As coal is a heterogeneous material, for the sample to be truly representative it must contain
the correct proportions of each particle size present, as well as the correct proportions of
particles of varying impurity content. Therefore, in the process of collecting a representative
sample, each particle in the Lot must have an equal probability of being sampled (equal
selection probability); the representivity of the sample being a function of the mass of the
sample, or more correctly, the number of particles in the sample.

A mechanical sampling system, designed and operated in accordance with AS 4264 should
be used to sample the coal. Ideally, this type of sampling system would be set up to
intersect coal as it is either being loaded at the coal source or unloaded at the power plant,
and that a Lot of coal will normally represent 1 day or one train load of coal.

If necessary, manual sampling of the coal may be used provided that the sampling
equipment and procedure used is in accordance with AS 4264.

Sample preparation as required providing a laboratory sample for analysis is normally carried
out in two steps:

6
Standards Australia Committee MN1 is currently preparing a guide to the sampling of coal stockpiles
for the determination of bulk density.
36
Step 1 Initial crushing and subdivision of the samples as part of an operation that
is integrated with the coal sampling

Step 2 Final crushing and subdivision at the laboratory to provide the analysis
sample.

7.1.3.2 Inspection and Audit

Having installed a mechanical sampling system which conforms to the design criteria of AS
4264 (Part 1 or Part 2), this Guideline recommends that an in-house inspection and technical
audit program be implemented, as described in AS 4264 Part 5, to cover equipment and
operations associated with the sampling of coal.

7.1.3.3 Sampling precision

Precision is defined as a measure of the extent to which the observations within a set agree
with each other; usually expressed as twice the standard deviation (95% confidence level).
Precision checks should be carried out on the sampling process to confirm that the sampling
rate is acceptable, and it can be carried out on the sample preparation process. The
procedure for determining the precision of coal sampling and sample preparation is
prescribed in AS 4264.5. It is recommended that precision tests be undertaken on a yearly
basis and whenever there is a change in the coal source or a significant change in the quality
characteristics of a particular coal.

In the case where several coals are being sampled through a given plant, sampling
conditions and sample precision checks should be carried out on the coal that exhibits the
highest degree of heterogeneity.

7.1.3.4 Sampling bias

Bias can be defined as the tendency to obtain a value that is either consistently higher or
consistently lower than the reference value; in practice, the difference between the reference
value and the average result obtained from a large number of determinations.

The recommended procedure for the estimation of bias in a coal sampling system is given in
AS 4264.4. In the case of bias testing of mechanical samplers, the reference samples are
usually stopped belt samples off a conveyor belt. For the purposes of verification of a coal
sampling system, the coal samples taken for bias testing (i.e., pairs consisting of a reference
sample and a sample taken by the coal sampler) should be analysed for total moisture and
ash.

Bias testing should always be carried out on a new sampling system. For an existing system
the following verification procedure may be followed if there is some doubt about the
conformance of the sampling system.

(a) Conduct a detailed technical audit of the sampling system.
(b) Correct any non-conformances that have been observed.
(c) Conduct a limited bias test on the system, usually with the coal that exhibits
the widest stochastic variability in total moisture or ash, to provide a more
quantitative verification that the sampling system is performing correctly.

37

7.1.4 Coal analysis

For the purposes of determining CO
2
per unit mass of coal, Table 7 sets out the
recommendations for coal analysis.

Table 7 Coal analysis requirements for CO
2
reporting.

Parameter

Frequency of testing Standard method
Total moisture
(as-received or as-fired
basis)
Every consignment Higher rank coal: AS 1038.1 and
AS 1038.3

Lower rank coal: AS 2434.1

Ash
(as-received or as-fired
basis)
Every consignment Higher rank coal: AS 1038.3

Lower rank coal: AS 2434.8

Carbon
(dry, ash free basis)
Monthly analysis sample
composite
Higher rank coal: AS 1038.6

Lower rank coal: AS 2434.6.1

Gross calorific value Monthly analysis sample
composite

AS 1038.5

Coal analysis verification and reporting practices are described in AS 1038.16.

7.1.5 Carbon in ash

It is recognised that the configuration of plant varies and measurement of carbon in ash
should be based on representative operating conditions for the plant.

7.1.5.1 Furnace ash

Furnace ash includes ash collected at the bottom of the furnace hopper of the coal unit and
ash collected within the economiser hopper at the rear pass of the coal fired power plant.

There is no standard procedure to collecting furnace ash or economiser hopper ash;
however, in a wet extraction system reasonable samples may be obtained by using sampling
ladles to collect material from sluiceways, whilst in a dry extraction system good
representative samples can be obtained directly from the conveyor.

Note: Particular care must be taken in attempting to obtain samples of furnace ash because
of the inherent dangers associated with such operations.

7.1.5.2 Fly ash

Fly ash is that ash which is carried over from the furnace. There are several procedures for
sampling fly ash:

38
Method I Sampling of the dust either at the outlet of the boiler airheater or
the inlet to the flue gas cleaning plant using isokinetic sampling
procedures as per AS 4323.1 - 1995 and AS 4323.2 - 1995.

Method II Collection of fly ash using standard industry cegrit extraction
equipment.

Method III Sampling of the fly ash from the fly ash collection hoppers of the
flue gas cleaning plant or downstream of the fly ash collection
hoppers from ash silos or sluice ways.

Method IV On-line carbon in ash analysers using sample extraction probes
and infra-red analysers have been installed in some power plants.

Method I is preferred. If Method II or Method IV is used, the carbon in ash determined from
such samples should be calibrated against isokinetic fly ash samples collected using Method
I.

For the purposes of determining carbon in ash, the following sampling frequency is
recommended:

Method I Every two years, and as a function of load.
Method II Every year, and as a function of load.
Method III Every year.
Method IV Every two years, and as a function of load.

7.1.5.3 Carbon in ash

In the case where physical furnace ash and fly ash samples have been taken, the carbon in
ash should be determined using the following methods:

AS 3583.2 - 1991 Determination of moisture content
AS 3583.3 - 1991 Determination of loss on ignition


2
)

2
(in kg CO
2
/kg Coal), from combustion, shall be calculated as
follows.

12
44
10 ) 100 ( 10
2 2 2

=
a
ar a ar
CO
C
A C C
F
Eqn (11)

where

C
ar
carbon in fuel, % as-received or as-fired
C
a
carbon in ash, % as-sampled (weighted average of fly ash and furnace ash)
A
ar
ash in fuel, % as-received or as-fired

39
In addition,

100
) 100 (
ar ar
daf ar
A M
C C

= Eqn (12)
Where

C
daf
carbon in coal, mass % dry ash-free basis
M
ar
the moisture in coal, mass % as-received or as-fired
A
ar
the ash, mass % as-received or as-fired.

7.2.2 Methane (CH
4
)

There is no significant production of methane from combustion of coal in a boiler, although it
could be an issue in the case of synthesis gas (syngas) leakage from coal gasifier plants as
syngas usually contains a proportion of methane.

7
released

To convert t CH
4
/PJ to kg CH
4
/kg coal multiply by Q
gr
/10
6
. For example, if the gross calorific
value of the coal were 25 MJ /kg or 25 GJ /t, then an emission factor of 0.9 t CH
4
/PJ becomes
0.0000225 kg CH
4
/kg coal.

7.2.3 Nitrous Oxide (N
2
O)

Nitrous oxide is generally formed under low temperature, reducing conditions (in other words,
pyrolysis conditions) and as a consequence its concentration is normally very low in coal
fired power plants.

7
released

To convert t N
2
O/PJ to kg N
2
O/kg coal multiply by Q
gr
/10
6
. For example, if the gross calorific
value of the coal were 25 MJ /kg or 25 GJ /t, then an emission factor of 1.4 t N
2
O/PJ becomes
0.000035 kg N
2
O/kg coal.

7
40
8.0 MEASUREMENT PROTOCOL FOR ELECTRICITY OUTPUT

This section sets out how electricity generation is to be measured for the purposes of this
guideline.

The period of one year used for determining the annual quantity of electricity shall coincide
with the period of one year used for determining the annual amount of fuel consumption.

The quantity to be measured is the net or sent-out electricity generation in energy terms,
using units of MWh, designated MWh
so
for the purposes of this guideline. The terms net
and sent-out are synonymous in this guideline and are defined in accordance with the
National Electricity Rules (NER):

In relation to a generating unit, the amount of electricity supplied to the transmission
or distribution network at its connection point.

It is recommended that sent-out electricity generation be measured in terms of active energy,
in units of watt-hours, and in accordance with the applicable requirements of Chapter 7
(Metering) of the National Electricity Rules (NER).

GES participants must comply with NER metering requirements and use the best installed
equipment for electricity metering..

Access to the NER may be obtained via the Australian Energy Market Commission web site
at http://www.aemc.gov.au/rules.php.

Electricity consumed by workshops or other facilities attached to the plant but serving other
functions than plant operations shall not form part of the calculation of greenhouse intensity.
41
9.0 MEASUREMENT PROTOCOL FOR COGENERATION PLANTS

9.1 General

Cogeneration can be both a means of reducing the heat energy rejected by conventional
power generation technologies, and a means of generating electricity as a by-product of
thermal energy produced for or by industrial processes. The term cogeneration may cover
a range of technologies and the plant configuration is host specific. (Note: the term host
refers to the industrial process providing or using the thermal energy).

In this guide, cogeneration is treated as a special case for the following reasons:

(i) the power plant is usually configured around particular process needs and not
the converse
(ii) many cogeneration plants are off grid and the host consumes all the electricity
produced.

Theoretical concepts for cogeneration are outlined in Appendix A. The energy inputs and
outputs for the process (Figure 3) are generally as follows:

Energy Inputs Fuel, in GJ (E
Fuel
)

Energy Outputs Thermal energy (usually as steam), in GJ (E
Thermal
)
Electricity sent-out, GJ , including electricity used by the host
and, where applicable, electricity exported to grid (E
sent-out
)

Process
Fuel
Condensate
return
Make-up water
Process
steam
Imported electricity
Electricity to grid
Auxiliary power
Power
cogeneration
Power Plant
Cogeneration plant boundary
Power
generated
Power sent-out

Figure 3 Schematic representation of a typical cogeneration plant.

42
Therefore, the Cogeneration Efficiency (
COGEN
) is as follows:

% 100
+
=
Fuel
Out Sent Thermal
COGEN
E
E E
Eqn (16)

where E
Sent-out
is the electrical energy sent-out (i.e., electricity generated less power plant
auxiliary load) in MWhs.

Electricity used off-grid by the cogeneration host (the receiver of energy, either thermal or
electrical) is to be considered as electricity sent-out.

9.2 Determination of Greenhouse Intensity

For cogeneration plant, greenhouse intensity shall be calculated as follows:

( )
O N CH CO
Thermal out Sent
F
COGEN
F F F
E E
m
GI
2 4 2
310 21
6 . 3
.
+ +
+
Eqn (17)

Where m
F
is quantity of fuel consumed for the measurement period, in kg (see Sections 5-7),
and E
Thermal
and E
sent-out
are in units of GJ . Note: 1 MWh =3.6 GJ .

The Emission Factors (F
i
) are as previously defined.

9.3 Energy as Process Steam

(a) For process steam, calculation of the thermal energy consumed by the process
requires the measurement and recording of the following temperature, pressure,
and mass quantity data at a frequency sufficient to provide reliable annual
average data.

Delivered steam temperature, in C
Delivered steam pressure, in kPa or bar
Delivered steam quantity, designated m
steam
, in tonnes

Condensate return temperature, in C
Condensate return quantity, designated m
cond
, in tonnes

Make-up water temperature, in C
Make-up water quantity, designated m
make
, in tonnes

(b) From the above pressure and temperature data, the specific enthalpy in units of
GJ /t for each stream shall be determined from the Steam Tables and designated
as follows.

Delivered steam enthalpy h
g
(in GJ /t)
Condensate enthalpy h
f,cond
(in GJ /t)
Make-up water enthalpy h
f,make
(in GJ /t)

(c) The energy delivered to the host, designated E
Thermal
, in units of GJ , shall be
calculated by using the following formula.

43
)} ( {
, , make f make cond f cond
g
steam
Thermal h m h m h m E + = GJ Eqn (18)

i.e., E
Thermal
=E
Process steam
E
Condensate return
E
Make-up

9.4 Application to Cogeneration Plants

This guide treats cogeneration plant as a special case because the
COGEN
is a function of
electrical and thermal energy outputs; each of which can vary widely depending on process
requirements. Therefore, for cogeneration plant, greenhouse efficiency should be assessed
in terms of individual plant elements using the results of tests conducted periodically or by
measuring or modelling actual performance. The tests to be carried out should be designed
to do the following.

Boilers - Compare the actual performance of the boiler at a range of loads calculated
using the heat loss method described in Appendix A, with the performance expected
under a series of reference conditions as referred to in Clause 4.3.2.2.
Gas Turbine Generators - Compare the actual performance of the gas turbine at a
range of loads based on simplified heat rate tests, with the performance expected
under a range of reference conditions.
Steam turbines - Compare the actual performance of the steam turbine at a range of
loads/steam off-takes based on simplified heat rate tests, with the performance
expected under a range of reference conditions.
Auxiliaries - Compare the consumption of power of plant auxiliaries with that expected
under reference conditions.

It is recommended that cogeneration plants prepare an in-house protocol based on the
methodology described above or alternative appropriate methods for approval by the AGO,
as a basis for assessing greenhouse efficiency under GES.

9.5 Energy Metering

9.5.1 Electricity

Electricity sent-out as shown in Figure 3 shall be metered at the output terminals to the
electrical transmission grid using metering equipment supplied with the plant. In the case of
new cogeneration plant, electricity metering shall be in accordance with the requirements of
the National Electricity Code (see Section 8 of this guide).

Where electricity used by the host is not measured, a site-specific protocol shall be
developed for determining Electricity sent-out for approval by the AGO.

9.5.2 Steam, condensate return, and make-up water

The measurements required for steam in cogeneration plants include flow, temperature and
pressure; and for condensate return and make-up water, flow and temperature.

In the case where greenhouse intensity of a particular plant is to be reported on the basis of
a series of periodic tests at one or more loads or cogeneration ratios [i.e., MW thermal/(MW
thermal +MW electrical)], then the standards of measurement described in ASME PTC 4,
4.4, 22 or equivalent International code, shall apply.
44

9.5.3 Other energy products (e.g., compressed air)

Cogeneration plants, especially those that are physically mingled and commercially vertically
integrated with host industry sites may pose challenges to the application of these guidelines
because of:
the absence of metering on all energy streams
the production of energy streams other than electricity and process heat (typically in
the form of steam). Examples of other energy streams are hot water, chilled water
(from absorption chiller), hot oil, compressed air, and hot exhaust gas.

Where energy streams are presently not accurately metered then either accurate metering
will need to be fitted by the owner or a site-specific methodology developed for estimating
those streams.

Where the cogeneration plant produces energy streams other than electricity and process
heat in the form of steam, it is recommended that the cogeneration plant boundary be
redrawn upstream on the energy conversion chain such that it crosses the primary energy
product from the cogeneration plant. This concept is illustrated by the following example.

A cogeneration plant exports compressed air to the host. Both steam turbines and electric
motors drive the air compressors. The respective energy conversion chains could be
depicted as shown below, where the symbol M (metering) shows the recommended location
for the redrawn cogeneration plant boundary:

Fuel Heat Steam M Turbine Drive Shaft Power Compressed Air Consumer

Fuel Heat Steam Turbine Alternator Shaft Power Electricity M Electric Drive
Shaft Power Compressed Air Consumer

While compressed air is exported from the cogeneration plant to the host, the compressed
air is considered a secondary energy product, the primary energy products being steam, in
the case of the steam turbine compressor drives, and electricity, in the case of the electric
motor compressor drives.
45
10.0 CALCULATION OF GREENHOUSE INTENSITY

10.1 Greenhouse Intensity Measurement Interval

This guide recommends that the greenhouse intensity for a given plant, expressed in units of
kg CO
2
equiv./MWh sent-out, be measured at intervals of not more than 3 months (and
preferably monthly).

The greenhouse intensity for the measurement interval shall be calculated as follows:

( )
O N CH CO
F F F
out sent MWh
Fuel Tonnes
GI
2 4 2
310 21
10
3
+ +
= Eqn (19)

For cogeneration plant, refer to Section 9.2.

10.2 Annual Average Greenhouse Intensity

The Annual Average Greenhouse Intensity (AAGI) shall be calculated as the average GI
for each measurement period (e.g., 12 1 month intervals) weighted on the basis of the
MWh sent-out for the measurement period.

All fuels used in the maintenance of the plant need to be included in calculating AAGI.
However, the fuel used in plant vehicles does not need to be included.

Annual average greenhouse intensity initially needs to be reported for comparison to a best
practice performance range, and subsequently reported annually.
46
11.0 GREENHOUSE EFFICIENCY REPORTING REQUIREMENTS

GES participants are obligated to provide an annual business report to the Commonwealth.
Key Performance Indicators to be incorporated are:

type of fuel (black coal, brown coal, gas, oil, other)
average annual greenhouse intensity
capacity
capacity factor
output factor
tonnes of fuel used
MWh generated, MWh sent-out, MWh imported, GJ thermal energy produced in
cogeneration.
sent-out thermal efficiency
details of improvement options undertaken and other options identified
greenhouse target.
47
12.0 REVIEW OF GREENHOUSE EFFICIENCY STANDARDS

Greenhouse Efficiency Standards are to be reviewed every 5 years for existing and new
plants. Any affected GES participant may request a review for their plant at any time during
this period.

A review of the standards applicable to an existing power plant will be triggered by a
significant refurbishment. Refurbishments are "significant" if they result in an accumulative
capacity upgrade of at least 10% above the maximum capacity used to determine the GES
reference curve. When this occurs the reference curve and best practice performance range
will be recalculated with new acceptance/performance data resulting from the refurbishment.
The non-recoverable degradation period will also be reset.
48
APPENDIX A THERMAL EFFICIENCY THEORY AND PRINCIPLES

A.1 Generated and Sent-Out Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of the power plant is defined as the ratio of energy out to the useful
energy in, and may be expressed in terms of Generated Thermal Efficiency (
GEN
) or Sent-
out Thermal Efficiency (
SO
):
% 100
, ,
=
ar p gr F
G
GEN
Q m
P
Eqn (A.1)

% 100
, ,
=
ar p gr F
N
SO
Q m
P
Eqn (A.2)

A G N
P P P = Eqn (A.3)

and, % 1
100

=
G
A T
B SO
P
P
Eqn (A.4)
where

B
,
T
efficiency of boiler and turbine, respectively, %
P
N
power at the generator terminals less the auxiliary load (not driven by the turbine or
other prime mover), i.e., sent-out power, in MWh
P
G
power at the generator terminals, MWh
P
A
auxiliary load (including unit and station auxiliaries), MWh
m
F
fuel burn rate, kg/s
Q
gr,p,ar
gross calorific value of the fuel at constant pressure, as-fired, MJ /kg

An alternative expression for thermal efficiency is Heat Rate (HR), where:

100
(%)
3600
=
Efficiency Thermal
HR , in units of MJ /MWh Eqn (A.5)

In expressing the units of power, it is common to draw a distinction between electrical power
MWe and thermal power MW
T
.

The terms Generated Heat Rate (GHR), and Sent-out Heat Rate (SHR), relate to
GEN
and
SO
, respectively.

49
A.2 Thermal Plants

A.2.1 Boiler Efficiency

There are two basic approaches to the determination of boiler efficiency:

Heat loss method
Input/Output method.

Heat Loss Method

The heat loss method is usually the most accurate and simplest and is based on a
subtraction from the total heat input of heat losses from the boiler (ASME PTC 4 - 1998).

The boiler absorbs most of the heat released on combustion of the fuel, however, the
following significant energy losses invariably occur depending on ambient air conditions, coal
quality, and the size, configuration and age of the boiler.

(i) Heat loss due to moisture in combustion air (L
a
)
(ii) Heat loss due to dry flue gas (L
g
)
(iii) Heat loss due to moisture in coal (L
mf
)
(iv) Heat loss due to water from combustion of hydrogen (H) in coal (L
H
)
(v) Heat loss due to sensible heat in fly ash, furnace ash, economiser ash and mill
rejects (L
A
)
(vi) Radiation and convective heat losses from the external surface of the boiler, (L
R
)
(vii) Radiation loss to ash hopper.

Hence, the overall boiler efficiency is 100 less the sum of the losses in (i) to (vi) above.

The following Equations (based on ASME PTC 4 - 1998) may be applied in the calculation of
boiler heat losses from the combustion of fuels.

(i) Heat loss due to moisture in combustion air

wv p a g A a a
c T T W W L
,
) ( = MJ /kg Eqn (A.6)

where W
a
is the mass of water vapour per kg of combustion air, W
A
the mass of
combustion air per kg of fuel as-fired, T
g
is the exit flue gas temperature in C, T
a
the
inlet air temperature in C, and c
p,wv
the average specific heat capacity of water
vapour (0.002 MJ /kgC between 20 and 200C).

(ii) Heat loss due to dry flue gas

g p a g g g
c T T W L
,
) ( = MJ /kg Eqn (A.7)

where W
g
is the mass of dry flue gas per kg of fuel as-fired using theoretical air, and
c
p,g
the average specific heat capacity of flue gas (0.001 MJ /kgC between 20 and
200C).

(iii) Heat loss due to moisture in fuel

{ }
wv p g wg w p a
ar
mf
c T h c T
M
L
, ,
) 100 ( ) 100 (
100
+ + = MJ /kg Eqn (A.8)
50

where M
ar
is the moisture content of the fuel in % as-fired, c
p,w
the specific heat of
water (0.0042 MJ /kgC at <100C), and h
wg
the specific enthalpy of formation of steam
from water at 100C (2.26 MJ /kg). The ASME test code requires the enthalpy of
formation to be at the partial pressure of the moisture in the flue gas (Section 7.3.2.03
of code).
(iv) Heat loss due to water from combustion of Hydrogen in fuel

{ }
wv p g wg w p a
ar
H
c T h c T
H
L
, ,
) 100 ( ) 100 (
100
9
+ + = MJ /kg Eqn (A.9)

where H
ar
is the hydrogen content of the fuel in % as-fired.

(v) Heat loss due to carbon-in-ash

A
A ar
C
Q
C A
L
4
10
= MJ /kg Eqn (A.10)

where A
ar
is the Ash in fuel in % as-fired, C
A
the carbon-in-ash (%), and Q
A
the
average gross calorific value of the carbon/char in the ash (typically 33.8 MJ /kg).

Note: this heat loss is not applicable to gas firing.

(vi) Heat loss due to sensible heat in fly ash, furnace ash, economiser ash and mill
rejects (L
A
)

A a g i A
i
A
c T T
A
L ) (
100
,
=
MJ /kg Eqn (A.11)

where
A,i
is the mass fraction of total ash for each ash component (i) such as fly ash,
furnace ash, etc., and c
A
is the specific heat capacity of ash (typically 0.00105
MJ /kgC between 20C and 200C).

Note: this heat loss is not applicable to gas firing.

Other heat losses normally include radiation heat loss from the boiler external surface (0.3
0.7% depending on the size, configuration and condition of the boiler), L
radiation
.

Hence,

% 100
) (
100
, ,

+ + + + +
=
as p gr
A C H mf g a
radiation B
Q
L L L L L L
L Eqn (A.12)

51
Direct Method

The direct method relies on accurate measurement of coal burn rate, and steam and
feedwater conditions, so that boiler efficiency (
B
) is given by the expression:

100
) (
, ,
11 1 1
=
ar p gr F
B
Q m
h h m
Eqn (A.13)

where

m
1
feedwater flow to the steam generator, kg/s
h
1
enthalpy of steam directly upstream of high pressure (HP) turbine stop valve(s),
MJ /kg
h
11
enthalpy at the outlet of the final feed heater, MJ /kg
m
F
burn rate of fuel, kg/s
Q
gr,p,ar
gross calorific value of the coal at constant pressure as-fired, as-sampled or as-
received in MJ /kg.

A.2.2 Steam Turbine Efficiency

A steam turbine produces power by expanding steam through nozzles, which produce a high
steam velocity to drive the turbine rotor, i.e., conversion of kinetic energy (heat) to
mechanical work.

For a typical coal fired power plant with three-stage steam turbo-generator and single reheat,
turbine efficiency is given by:

% 100
) ( ) (
2 3 3 11 1 1

+
=
h h m h h m
P
G
T
Eqn (A.14)

where

P
G
Power generated (MWe)
m
1
Feedwater flow to steam generator, kg/s
h
1
Enthalpy of steam directly upstream of high pressure (HP) turbine stop valve(s),
MJ /kg
h
11
Enthalpy at the outlet of the final feed heater, MJ /kg
m
3
Steam flow directly upstream of intermediate pressure (IP) turbine stop valves, kg/s
h
3
Enthalpy of steam directly upstream of IP turbine stop valves
h
2
Enthalpy of steam at the exhaust of the turbine HP from which steam passes to the
reheater.

The energy losses that occur in the turbo-generator include:

friction and mechanical losses
glands steam losses
wetness losses (due to drag of water droplets on the moving blades)
leaving losses (kinetic energy of high velocity exit steam)
52
exhaust losses (due to pressure drop in the hood between turbine outlet and
condenser)
generator (windage and friction) losses.

For simplicity, it may be noted that not withstanding the reduced output of the turbine at
partial loads due to reduced steam conditions (mass flow, temperature and pressure), the
effect of the above losses increases as the steam flow through the turbine decreases at
partial loads.

Guidelines for performance testing of steam turbines include:

ASME PTC 6 - 1996
ASME PTC 6S - 1988
BS EN 60953-1:1996
BS EN 60953-2:1996
BS EN 60953-3:2002.

A.3 Gas Turbine Plants

In a gas turbine (GT), or combustion turbine (CT, US terminology), the fuel is burned with
compressed air and the resulting pressurised, hot gas expands through the turbine, which in
turn drives both the air compressor and an electrical generator.

(Note: Terminology confusion sometimes results with aero-derivative GT plant where the
turbo-jet aero-engine derivative may be referred to as a gas generator because it simply
produces pressurised hot gas. It may also have more than one turbine driven compressor,
using concentric shafts. With the aero-derivative GT, the turbine driving the electrical
generator is mounted on a separate shaft and is physically separate from the aero-engines
turbine.)

Regardless of its configuration, for a typical GT plant, GT efficiency is defined as:

ar p gr
F
n
Q m
P
, , ,
= Eqn (A.15)

Typically, Q is given in LHV terms. [For most natural gases, the HHV/LHV ratio is in the
order of 1.11]. Presentation of efficiency figures must always be accompanied by the
qualifications of sent-out or generated, depending on whether auxiliary power is excluded
or included in P
n
, and LHV or HHV depending on whether Q is given in LHV or HHV
terms.

Energy losses that occur within the cycle include:

frictional and mechanical
inlet pressure losses
exhaust pressure losses
generator windage
cooling losses.

53
Typically, part load performance remains reasonable until about 80% output is reached.
Thereafter, efficiency falls off rapidly.

Guidelines for the performance testing of GTs include:

ASME PTC 46
ASME PTC 22
ISO 2314.

Performance is normally corrected to standard ISO or agreed local conditions. This is
necessary, for rating purposes because GT output and efficiency are directly impacted by
ambient temperature, pressure and humidity. Other factors to consider include power factor
and frequency. Manufacturers provide curves to perform these corrections.

A.4 Combined Cycle Plants

Typically, in a combined cycle (CC) plant, the hot exhaust gas leaving a GT is ducted to a
heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) or boiler, which recovers some of the useful
remaining energy to generate steam which in turn is expanded through a steam turbine (ST).
Both the GT and ST drive electrical generators. Again, efficiency is defined by Eqn A.15.

Here, P
n
will include the electrical output from more than one electrical generator unless the
CC plant is a modern single shaft machine where the GT and ST are on the same shaft and
drive a single electrical generator. Typically, for the older plants, there may be more than
one GT/HRSG combination supplying steam to a single ST.

Normally, m
f
is the fuel burnt in the GT(s) only. Occasionally the HRSGs are fitted with duct
burners to raise extra steam for the ST. In this case, the fuel flow to the duct burners must
be measured too.

As with a GT plant, CC plant output and efficiency vary with ambient conditions.
Manufacturers provide curves to perform these corrections. The corrections may be complex
as HRSG performance is affected by GT exhaust temperature and flow. Also, ST
performance is affected by condenser CW temperature which in turn is affected by ambient
temperature and humidity, especially if a cooling tower is employed.

Guidelines for performance testing include ASME PTC 46.

A.5 Cogeneration/Combined Heat and Power Plants

A.5.1 General

Cogeneration refers to the simultaneous generation of electricity and process heat (usually
as steam) in a single power plant (DPIE/Aust. Cogeneration Association, 1997). An
analogous term, used more commonly throughout Europe is Combined Heat and Power.
Its most common application is in processing industries and in particular food processing
industries where low-pressure process steam is required as well as electrical power, and in
municipalities for district heating as is the case in many northern European countries.

54
A.5.2 Cogeneration Thermal Efficiency

For a simple cogeneration plant involving the production of process steam and electricity,
and the return of condensate from the process, the overall efficiency (
COGEN
), is given by:

ar p gr F
COGEN
Q m
E
, ,
= Eqn (A.16)

ar p gr F
mu mu ps ps G
Q m
h m h m h m P
, ,
11 11
) ( +
= Eqn (A.17)
where

E energy out, MW
m
F
fuel burn rate, kg/s
Q
gr,p,ar
gross calorific value of the fuel at constant pressure as-fired, MJ /kg
P
G
power at the generator terminals, MWe
m
ps
mass flow rate of process steam, kg/s
m
11
mass flow rate of condensate return, kg/s
m
mu
mass flow rate of make up (where m
ps
=m
11
m
mu
)
h
P
heat energy taken from the process steam, MJ /kg
h
ps
enthalpy of process steam, MJ /kg
h
11
enthalpy at the outlet of the final feed heater (condensate return), MJ /kg
h
mu
enthalpy of make-up water, MJ /kg

A number of cogeneration plants do not export electricity and may in fact import some
electricity. For cogeneration plants, the concept of generated thermal efficiency (
GEN
)
versus sent-out thermal efficiency (
SO
) is not used, and the efficiency (
COGEN
) as calculated
in Eqn A.17 is taken as an equivalent sent-out thermal efficiency.

A.5.3 Greenhouse Intensity

Greenhouse intensity for a power plant or cogeneration plant is calculated as follows:

( )
+ + =
j
j O N j CH j CO j
ar p gr SO
R
F F F X
av Q
GI
, , ,
, ,
2
2 4 2
310 21
.
1
10
600 , 3
Eqn (A.18)

or

( )
+ + =
j
j O N j CH j CO j
ar p gr
R
F F F X
av Q
SHR GI
, , ,
, ,
2 4 2
310 21
.
1
Eqn (A.19)

where Eqns A.18 and A.19 are equivalent to Eqns 2a and 2b, respectively.

A.6 Calorific Value of Fossil Fuels

The calorific value of a fuel (Q) is a measure of the heat actually produced on combustion of
the fuel under prescribed conditions.

55
The methods of determining gross calorific value, Qgr (or higher heating value, HHV) of a
fuel include:

Coal Bomb calorimeter
Oil Bomb calorimeter or calculation from density
Gas Boys calorimeter or calculation from gas composition.

Details of the methods are referred to in the main sections of this guide.
56
APPENDIX B POWER PLANT DEGRADATION

B.1 Introduction

Power plant performance degradation is an issue of major concern to the owners and
operators of power plants, since degradation will have an impact on plant output levels and
specific fuel consumption. This in turn of course has significant negative impact on the plant
operational profitability and environmental impact.

Appendix B describes:
What is recoverable / non-recoverable degradation
What are the causes of degradation
How degradation applies to different parts of generating plants
What are the recoverable elements of degradation
The effect of degradation on output and heat rate
Indicative degradation curves for various plant types.

B.2 Background

Thermal power plant performance starts degrading as soon as the plant is taken into
operation the first time.

Overall, degradation will occur to a varying degree in most parts of the plant, but based on
the results from an extensive information search, the industrys focus is primarily on turbine
degradation, since performance recovery efforts are more complicated and expensive on
turbines than on other parts of the plant.

This guideline does not address the performance losses from factors which as a rule are
dealt with through standard operational procedures, e.g. soot blowing of heat transfer
surfaces in boiler, compressor washing of gas turbine compressors etc, nor will it address
sudden performance degradations caused by Foreign Object Damage (FOD) or Domestic
Object Damage (DOD). Instead, the focus will be on degradation caused by fouling, surface
roughness and clearances.

B.3 Types of Degradation

Degradation is generally divided into recoverable and non-recoverable.

B.3.1 Recoverable losses

Recoverable degradation relates to the performance losses that can be recovered through
regular cleaning of the degraded component (e.g. primarily those that relate to fouling on a
turbine).

B.3.2 Non-recoverable degradation

Non-recoverable degradation relates to performance losses that cannot be recovered
through cleaning, but requires component refurbishment or replacement.

57
B.4 Gas Turbines

B.4.1 Causes of degradation - overview

Overall, gas turbine performance degradation is attributable to flow path deterioration, which
leads to flow reductions and/or component efficiency reductions, which in turn reduces the
units output and efficiency.

According to GE document: GER-3567h - GE Gas Turbine Performance Characteristics:

All turbomachinery experiences losses in performance with time. Gas turbine performance
degradation can be classified as recoverable or non-recoverable loss. Recoverable loss is
usually associated with compressor fouling and can be partially rectified by water washing or,
more thoroughly, by mechanically cleaning the compressor blades and vanes after opening the
unit.

Non-recoverable loss is due primarily to increased turbine and compressor clearances and
changes in surface finish and airfoil contour. Because this loss is caused by reduction in
component efficiencies, it cannot be recovered by operational procedures, external
maintenance or compressor cleaning, but only through replacement of affected parts at
recommended inspection intervals.

Quantifying performance degradation is difficult because consistent, valid field data is hard to
obtain. Correlation between various sites is impacted by variables such as mode of operation,
contaminants in the air, humidity, fuel and dilutent injection levels for NOx. Another problem is
that test instruments and procedures vary widely, often with large tolerances.

Typically, performance degradation during the first 24,000 hours of operation (the normally
recommended interval for a hot gas path inspection) is 2 - 6% from the performance test
measurements when corrected to guaranteed conditions. This assumes degraded parts are
not replaced. If replaced, the expected performance degradation is 1 - 1.5%. Recent field
experience indicates that frequent off-line water washing is not only effective in reducing
recoverable loss, but also reduces the rate of non-recoverable loss.

One generalisation that can be made from the data is that machines located in dry, hot
climates typically degrade less than those in humid climates.

As outlined in above quote, the key factors for performance loss are caused by increased
internal leakages, surface roughness and blade profile deterioration. Although GT original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs) as a rule only supply general, overall anticipated
degradation values for output and efficiency/heat rate, without any separation into
compressor and turbine degradation, this paper will also attempt to describe the main
individual causes for performance degradation in compressor and turbine.

B.4.2 Rates of degradation

In above quote from GE, degradation values of 2 - 6% are mentioned over the first 24,000
operating hours. As there is no qualification of the data, one can assume that this range
covers both output and efficiency degradation, for both gas and liquid fired units, and
covering a range of ambient conditions.

Other information sourced from a gas fired GE Frame 6B quotation indicates a 2.0% output
reduction and a 1% heat rate increase over 24,000 hours, increasing to 2.5 and 2.0%,
respectively, over 36,000 fired hours.

58
Similar information from other OEMs (GT specific information) indicate:

Utility size GT (E-class): 24,000 hours: 2.0 - 2.6% heat rate increase
3.0 - 3.9% output decrease
36,000 hours: 2.4 - 2.8% heat rate increase
3.3 - 4.2% output decrease
Above values applicable after off-line cleaning of the unit. No information on level of
recoverable losses.

Industrial unit (40 MW class) over 80,000 Equivalent Operating Hours (EOH):

Data assumes off-line cleaning of the unit before testing. The graph also shows
anticipated performance recovery through hot section component replacement /
refurbishment. The graph also highlights the fact that compressor components are
generally not part of the engine refurbishment, and that the compressor non-
recoverable degradation has a greater impact than that of the hot section
components.

It should also be pointed out that degradation seems to be engine specific, particularly in
view of the trend for higher pressure-ratios and more advanced compressor designs with
newer gas turbines. Thus, it is not possible to provide general, equipment-independent
guidelines for GT degradation, but one needs to rely on specific OEM data for each
installation.

B.4.3 Compressor degradation

Although every percentage point in efficiency degradation on the turbine section of the GT
has greater performance impact on the overall GT cycle, generally compressor degradation
is regarded as a greater performance issue, since the compressor typically experiences far
higher levels of degradation, both in terms of efficiency and mass flow capability through
fouling, increased tip clearance, and erosion and corrosion. Erosion and corrosion of the
compressor blading, together with tip clearance increases represent the non-recoverable
degradation of the GTs compressor section.

59
B.4.3.1 Fouling

An axial flow compressor is very sensitive to fouling, which starts to build up as soon as the
turbine is started for the first time. Fortunately, most of the fouling-based degradation can be
recovered through washing of the compressor, either on-line or off-line.

Fouling is caused by dust particles in the intake air stream depositing on the compressor
rotating and stationary blading. In part, this may occur through an adherence effect which
may be caused by normal air humidity and oil leaks from bearing number 1.

The adherence from the air humidity effect is due to the pressure drop that occurs in the inlet
bell-mouth, which under certain inlet velocities, the static temperature and pressure may fall
below the saturation line, forcing excess water vapour in the air to be condensed. If the
amount of condensate falls within a critical range, it may act as a glue for the particles that
enter the compressor. It should be noted that plants operating under cold and dry conditions,
there will not be enough condensate to act as a glue, and at tropical conditions (high wet
bulb temperature) the amount of condensate increases to a level where it can provide some
kind of on-line washing effect.

The oil leakage in bearing 1 will not only cause adherence for the dust particles in the LP
section of the compressor, but will also form coke deposits in the hot discharge section of the
compressor, which may be very hard to remove through normal washing - may require
special chemical cleaning during overhaul.

The fouling affects both the efficiency and pumping (flow) capacity of the compressor.
According to research, the capacity reduction is approx 1.6% per 1% efficiency reduction.
The capacity reduction is a bigger problem for fixed speed GTs (single shaft), since the
compressor cannot increase the speed to compensate for the lost capacity. Fouling
degradation is caused by increased blade surface roughness and profile changes.

B.4.3.2 Efficiency reduction

The compressor efficiency reduction leads to increased compressor power demand per unit
of air flow, reducing the power available for power generation, thereby reducing the GTs
output and efficiency. In combined cycle applications, there is no recovery for compressor
efficiency-derived performance degradation.

B.4.3.3 Capacity reduction

The capacity reduction leads to a lower air mass flow to the combustion chamber, which in
turn both reduced the compressor pressure (lower pressure ratio and consequently a lower
expansion line) and reduces the turbine gas mass flow, thereby reducing the GTs output and
efficiency. GE indicates in their document GER-3419A - Gas Turbine Inlet Air Treatment
that compressor fouling can reduce the GT output by as much as 20% in cases of extreme
compressor fouling.

In combined cycle applications, the reduced mass flow from capacity reduction will also
reduce the steam cycle efficiency due to lower steam generation caused by the lower mass
flow. A small portion of this loss can be recovered through the higher exhaust gas
temperature as a result of the lower pressure ratio over the GTs turbine section.

B.4.3.4 Inlet air filtration, compressor washing

From above it is clear that high quality air filtration and appropriate application of on-line and
off-line washing are vital to sustain the highest possible long-term plant performance.
60
Off-line, or crank-soak, compressor washing is the most efficient method of removing fouling
from the gas turbine, but as it must be carried out when the unit is in cold condition, it may
not always be possible to perform as frequently as one would wish. On-line (on-load)
washing has, thus, been introduced as a stop-gap measure, primarily for continuous duty
units, to aid in delaying the onset of large fouling.

It must be recognised that on-line washing cannot replace off-line washing, only extend the
intervals between these. It should also be recognised that on-line washing first of all only
works on the first stages of the compressor where the air temperature is below the
corresponding water evaporation temperature. Also, there are risks involved with on-line
washing, e.g. moving fouling further upstream in the compressor, clogging of secondary
systems and high temperature corrosion - on-line washing does not drain the solved deposits
from the compressor, but they follow the compressed air through the engine and may appear
in more critical locations, such as cooling passages in a turbine blade. As a result of these
risks, the general recommendation is that on-line washing must be carried out at least once
per day to prevent excessive build-up of deposits, and if an on-line is missed, a full off-line
cleaning is required before any further on-line washing.

The scheduling of compressor washing is generally based on a determination of the fouling
impact on performance (i.e. comparing actual performance against the nominal performance
after anticipated non-recoverable degradation), and whenever the value of the performance
improvement exceeds the cost, e.g. the loss of production during downtime, an off-line
washing should take place.

Also note GEs comment that recent findings indicate that the higher the frequency of off-line
washing, the lower the non-recoverable degradation.

B.4.3.5 Tip clearances

The tip sealing system is sensitive to wear from e.g. rubbing, which normally is caused by
differential expansion between rotating and stationary part during run-up and load transients.
Leakages between the stages will not only re-circulate air from higher to lower pressures,
increasing parasitic losses in the system, but will also disturb the air flow in the compressor
stages, reducing the efficiency.

Theoretical modeling has found that each 1% increase in rotor clearance will reduce the
stage efficiency by approximately 2%.

Traditionally, turbines were designed to ensure that there would be no rubbing of the seals in
a compressor, but due to the complexities of providing designs which could handle all
conceivable modes of operation without having excess clearances, modern GTs are
equipped with abradable seals or similar (e.g. brush seals), which allow rubbing without
damage (or even as part of creating the appropriate tip clearances through cutting into the
abradable surfaces).

However, unless active clearance control is applied (OEMs will need to advise of the
technology is available), one should expect that seals will experience wear during the
operating life, e.g. in connection with turbine trips or similar, resulting in increased leakages
during steady state operation.

B.4.3.6 Erosion

GE in document GER-3419A -Gas Turbine Inlet Air Treatment indicate that:

61
Both the axial compressor and the hot-gas-path parts can be affected by erosion from hard,
abrasive particles, such as sand and mineral dusts
As these particles impact upon the compressor blades, they cut away a small amount of
metal. The net rate of erosion, although not quantifiable, depends on the kinetic energy
change as the particles impinge, on the number of particles impinging per unit time, the angle
of impingement, and on the mechanical properties of both the particles and the material being
eroded.

In general, experience shows that particles 20 m and above will cause erosion when
present in sufficient quantities.

Blade erosion causes an increase in surface roughness and on a longer-term basis, profile
changes through material loss, all of which reduce the aerodynamic efficiency of the blading.
Extreme levels of erosion can also endanger the structural integrity of the blading, with a risk
of major damage to the GT due to blades, or parts there off, breaking off, and passing
through the unit.

B.4.3.7 Corrosion

Wet deposits of sea salt, acids and other aggressive materials can cause compressor
corrosion. In addition to corrosion of compressor wheels, corrosion can also cause pitting of
the compressor blading, which increases surface roughness, and decreases the
aerodynamic performance.

B.4.4 Turbine degradation

The main causes of turbine degradation are basically the same as for the compressor,
although fouling is generally not an issue unless the GT is operating on liquid fuels
containing e.g. ash. In particular, tip clearances and surface roughness are of importance,
but also profile changes impact on the performance.

B.4.4.1 Tip clearance

The same general description as for the compressor tip clearance applies for the turbine
section, with the additional comment that the very high temperature range that the turbine
section experiences from start-up through to base load operation leads to even greater
possible differential expansion between rotating and stationary parts.

B.4.4.2 Surface roughness and erosion

Turbine blading surface roughness will be impacted by high long-term hot gas exposure, as
well as possible corrosion through ingestion of certain metals which after combining with
sulfur (particularly liquid fired units) and / or oxygen deposit on the surfaces of the hot gas
part components. The metals of primary concern are sodium, potassium vanadium and lead.

Additionally, the ingested dust particles that do deposit on the compressor blading will of
course pass through the machine, and will cause a longer-term erosion of the blading.

However, as can be seen from the graph under 4.1.1, the frequency of blading replacement /
refurbishment required to maintain the unit within its creep life limitations is such that the
performance impact from surface roughness/erosion is relatively limited compared with the
compressor degradation impact.

62
B.5 Steam Turbines and Ancillaries

Steam turbine degradation analysis is generally more straightforward than for GTs, since it is
a simpler machine and only consists of a turbine section.

Flow path degradation can be categorised into 5 main root causes:
Deposits
Surface roughness
Sealing leakages
Internal leakages
Solid particle erosion (SPE).
In addition to the steam turbine degradation, condenser performance is the other key area of
possible performance degradation.

An article titled No deposits, big returns published in Power Magazine (April 2005) reports
the results of a recently completed 2-year study performed by EPRI in the US on the effects
of surface roughness and deposits on turbine efficiency. The article can be obtained from
www.platts.com.

B.5.1 Steam turbine

As an example of a typical breakdown of the causes of steam turbine efficiency deterioration,
below graph, shown in GE Document GER-3750C Steam Turbine Sustained Efficiency,
based on a typical utility size GE steam turbine:

40 % of the total identified loss is due to the sealing leakages, 15% each due to SPE and
deposits and the remaining 30% due to general aging caused by increased surface
roughness and geometry changes in the stationary and rotating blading.

Information on overall levels of steam turbine degradation is generally hard to find, also for
OEM equipment suppliers, particularly in todays deregulated environment, where actual
plant performance levels is often treated as confidential commercial information.

Based on limited information provided, following general comments can be made:
Utilities often have a requirement for 3 - 5% steam flow capacity margin for new plants to
ensure that the plant will meet its original net output also after degradation.
A recent turbine refurbishment in the US resulted in the full recovery of a 6%
performance degradation
A couple of steam turbines in Indonesia had experienced a 15 - 20% capacity reduction
over an approx 20 year period, mainly due to substandard feed water quality.
63
According the above GE document, there is a notable difference in overall degradation
between impulse and reaction type of turbines, in particular the degradation caused by
increased sealing clearances (see also Section B5.1.4).

Short description of impulse and reaction type turbines:

Impulse type turbines
In a 100% impulse steam turbine, the pressure drop over each stage takes place in nozzles
in the stationary turbine diaphragms, converting the steam volume expansion into a high
steam velocity which in impacts at the rotating blades at a high velocity (typically
approximately 1.8 - 2.0 times the blade velocity) transferring the steam energy into the
rotating blades.

As there is no pressure drop over the rotating blades, and therefore no axial thrust due to
pressure differences, impulse turbine rotors are typically designed with a slim shaft with discs
for the blading (see figure).

The small shaft diameter reduces the total leakage area, and thus the inter-stage leakages.
Furthermore, as there is no pressure drop over the blades with a 100% impulse unit, blade
tip leakages are very small and require only relatively simple sealing arrangements. Also,
with the slim shaft, thermal expansion of the rotor is relatively small, potentially allowing
tighter shaft labyrinth clearances.

Basic blade efficiency for impulse turbines is generally slightly lower than for reaction units,
and the efficiency falls off faster when the turbine is not operating at it optimum ratio of blade
velocity / steam velocity.

In general, impulse turbines are more commonly used for industrial type applications,
although a few manufacturers are supplying utility size impulse turbines (e.g. Toshiba and
GE, although the latter seems to have changed to reaction designs recently.

Reaction type turbines
Reaction type turbine actually operates with 50% reaction and 50% impulse, with the
pressure drop over each stage split equally between the stator and rotor blading. The steam
leaves the stationary blade at a relatively high velocity transferring its energy as an impulse
to the rotating blade, where it is further expanded giving a reaction force as it expands
through the blade.
64

As half of the pressure drop in the turbine occurs in the rotation blades, the pressure
difference will create an axial thrust in the steam flow direction. To minimise this thrust, the
turbine rotor is of drum type, with the rotating blades inserted directly into the rotor shaft.
The remaining thrust for a single flow turbine must be balanced through the use of a
balancing piston (seen as the left-most disc on the drawing above) where high pressure
steam acts against a disc where the chamber on the other side of the disc is connected to a
lower pressure port on the turbine module. As the balancing steam is not expanded through
the blading, it reduces the potential turbine efficiency. Large utility type steam turbines,
however, are designed as double-flow units with steam inlet in the middle, where the axial
thrust from the two steam paths balance each other and no balancing steam is required.

Inter-stage leakages in reaction type turbines are higher than for impulse units. Firstly, the
rotor diameter is larger (no blade discs), giving a much larger leakage area between the rotor
and the stationary blading, and secondly, half the pressure drop occurs over the blading,
giving a substantial blade tip leakage, requiring a more advanced tip sealing system.
Furthermore, as the labyrinth seals are located at larger diameters than in impulse units,
there may be a need for greater labyrinth clearances to avoid rubbing due to different thermal
expansion between rotor and stator during run-up, load transients and shut-down.

As mentioned above, reaction type blading generally offers higher basic efficiency than
impulse turbine, but unless the potential for large efficiency losses from balancing steam
requirements and inter-stage leakages are addressed through careful design, the resulting
net efficiency of reaction turbines may in the worst case scenario remove any efficiency
advantage.

B.5.1.1 Deposits

Deposits are normally caused by carry-over effects from the boilers, where unwanted matter
is carried with the steam to the turbine. The critical impurities in the steam are:
silica from make-up and condenser leakages
copper oxides from pre-heaters and condenser tubing (if applicable)
chlorides from make-up and condenser leakages
iron oxides (e.g. magnetite) from superheaters
carbon dioxide
sulfates
organic and inorganic acids.
The various types of impurities tend to distribute at different locations in the turbine.
Typically copper deposits tend to deposit in the HP turbine inlet section, often reducing the
inlet sections capacity; and silica tends to deposit in the middle of the LP turbine. Some of
the deposits are water soluble, and can, thus, be removed through washing, whereas some

65
deposits will require mechanical or chemical removal, which can only be performed with the
unit opened.

The main effects of deposits are increased surface roughness, changes in blade profile and
reduction of capacities due to narrowing of the steam path.

B.5.1.2 Surface roughness

Increased surface roughness is normally due to deposits, but can also be due to ageing,
foreign object damage, improper cleaning and conservation.

The most common cause for foreign object damage is from metal particle / weld bead carry-
over from the boiler during e.g. initial commissioning, or after boiler repairs, i.e. caused by
insufficient steam blows.

The exhaust stages of the turbine, which operate in wet steam conditions, will also be subject
to long-term erosion due to water droplet impingement, leading to increased surface
roughness as well as blade profile changes. Turbine manufacturers provide protective
measures, such as moisture separation and hardening of the leading edge of the blade to
reduce this erosion as far as possible.

B.5.1.3 Sealing leakages

Sealing leakage damages are in most cases due to tip rubbing, steam flow induced
vibrations and wrong assembly.

Rubbing is generally avoidable if the unit is operated within the start-up and transient load
change limitations set out in the instructions by the manufacturers, as these instructions will
be based on maintaining differential expansions such that no rubbing will occur.

Modelling in SteamMaster software indicates that a doubling of all gland leakages will reduce
the plant output by approx 0.7%.

B.5.1.4 Interstage leakages

Interstage steam leakages will also of course impact on the plant performance - not only will
the steam leakage reduce the amount of steam doing work in the turbine blading, but the
leakage steam flow will enter the main steam path perpendicularly, disturbing the flow
between rotating and stationary blading. In support of GEs statement referred to above,
reaction type turbines, which distribute the pressure drop over stationary and rotating
blading, require larger diameter gland seals, which create larger leakage areas, compared
with impulse turbines which have the full pressure drop over the stationary blading
(diaphragms) allowing the use of a relatively slim rotor with the blading mounted on discs.

Information indicate that each 0.5 mm of radial clearance in the inter-stage seals can reduce
the individual stage efficiency by 1 - 3% for each of the tip and root seals, depending on
turbine design. Some of the individual stage efficiency loss can be recovered in subsequent
stages through the reheat effect from the leakage.

B.5.1.5 Solid particle erosion

The inlet stages of most utility type turbines, operating with steam temperatures of 540C
and higher experience solid particle erosion (SPE) to some degree. This is generally caused
by magnetite particles from the superheater during start-up. Thus, it is generally
66
Condenser pressure
100.0%
100.2%
100.4%
100.6%
100.8%
101.0%
101.2%
101.4%
101.6%
101.8%
100% 110% 120% 130% 140%
Relative condenser pr essur e
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

h
e
a
t

r
a
t
e
recommended to have a start-up bypass to the condenser, allowing the magnetite to end up
directly in the condenser, instead of causing erosion on problems in the turbine.

The efficiency impact of SPE on the inlet stages of HP and IP turbines in reheat applications
is according to literature in the order of up to 0.5%, and it is assumed that SPE is repaired
during regular maintenance

B.5.2 Condensers

The condenser behaviour has a direct impact on the overall steam cycle performance, and
proper maintenance of the condenser and cooling system will be of great benefit for the
efficient operation of the plant.

Condenser performance degradation can be caused by any of below (or combination
thereof), all of which will impact on the condenser operating pressure and, thus, the plant
performance:
water-side fouling
leakages
vacuum equipment deterioration.
Simulations in SteamMaster of water side cleanliness factor for a turbine with the condenser
designed for 0.048 bar operating pressure and 10C temperature rise and design 0.9 fouling
factor show following relative heat rate as a function of cleanliness factor:

Similarly, based on the same condenser design, condenser pressure increase due to
leakages / vacuum equipment degradation, the impact of condensing pressure increase on
heat rate is shown in attached graph.

Cooling water pump efficiency degradation data indicates that a degradation of 10%
increases net heat rate by less than 0.05%.

Condenser foul i ng
100.0%
100.2%
100.4%
100.6%
100.8%
101.0%
101.2%
101.4%
101.6%
101.8%
60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90%
Cleanliness f act or
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

H
e
a
t

R
a
t
e
67
B.6 Boilers

A brief qualitative analysis of the other parts of the plant outlines the key degradation issues,
separated into PF fired boilers for steam power plants and HRSGs for combined cycles.

B.6.1 Boiler (PF fired, for Steam power plant)

An article titled How stealth combustion losses lower plant efficiency (Power Magazine,
March 2005) gives a detailed outline of performance degradation causes in a coal-fired
power plant. The article in particular describes the degradation caused by air leakages at
various parts of the boiler, and also gives typical values for potential heat rate improvements
for various types of plant maintenance. The article can be obtained from www.platts.com.

Potential areas that can cause boiler degradation are discussed in short below (see above
referenced article for more in-depth information).

B.6.1.1 Heat transfer surfaces

General experience indicates that there is an initial degradation from new as a result of the
heat transfer surfaces fouling compared with the new and clean condition. However, as the
surface areas have been calculated based on a fouling level defined by the characteristics of
the design fuel, with due consideration of the performance of soot blowing, this normally
means that the boiler will actually over-perform during the initial operation.

Additionally, water washing of the heat transfer surfaces during regular shutdowns also
assists in returning performance to close to original condition.

Modeling in SteamMaster shows that a 50% increase in nominal furnace water wall fouling
(from 1 - 1.5) will reduce steam production at constant fuel flow by some 4%, resulting in
approx 0.8 - 0.9% total output reduction.

Similar modeling of economiser fouling indicates that a doubling of the fouling will have less
than 0.2% impact on total steam flow.

B.6.1.2 Combustion

Degradation can occur through burner wear and / or problems with combustion air supply /
distribution (e.g. leakages etc), which may impact on excess air levels, flame control etc., all
of which can affect combustion efficiency.

Overall, rectification of these issues can be deemed reasonably straightforward, primarily
achieved through replacements of seals, air flow control devices, and burner nozzles.
Please refer to above referenced article for more details.

B.6.1.3 Air preheater

A major area of boiler degradation is through increased leakages in rotary air preheaters,
impacting on excess air levels, combustion air temperature control etc., with potential large
efficiency loss

As with the combustion equipment, rectification is relatively straightforward.

SteamMaster modeling indicates that a doubling of the leakages will have following plant
heat rate impact:
68

Air path cold / hot end leakages: ~0.2% each
Primary air cold/hot end leakage ~0.05% each

Please refer to above referenced article for more details.

B.6.1.4 Auxiliary losses

SteamMaster simulations on the impact of boiler air fan and feed pump efficiency losses
indicate relatively low heat rate degradation. For a 10% reduction in isentropic efficiencies,
following results were achieved:

Boiler FD +ID fan: Heat rate increase: 0.16%
Feed water pump: Heat rate increase: 0.11%.

In other words, boiler auxiliary power consumer degradation has relatively minor impact
compared with other boiler efficiency losses.

B.6.2 Heat Recovery Steam Generators

Overall, HRSGs for gas fired combined cycles (relevant for Australia) do not seem to have
any major areas of performance degradation, as they operate with clean, ash-free exhaust
gases.

B.7 Cycling Operation

B.7.1 Gas turbines

Gas turbine maintenance is generally scheduled on a calculated Equivalent Operating Hour
basis (or other modeling taking cycling and thermal fatigue parameters into consideration)
which takes onto account factors such as normal running/fired hours, peak load operation,
start-stop cycles, trips, fuel quality impact and steam/water injection impact.

Overall, the GT maintenance is aimed at ensuring the mechanical integrity of the unit, in
particular the hot section components (combustor, turbine stator vanes and turbine blades),
which are subject to a combination of cycle fatigue and creep life due to operation at high
temperatures in combination with high centrifugal forces and bending moments. Efficiency
improvements achieved through refurbishment / replacement of the hot section components
can largely be regarded as a beneficial side effect of these component replacements.

Cyclic operation will normally be considered in the EOH calculations to ensure maintenance
is performed to maintain the units mechanical integrity. If the unit is not operated strictly
according to the manufacturers recommendations in terms of start-up times, ramping rates
etc., cycling potentially also cause accelerated performance degradation through e.g.
increased sealing wear due to recurring rubbing caused differential thermal expansions
between stator and rotor.

It should be noted that a detailed Internet information search for cyclic degradation of
turbines did not generate any relevant references to performance degradation - the main
concern of cycling of combustion turbines refer to the impact on material/component integrity.
69
B.7.2 Steam turbines

As for gas turbines, the key issue of cycling of steam turbine relates to the impact on the
service life of the equipment- particularly the risk of cracks developing in the rotor or blading
due to thermal stresses, although start-up times and load changes outside of the
manufacturers recommendations can potentially lead to damage to inter-stage labyrinth
seals and, thus, increased leakage losses due to excessive differential expansion between
rotor and stator. Overall operation within the manufacturers recommendations for start-up
times and load transients/ramping rates should not have a noticeable additional performance
impact.

B.7.3 Boilers

As with gas and steam turbine, cycling of boilers impact far more on the mechanical integrity
of the boiler than on the performance.

Cycling will primarily increase fatigue failures, causing damages such as failures of tubes,
tube-to-header joints etc due to frequent and large temperature changes. Operational issues
such as feed water control can also adversely impact the HRSG, in particular corrosion due
to excess oxygen in the feed water etc.

Vogt Power International (Babcock Power Inc. Group) has presented a paper: Design and
Modification of Heat Recovery Steam Generators For Cycling Operations which gives
detailed information on the mechanisms that impact on HRSG life and cyclings impact on
these mechanisms. It is available from http://www.babcockpower.com. Similar impacts as
those described in above paper can be expected for fired boilers.

As indicated earlier, information search has not identified any specific reference to
performance degradation from cycling. Of course, steam or feed water leakages as a result
of tube or header damage will cause performance degradation, however, as such damages
would normally require immediate shutdown for repair, and would thus not impact long-term
thermal performance.

In case mechanical damage leads to e.g. air / flue gas leakages through e.g. air pre-heaters
in the case of fired boilers or casing/ducting leakages in HRSGs performance degradation
will occur as a result of leakage losses and possibly sub-optimal combustion in the case of
fired boilers.

B.8 Literature References

GE-3567h - GE Gas Turbines Performance Characteristics
GER-3419A - Gas Turbine Inlet Air Treatment
GER-3750c - Steam Turbine Sustained Efficiency
Theory for Turbomachinery Degradation and Monitoring Tools - Magnus Genrup (Licentiate
Thesis J une 2003, Department of Heat and Power Engineering, Lund Institute of
Technology, Sweden)
Design and Modification of Heat Recovery Steam Generators for Cyclic Operation - Vogt
Power International technical paper
No Deposits, Big Returns, Power Magazine April 2005
How Stealth Combustion Losses Lower Plant Efficiency, Power Magazine March 2005.
70
APPENDIX C GAS METER CATEGORIES AND MEASUREMENT RECOMMENDATIONS

Table C.1 - Gas meter categories and measurement recommendations.

Category Maximum Daily
Quantity
GJ/day
Metering
Standards
Transmitter Requirements &
Accuracy (% of Range)
Gas Quality, Q
gr,p
, and
Specific Gravity
Measurement Method

Remarks
1 0 1,750 Agreed method
based on
Standards
referenced in
Sect. 5.1.2/5.1.3
Pressure <0.25%
Diff. Pressure <0.25%
Temperature <0.50%
Reviewed monthly
based on monthly flow
weighted average
measured at
representative metering
facility. Q
gr
declared by
Chief Gas Examiner as
per Sect. 5.1.2/5.1.3
6 monthly validation by an approved
person.
Orifice plate inspections 6 monthly.
Turbine meter spin test to be carried
out every 12 months.
Turbine and PD meters certified 12
monthly by independent testing
authority or by Master Meter. The
period between checks may be
increased up to a maximum period of
3 years, subject to satisfactory test
history and check procedures.
Master meter where used, certified
every 5 years.

2 1,750 3,500 Satisfies all
Standards
referenced in
Sect. 5.1.2/5.1.3
Pressure <0.25%
Temperature <0.50%
Reviewed monthly
based on monthly flow
weighted average
measured at
representative metering
facility. Q
gr
declared by
Chief Gas Examiner as
per Sect. 5.1.2/5.1.3
Monthly validation (includes orifice
plate inspections) by an approved
person. The validation period may be
extended to a maximum of 6 months
subject to satisfactory test history and
check procedures.
Turbine meters spin test to be carried
out every 12 months.
Orifice meter inspected, cleaned and
certified every 2 years.
Turbine and PD meters certified by an
independent testing authority or
Master Meter every 12 months.
Master meter certified every 2 years.
71
Table C.1 - Gas meter categories and measurement recommendations.

Category Maximum Daily
Quantity
GJ/day
Metering
Standards
Transmitter Requirements &
Accuracy (% of Range)
Gas Quality, Q
gr,p
, and
Specific Gravity
Measurement Method

Remarks
3 3,500 17,500 Satisfies all
Standards
referenced in
Sect. 5.1.2/5.1.3
Smart Transmitters:
Pressure <0.10%
Temperature <0.25%
On-line instantaneous
measurement
preferred.
person. The validation period may be
extended to a maximum of 3 months
check procedures.
out every 3 months.
Turbine and PD meters certified by an
Master Meter every 6 months. The
period may be extended to 12 months
check procedures.
Master meter certified annually.

4 >17,500 Satisfies all
Standards
referenced in
Sect. 5.1.2/5.1.3
Smart Transmitters:
Pressure <0.10%
Temperature <0.25%
On-line instantaneous
measurement
preferred.

person.
out every 3 months.
Turbine meters certified by an
Master Meter every 6 months.
Master meter certified annually.

72
APPENDIX D INDICATIVE OPTIONS FOR REDUCING
GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM EXISTING PLANTS

D.1 Range Of Options

A range of options for increasing plant efficiency and, thus, reducing CO
2
emissions is
available. These can be categorised into three classes of action:

Restore the Plant to Design Condition
Change Operational Settings
Retrofit Improvements.

Tables D.1 and D.2 list options for CO
2
reduction, and provides a brief description of each
action with an indication of the reduction in Greenhouse Intensity that could be achieved.
This list is not intended to be exhaustive - there may be other alternatives. Not all the
options listed can be applied to all plants and some of these options are mutually exclusive.
73

Table D.1 Options for greenhouse gas reduction: boiler, steam turbine and heat recovery steam
generator plant.

Action Description Potential
Efficiency
Improvement,
% HHV


Operate boiler
at the design
O
2
in flue gas
Any O
2
in the flue gas represents an excess of air above that
needed for combustion and is a loss of energy because that
excess air leaves the boiler at a higher temperature than it
entered. Reduced excess air will bring an immediate
increase in boiler efficiency.

Up to 0.6
Restore and
maintain air-
heaters
The air-heater plays an important part in recovering energy
from the combustion products. If the air-heater is allowed to
operate with ash deposits or with damaged or missing
surface (in the case of rotary air-heaters), boiler efficiency will
be reduced.

Up to 0.3
Minimise boiler
tramp air
Boiler tramp air does not pass through the air-heater, which
means that the reduced air flow through the air-heater will not
cool the flue gas as much as intended resulting in lower
efficiency. It also forces operation with higher than
necessary excess air.

Up to 1.0
Reinstate any
feed-heaters
out of service
Feed-heaters improve steam cycle efficiency by using low-
grade heat from low-pressure steam from the turbine to heat
the boiler feed water. Feed-heaters are sometimes taken out
of service permanently to overcome water leakage problems.
This can lead to an increase in power output, but at reduced
fuel efficiency. The effect on efficiency is different depending
on the plant design.

Up to 2.0
Reduce
turbine gland
leakage
The main gland leakage point is between the high pressure
cylinder and the intermediate pressure cylinder. Any leakage
of steam at this point allows it to bypass the high pressure
turbine without any useful work being done by it.

Up to 0.2

Low excess air
operation
Low excess air operation reduces the quantity of combustion
gases and, hence, the heat loss from the dry flue gases
leaving the boiler. The excess air level is a trade-off between
unburnt fuel loss at low excess air and flue gas heat loss at
high excess air. The level can often be reduced, particularly
if the combustion system is properly tuned and controlled.

Up to 1.2
Improved
combustion
control
Improved combustion control enables the boiler to operate
with lower excess air without the risk of combustion instability
or excessive unburnt fuel. It involves both burner tuning
better control system performance to keep the plant in a safe
condition with low excess air.

Up to 0.5
74
generator plant.

Efficiency
Improvement,
% HHV
Increased
condenser
cleaning
Condenser fouling causes the turbine back pressure to
increase. More frequent cleaning can keep this increase to a
minimum, allowing higher efficiency. The cleaning can either
be on-line or off-line. The rate of condenser fouling depends
on many factors. The improvement that is possible is plant
specific.

Up to 0.5
Increased
boiler cleaning
Boiler ash deposits reduce heat transfer rates and ultimately
lead to higher flue gas temperatures. The boiler can be kept
cleaner, either through off-load cleaning or through the use of
better on-load cleaning systems such as soot blowers, water
blowers and water cannons.

Up to 1.0

Retrofit Improvements

Add extra heat
transfer
surface in the
boiler, e.g.
economiser or
air-heater
Extra heat transfer surface in the boiler will enable additional
heat to be extracted from the flue gas leading to lower flue
gas temperatures. In some cases, the boilers already have
space allowance for extra air-heater surface. There is an
increased risk of low temperature corrosion.

Up to 0.8
Install
additional
sootblowers
Additional sootblowers will help keep the boiler surfaces
cleaner and, thus, increase the effective surface area. This
will bring a slight reduction in flue gas temperature.

Up to 0.4
Install dry
furnace ash
extraction
system
Replace existing wet furnace ash extraction system with a
dry system to reduce heat losses due to sensible heat in
furnace ash, and radiation to ash hopper and save auxiliary
power.

Up to 0.7
Install new
high efficiency
turbine blades
Modern turbine blades have 3-dimensional variation in shape
and are more efficient than the original blades. It is possible
to install new blades in the last rows or replace all blades and
install new rotors.

Up to 1.0
Change to
steam driven
feed pumps
Steam driven feed pumps can reduce the auxiliary power
requirements of the plant by using lower grade energy for
feed pumping.

Install variable
speed drives
on major plant
items
Variable speed drives allow the auxiliary power consumption
to be reduced as the plant load is reduced, and thus the
benefits plants that have long periods of operation at reduced
load.

Up to 0.4
Install on-line
condenser
cleaning
system
Improved condenser cleaning can improve efficiency by
allowing lower turbine exhaust temperatures. On-line
cleaning will allow the condenser to be kept at a high level of
cleanliness.

Up to 0.5
75
generator plant.

Efficiency
Improvement,
% HHV
Install new
cooling tower
film pack
In plants that use cooling towers, installing new film-type
packs can reduce the cooling water temperature to the
condensers. Some cooling towers only have spray systems,
which are less effective.

Up to 1.0

76

Table D.2 Options for greenhouse gas reduction: open-cycle gas turbine plant.

Efficiency
Improvement,
% HHV


Replace/clean
fouled air filters
Fouled air filters increase the pressure drop across the air
inlet to the gas turbine compressor.

Up to 0.4%


Increase
frequency of
compressor
cleaning
Compressor washing restores compressor efficiency. Up to 0.5% per
wash
Check control
system
settings
Check IGV angles, instrument calibration and hardware for
correct operation.

Up to 0.5%

Retrofit Improvements

Consider inlet
air conditioning
Options are evaporative cooler, mist/fog system. Up to 0.5%
Upgrade
components to
increase firing
temperature
Increased firing temperature increases efficiency. Application
specific
Review air inlet
and GT
exhaust
arrangements
Revised inlet and exhaust duct arrangements may reduce
pressure drop.
Up to 0.3%

77
APPENDIX E COSTING OF OPTIONS

The $ cost/t CO
2
equivalent avoided is broadly calculated as follows:

saved CO Tonnes
actions greenhouse ng implementi of Cost Net
avoided tCO Cost
2
2
$
/ = Eqn (E.1)

where the $ savings are usually in the form of fuel savings.

For example, if a particular action is identified which will cost $100,000 per annum
(annualised capital cost plus any additional non-fuel operating and maintenance cost, less
annual fuel saving) but with savings of 20,000 t CO
2
per annum, then the $ Cost/t CO
2

avoided is $5/t.

The Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO) developed a tool, the GES Abatement Calculator,
to help GES Measure participants and other generators carry out cost analyses in a
consistent way. GES participants are encouraged to use the GES Abatement Calculator for
financial assessments of proposed abatement actions.

The costing calculator includes the following tools:

Spreadsheet-based model that calculates the cost of abatement in $/tonne CO
2
-e
terms (see note below)
User Guide.

These publications are available from
http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/ges/publications/index.html

The steps necessary to calculate the $/tonne cost of abatement (whether negative or
positive) are explained within the calculator itself. The Model calculates the $/tonne cost of
GHG abatement by evaluating the costs and benefits of carrying out an action to reduce
GHG emissions. The cost/benefit analysis is carried out using a standard Net Present Value
(NPV) project analysis. An improvement project would be considered viable if the NPV of the
project was zero (at the selected discount rate) if all relevant factors affecting the financial
analysis were taken into account.

The costs and revenues are escalated at some percentage of the consumer price index
(CPI) and the net cash flows over the years discounted back to todays $ to reflect the time
value of money. A negative NPV would indicate a project that did not meet the criteria set,
caused by insufficient revenue to offset the capital cost and changes in operating costs.

The cost of GHG abatement is defined as the Net Present Value below zero. A positive NPV
would indicate a project that was viable purely on financial grounds without assigning any
value to the GHG savings that will occur as a direct result of the project.

The Model uses equations from the GES Technical Guidelines to calculate the Greenhouse
Intensity in kg/MWh for the plant before the modification or action (called business as
usual) and after the action (called after modification).

The Model is arranged in two sections each comprising two worksheets for:

Coal fired plant (which can be expanded to cater for other fuels). This uses the
methodology in the GES Technical Guidelines Section 7.2 Eqn. (11)
78
Gas fired plant - This uses Table 5.1 to evaluate the emission factor for the gas being
used and then the formula on page 51 of the Technical Guidelines to calculate the
Greenhouse Intensity.

Provision has been made to include the affects of tax and depreciation. Generally, to provide
a level playing field for the assessments these would be set to zero. These have been
included for special cases where there is something unusual about the circumstances of the
modification i.e. it attracts a special tax break or increased depreciation. The use of values
other than zero would need to be justified.

A discount rate of 12% was considered appropriate if the evaluation is being made without
considering tax and depreciation. 12% was considered a reasonable Weighted Average
Cost of Capital in the electricity industry.

A default duration of 10 years of operation with the modification in place is used, but may be
amended by users. Generally, a 10 year period is considered a reasonable period for the
benefits to be realised. After 10 years operation, the plant may need to be refurbished
(above normal maintenance) and the performance gain may decrease considerably.

The main inputs that can be varied on the financial modelling worksheet are:

Unit capacity - Many modifications that improve the efficiency of plant also increase
(but not always) the maximum capacity. For some plant this increases the revenue
earning potential of the plant

Auxiliary Load - some modifications change the auxiliary load required for the plant
either increasing or decreasing the amount of electricity available for sale

Capacity Factor (and Reliability) - some modifications change these either
increasing or decreasing the amount of electricity available for sale

Efficiency (expressed as heat rate) - the user can nominate the change in heat rate
on a yearly basis as the affect of the modification may vary over time

Fuel Price - for example as a result of changing fuel source or preparation

Capital Cost of the modification

Changes in operating cost - personnel, materials and contracts.

The greenhouse gas savings are calculated by multiplying the change in Greenhouse
Intensity by the after electricity output, expressed in MWh.

The value of the GHG abatement over the calculation period is calculated by:

Escalating the Dollar/Tonne cost of GHG abatement, using the cumulative CPI at
present. There may be reasons why this would change, e.g. carbon trading values
Converting these value to real $ values (i.e. discounting by the cumulative CPI)
Obtaining real $ per year values by multiplying by the amount of GHG abated (in
tonnes) for the year
Discounting these $ values by the discount rate to obtain an NPV for the value of
GHG abatement
79
A solution is found for the $/tonne of abatement where the sum of the NPVs from the
financial analysis and the abatement analysis are zero. This is the cost of the GHG
abatement.

The spreadsheets give worked examples of a modification of both a coal and a gas fired
plant.

APPENDIX F NEW PLANT STANDARDS

F.1 Types of Power Generation Cycles

An overview of the application of a range of various fossil fuels in power generation
technologies is given in Table F.1 below. A general description of the technologies is readily
obtained from the literature (see References Section F.3) and is, therefore, not replicated in
this guideline.

Table F.1 Fossil fuel/power generation technology applications

Fossil Fuels
Combustion
Turbine
Air
Turbine
Boiler
Retort/
Air
Turbine
AFBC PFBC IGCC
OCGT CCGT OCGT SubC
SC/
USC
OCGT SubC
Natural Gas X X X
Coal Seam
Gas/Coal Bed
Methane
X X X

Black coal X X X X X
Brown coal X X X X X
Coal washery
rejects
X X
Coke oven off-gas X X
Coal mine methane X X X

Heavy fuel oil X X
Diesel X X X X
Distillate X X X
Petroleum Coke X X X X
Fuel oil residues X
Shale oil X X
Notes:
a. Abbreviations OCGT Open cycle gas turbine; CCGT Combined cycle gas turbine; SubC
Sub-critical; SC super-critical; USC ultra super-critical; Atmospheric fluidised bed
combustor; PFBC pressurised fluidised bed combustor; IGCC Integrated gasification
combined cycle
b. X indicates possible fossil fuel/technology applications.
c. Shaded cells indicate fossil fuel/technology options specifically covered in the present guide,
which represent the most common applications for electricity generation.
d. No distinction is drawn in the present guide between Natural Gas and Coal Seam Gas/Coal
Bed Methane.

F.2 Performance of Electric Power Generation Systems

F.2.1 Background

The AGO recognises that new plant standards for a given class of plant should reflect Best
Available Technology (BAT) under a range of Australian conditions. Indicative values of
power plant efficiency and Greenhouse Intensity have been determined (CCSD, May 2005)
using a recognised power industry software package, GateCycle
from GE Enter Software,

for the following technology/fuel types:

(i) Super-critical PF plant under wet and dry cooling conditions (SCW, SCD) for
black and brown (lignite) Australian coals
(ii) Ultra-super-critical PF plant under wet and dry cooling conditions (USCW, USCD)
for black and brown (lignite) Australian coals
(iii) Open and combined cycle gas turbines using natural gas/coal seam gas, and
distillate fuels.

In addition, a basic set of ambient corrections or dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature
(or relative humidity) and ambient pressure for each of the technology options has been
established.

The modeling work was validated and tested using the following procedures:

(i) Comparison of predicted performance from the GateCycle
model against actual

performance of state-of-the-art coal fired plant (super-critical) and gas turbine
combined cycle power plant recently installed and operating under Australian
conditions
(ii) Comparison of model outputs for the PF super-critical and ultra-super-critical
cases against outputs from other proprietary models such as Steam Master and
SteamPro
(iii) Comparison of performance differences against literature data.

F.2.2 Reference conditions

The power plant efficiency and greenhouse intensity standard values presented in these
Guidelines have been based on the reference coal, natural gas/coal seam gas and fuel oil
specifications summarised in Tables F.2 F.4 below. The fuel types assessed were as
follows:

Black Coal: BLC1 - Medium ash, high volatile domestic coal (e.g., Surat basin coal)
Black Coal: BLC2 - Medium ash, low - medium volatile domestic coal (e.g., Hunter
Valley coal)
Black Coal: BLC3 - Medium ash, very high volatile domestic coal (e.g., Collie coal)
Brown Coal: BRC1 - Low ash, high moisture brown coal/lignite (e.g., Latrobe Valley
brown coal)
Natural gas - NG
Coal seam gas - CSG (or Coal Bed Methane, CBM)
Distillate D.
Table F.2 - Reference coals
Black coal
1
Black coal
2
Black coal
3
Brown coal
1
Proximate Analysis
Total moisture (%, ar) 12.4 7.5 25.0 61.5
Ash (%, ar) 25.4 21.2 8.0 0.8
Volatile matter (%, ar) 33.3 29.2 27.6 19.5
Fixed carbon (%, ar) 28.7 42.1 39.4 18.2
Gross calorific value (MJ /kg, ar - HHV) 20.14 24.4 19.20 10.2
Ultimate analysis
Carbon (%, daf) 76.5 84.3 75.1 69.8
Hydrogen (%, daf) 6.45 5.3 4.36 4.90
Nitrogen (%, daf) 0.95 1.8 1.39 0.60
Sulphur (%, daf) 0.53 0.6 0.55 0.40
Oxygen (%, daf) 15.57 7.9 18.6 24.3
Unburnt carbon in furnace ash (%) 5.0 5.0 3.0 18.0
Unburnt carbon in fly ash (%) 1.7 2.0 1.0 18.0
Proportion of ash emitted as fly ash (%) 90 90 90 90
Abbreviations: ar - as-received; daf - dry, ash-free

Table F.3 Reference natural gas/coal seam gas
Base pressure (bar, absolute) 1.01325
Base temperature (C) 15
SG of mixture 0.6185
Gross calorific value (MJ /Sm
3
, HHV) 38.91
Net calorific value (MJ /Sm
3
, HHV) 35.11
Density (kg/Sm
3
) 0.7579
Wobbe Index (MJ /Sm
3
, HHV) 49.48
Composition (mole %)
Methane 90.91
Ethane 4.50
Propane 1.04
n-Butane 0.21
i-Butane 0.13
Helium 0.04
Nitrogen 1.11
Carbon Dioxide 2.06

Table F.4 Reference distillate
Moisture (%) 0
Ash (%) 0
Gross calorific value (MJ /kg, HHV) 45.74
Composition (mass %)
Carbon 86.67
Hydrogen 13.23
Nitrogen 0.09
Sulfur 0.01

In addition, the following ambient conditions apply.

Table F.5 Reference ambient conditions
Ambient Conditions Parameter
Base 1 2 3 4 5 6
Dry bulb temperature (C) 25.00 10.00 35.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00
Wet bulb temperature (C) 19.45 6.46 28.16 19.35 19.40 14.37 22.37
Relative humidity (%) 60 60 60 60 60 30 80
Pressure (bar, a) 1 1 1 0.945 0.975 1 1
Equivalent altitude (m) 111 111 111 584 323 111 111

A range of steam conditions were selected for the PF power plant assessments to cover a
range of super-critical and ultra-super-critical steam conditions. The steam conditions
applied to the combined cycle gas turbine application were based on a large state-of-the-art
plant already installed in Australia. The steam turbine conditions are given in Table F.6.

Table F.6 Steam turbine conditions
PF plants
Wet cooling
Black coal Brown coal

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5
Dry
cooling
Gas turbine
combined
cycle plants
Main steam inlet
Pressure (MPa) 27.5 28.5 30.0 25.0 26.5 27.5 11.3
Temperature (C) 605 600 630 566 576 605 565
Reheat steam inlet
Pressure (MPa) 5.7 6.1 6.1 4.4 5.7 5.7 2.7
Temperature (C) 613 620 630 565 600 613 565
Condenser pressure
(kPa) - based on 90%
cleanliness factor
6 6 6 6 6 12 6

In all cases, the main boiler feed water pump is steam driven and a mechanical draft cooling
tower is used. The turbine generator efficiency was assumed to be 99.1% with a power
factor of 0.9. The transformer loss of 0.3% was assumed.

F.2.3 Simulation results

F.2.3.1 Ultra super-critical PF plant with wet cooling with black coals

The simulation model for this plant was based on an existing super-critical PF plant. In
raising the steam conditions from super-critical to ultra super-critical (see Table F.7), it was
assumed that the turbine stage efficiency of each pressure stage remained constant. This
was a triple pressure, single reheat cycle with seven feed water pre-heaters, including a
deaerator. The main feed water pump was steam driven. The condenser was wet cooled
with the cooling water and operated at 6 kPa. The cooling tower was a mechanical-draft
type. The boiler exhaust gas left the stack at 130C.

The simulations were performed with three different black coals and the results are shown in
Table F.8.

Table F.7 Steam turbine conditions
Super-critical Ultra super-critical*
Main steam inlet
Temperature (C) 566 605
Pressure (MPa) 25.0 27.5
Reheat steam inlet
Condenser pressure (kPa) 6 6
Isentropic stage efficiency
High pressure stage 0.902 0.902
Intermediate pressure stage 0.890 0.890
Low pressure stage 0.896 0.896
* Case 1 in Table 6

Table F.8 Ultra super-critical PF plant with black coals & wet cooling system, coal variation
results
Coal Black coal 1 Black coal 2 Black coal 3
CO
2
emission factor (kgCO
2
/GJ fuel) 85.4 90.1 96.1
Ambient and steam conditions
Dry bulb temperature (C) 25 25 25
Relative humidity (%) 60 60 60
Ambient air pressure (mbar absolute) 1,000 1,000 1,000
Main (superheat) steam @ turbine inlet
Temperature (C) 605 605 605
Pressure (MPa) 27.5 27.5 27.5
Reheat (single) steam @ turbine inlet
Pressure (MPa) 5.7 5.7 5.7
Final feedwater temperature (C) 290 290 290
Unit performance
Gross power (MWe) 446 446 446
Net power (MWe) 425 426 425
Sent-out power (MWe) 424 425 424
Boiler efficiency (%, HHV) 87.4 89.4 87.3
Turbine efficiency (%) 48.4 48.4 48.4
Sent-out thermal efficiency (%, HHV) 40.2 41.2 40.2
Power station CO
2
emission (kg/MWh SO) 765 785 860
Power station SO
2
emission (kg/MWh SO) 2.9 3.1 3.4
Water consumption (kg/MWh SO) 1,880 1,870 1,880
Coal feed rate (kg/hr) 188,300 151,900 197,600

F.2.3.2 Ultra super-critical PF plant with black coal and dry cooling system

The simulation model in F.2.3.1 was modified by replacing the mechanical-draft water-cooled
condenser with a mechanical-draft air-cooled condenser. The condenser operating pressure
was increased from 6 kPa to 12 kPa.

The simulations were performed with three different black coals and the results are shown in
Table F.9.
Table F.9 Ultra-super-critical PF plant with dry cooling, coal variation results
Coal Black coal 1 Black coal 2 Black coal 3
CO
2
emission factor
(kgCO
2
/GJ fuel)
85.4 90.1 96.1
Dry bulb temperature (C) 25 25 25
Relative humidity (%) 60 60 60
Ambient air pressure (mbar
absolute)
1,000 1,000 1,000
Main (superheat) steam @
turbine inlet

Pressure (MPa) 27.5 27.5 27.5
Reheat (single) steam @
turbine inlet

Pressure (MPa) 5.7 5.7 5.7
Final feedwater
temperature (C)
290 290 290
Unit performance
Gross power (MWe) 429 429 429
Net power (MWe) 409 410 408
Sent-out power (MWe) 407 408 408
Boiler efficiency (%, HHV) 87.4 89.4 87.3
Turbine efficiency (%) 46.6 46.6 46.6
Sent-out thermal efficiency
(%, HHV)
38.7 39.7 38.7
Power station CO
2

emission (kg/MWh SO)
795 820 895
Power station SO
2

3.0 3.2 3.6
Water consumption
(kg/MWh SO)
0 0 0
Coal feed rate (kg/hr) 188,300 151,900 197,600

F.2.3.3 Ultra super-critical PF plant with wet cooling with black coal 1

The simulation model in F.2.3.1 was modified by changing the steam turbine inlet conditions
(see Conditions 2 & 3 in Table F.6). Again, it was assumed that the turbine stage efficiency
of each pressure stage remained constant for different steam conditions. The excess air
fraction, stack gas temperature and boiler efficiency were also kept constant.

The simulations were performed with black coal 1 only and the results are shown in Table
F.10.
Table F.10 Super-critical and ultra super-critical PF plant with black coal 1 and wet cooling
system, steam condition variation results
Case 1
SC
Case 2
USC
Case 3
USC
Case 4
USC
CO
2
2
/GJ fuel) 85.4 85.4 85.4 85.4
Dry bulb temperature (C) 25 25 25 25
Relative humidity (%) 60 60 60 60
Ambient air pressure (mbar absolute) 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
Main (superheat) steam @ turbine
inlet

Pressure (MPa) 25.0 27.5 28.5 30.0
Temperature (C) 566 605 600 630
Pressure (MPa) 4.4 5.7 6.1 6.1
Temperature (C) 565 613 620 630
Final feedwater temperature (C) 287 290 290 292
Unit performance
Gross power (MWe) 421.3 446.3 446.9 460.7
Net power (MWe) 401.1 424.9 425.5 438.6
Sent-out power (MWe) 399.9 423.6 424.2 437.2
Boiler efficiency (%, HHV) 87.4 87.4 87.4 87.4
Turbine efficiency (%) 47.1 48.4 48.5 49.1
Sent-out thermal efficiency (%, HHV) 39.1 40.2 40.3 40.8
Power station CO
2
emission (kg/MWh
SO)
785 764 763 753
Power station SO
2
emission (kg/MWh
SO)
3.01 2.92 2.92 2.88
Water consumption (kg/MWh SO) 2000 1877 1871 1825
Coal feed rate (kg/hr) 182,800 188,300 188,200 191,600

F.2.3.4 Ultra super-critical PF plant with wet cooling with black coal 1 ambient
condition variations

The simulations under varying ambient conditions were performed with black coal 1 only and
the results are shown in Table F.11.
Table F.11 Ultra super-critical PF plant with black coal 1 and wet cooling system ambient
condition variations results
Ref. Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6
CO
2
emission factor
(kgCO
2
/GJ fuel)
85.4 85.4 85.4 85.4 85.4 85.4 85.4
Ambient and steam
conditions

Dry bulb temperature
(C)
25 10 35 25 25 25 25
Ambient air pressure
(mbar absolute)
1,000 1,000 1,000 945 975 1,000 1,000
Main (superheat) steam
@ turbine inlet

Pressure (MPa) 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5
Temperature (C) 605 605 605 605 605 605 605
turbine inlet

Pressure (MPa) 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70
Temperature (C) 613 613 613 613 613 613 613
Final feedwater
temperature (C)
290 289 289 290 290 289 290
Unit performance
Gross power (MWe) 446 446 434 446 446 446 446
Net power (MWe) 425 425 412 425 425 425 425
Sent-out power (MWe) 424 424 411 424 424 424 424
Boiler efficiency (%,
HHV)
87.4 87.3 87.5 87.4 87.4 87.5 87.4
Turbine efficiency (%) 48.4 48.6 47.5 48.5 48.4 48.6 48.2
Sent-out thermal
efficiency (%, HHV)
40.2 40.4 39.4 40.2 40.2 40.4 40.0
Power station CO
2

765 760 780 765 765 760 770
Power station SO
2

2.9 2.9 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9
Water consumption
(kg/MWh SO)
1,877 1,498 2,167 1,888 1,883 2,009 1,808
Coal feed rate (kg/hr) 188,300 187,500 186,500 188,100 188,300 187,500 189,300

F.2.3.5 Ultra super-critical PF plant with dry cooling with black coal 1 ambient
condition variations

The simulations under varying ambient conditions were performed with black coal 1 only and
the results are shown in Table F.12.
Table F.12 Ultra super-critical PF plant with dry cooling with black coal 1 ambient condition
variations results
Ref. Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6
CO
2
emission factor
(kgCO
2
/GJ fuel)
85.4 85.4 85.4 85.4 85.4 85.4 85.4
Dry bulb temperature (C) 25 10 35 25 25 25 25
Ambient air pressure (mbar
absolute)
1,000 1,000 1,000 945 975 1,000 1,000
Main (superheat) steam @
turbine inlet

Pressure (MPa) 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5
Temperature (C) 605 605 605 605 605 605 605
turbine inlet

Pressure (MPa) 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70
Temperature (C) 613 613 613 613 613 613 613
Condenser back-pressure
(kPa)
12.2 5.57 19.4 12.4 12.3 12.3 12.2
Final feedwater
temperature (C)
290 287 289 290 290 290 290
Unit performance
Gross power (MWe) 429 429 414 429 429 429 429
Net power (MWe) 409 409 394 409 409 409 409
Boiler efficiency (%, HHV) 87.4 87.3 87.5 87.4 87.4 87.5 87.4
Turbine efficiency (%) 46.6 47.9 45.3 46.6 46.6 46.5 46.6
Sent-out thermal efficiency
(%, HHV)
38.67 39.8 37.55 38.66 38.66 38.60 38.66
Power station CO
2
emission
(kg/MWh SO)
795 770 820 795 795 796 795
Power station SO
2
emission
(kg/MWh SO)
3.04 2.95 3.13 3.04 3.04 3.05 3.04
Water consumption
(kg/MWh SO)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Coal feed rate (kg/hr) 188,300 183,100 186,800 188,400 188,400 188,700 188,300

F.2.3.6 Super-critical and ultra super-critical PF plants with wet cooling with brown
coal 1

The simulation model in F.2.3.1 was modified to be run with brown coal 1. The most
significant changes made were the lower furnace exit gas temperature and higher stack gas
temperature (160C); and unburnt carbon in ash (18%). The operating conditions on the
steam side were the same as in the black coal cases. Only the overall heat and mass
balances around the boiler were performed and the coal drying stage was not modeled
separately.

The simulations were performed for two sets of steam conditions (see Conditions 4 & 5 in
Table F.5). Again, it was assumed that the turbine stage efficiency of each pressure stage
remained constant for different steam conditions.

The results of the simulations are shown in Table F.13.

Table F.13 Super-critical and ultra super-critical PF plants with brown coal 1 and wet cooling
system
Condition 4 Condition 5
CO
2
2
/GJ fuel) 94.2 94.2
Dry bulb temperature (C) 25 25
Relative humidity (%) 60 60
Ambient air pressure (mbar absolute) 1,000 1,000
Main (superheat) steam @ turbine inlet
Final feedwater temperature (C) 287 288
Unit performance
Gross power (MWe) 421 432
Net power (MWe) 394 405
Sent-out power (MWe) 393 404
Boiler efficiency (%, HHV) 72.0 72.0
Turbine efficiency (%) 47.1 47.8
Sent-out thermal efficiency (%, HHV) 31.8 32.3
Power station CO
2
emission (kg/MWh SO) 1,065 1,050
Power station SO
2
emission (kg/MWh SO) 3.36 3.31
Water consumption (kg/MWh SO) 2,013 1,957
Coal feed rate (kg/hr) 435,900 440,700

F.2.3.7 Open cycle gas turbine plants with natural gas and distillate fuels

The data presented below is based on a large scale class F gas turbine representing state-
of-the-art commercial technology with high pressure-ratio, staged combustion and proven
blade cooling technology. The simulation model utilised the GateCycle
built-in gas turbine

library for the performance data of this gas turbine modelled. Auxiliary power loss of 3.9
MWe was included in the overall plant efficiency calculation.

Table F.14 Open cycle gas turbine plants with natural gas and distillate results
NG/CSG Distillate
Ambient conditions
Dry bulb temperature (C) 25 25
Relative humidity (%) 60 60
Ambient air pressure (mbar absolute) 1,000 1,000
Unit performance
CO
2
2
/GJ fuel) 51.2 69.5
Gross Power (MWe) 269 258
Net power (MWe) 265 253
Sent-out power (MWe) 264 250
Sent-out thermal efficiency (%, HHV) 33.1 32.5
Power station CO
2
emission (kg/MWh SO) 555 760
Power station SO
2
emission (kg/MWh SO) 0 0.05
Fuel feed rate (kg/hr) 55,950 60,570

F.2.3.8 Combined cycle gas turbine plants with natural gas - ambient condition
variations

The simulation model for this plant was based on an existing natural gas combined cycle
plant. As in F.2.3.7 the gas turbine chosen was Alstom GT26. The steam cycle was sub-
critical, triple pressure single reheat cycle extracting all of its heat energy from the gas
turbine exhaust via a heat recovery steam generator. The feed water pumps were electric
driven. The operating pressure of the water-cooled condenser was 6 kPa. The cooling
tower was a mechanical-draft type.


Table F.15 Combined cycle gas turbine plant with natural gas/coal seam gas ambient
condition variations results
Ref. Case
1
Case
2
Case
3
Case
4
Case
5
Case
6
Ambient conditions
Dry bulb temperature (C) 25 10 35 25 25 25 25
Ambient air pressure (mbar absolute) 1,000 1,000 1,000 945 975 1,000 1,000
Unit performance
CO
2
2
/GJ fuel) 51.2 51.2 51.2 51.2 51.2 51.2 51.2
Gross power (MWe) 406 424 388 386 396 404 407
Net power (MWe) 400 417 382 380 390 398 401
Sent-out thermal efficiency (%, HHV) 51.6 51.9 51.1 51.7 51.7 52.1 51.6
Power station CO
2
emission (kg/MWh SO) 355 355 360 355 355 355 355
Power station SO
2
emission (kg/MWh SO) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water consumption (kg/MWh SO) 950 730 1120 985 965 1010 920
Natural gas feed rate (kg/hr) 54,290 56,360 52,370 51,500 52,910 53,600 54,430

F.2.3.9 Combined cycle gas turbine plant with distillate

The simulation model in F.2.3.8 was modified to run with distillate in place of natural gas.

The results of the simulations are shown in Table 16.

Table F.16 Combined cycle gas turbine plant with distillate results
Dry bulb temperature (C) 25
Relative humidity (%) 60
Ambient air pressure (mbar absolute) 1000
Unit performance
CO
2
2
/GJ fuel) 69.5
Gross power (MWe) 411
Net power (MWe) 404
Sent-out power (MWe) 403
Sent-out thermal efficiency (%, HHV) 54.0
Power station CO
2
emission (kg/MWh SO) 465
Power station SO
2
emission (kg/MWh SO) 0.03
Distillate feed rate (kg/hr) 58,770

F.3 References

CCSD Technology Assessment Report 42: Technical Performance of Electric Power
Generation Systems in Australian Conditions (Aug. 2004); E Ikeda, J Stubington, and C
Spero.

CCSD New Plant Standards Simulation of performance of electric power generation
systems under Australian conditions (May 2005); E Ikeda, J Stubington, and C Spero.

IEA Report CCC/74 Clean Coal Technologies (October 2003); C Hendersen.

IEA CCC/91 Understanding coal-fired power plant cycles, October 2004, C Henderson.

NRW, Concept Study Reference Power Plant North Rhine-Westfalia, 2004.

Power Clean Thematic Network Fossil Fuel Power Generation State-of-the-art, J uly 2000.
APPENDIX G GES GREENHOUSE INTENSITY CALCULATOR

The AGO advises that an electronic copy of the following GES Greenhouse Intensity
Calculator is available from the GES website. Broadly, it calculates current performance GI
and a best practice performance range for comparison. It requires the participant to input the
following classes of data:

performance test results
fuel properties
fuel consumption
electrical output.

Please note that the worksheet below has been truncated in order to fit on the following
pages, by reducing the number of months of visible data from 12 to 6 months and by
removing the performance test data input page.

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TECHNICAL GUIDELINES

Generator Efficiency Standards

MJ /kg Eqn (A.11)

from GE Enter Software,

model against actual

built-in gas turbine

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