Equivalent Static Wind Loads On Tall Buildings PDF

BBAA VI International Colloquium on:
Bluff Bodies Aerodynamics & Applications

Milano, Italy, July, 2024 2008
EQUIVALENT STATIC WIND LOADS ON TALL BUILDINGS

Stefano Pastò , Luca Facchini , Lorenzo Procino , Paolo Spinelli
CRIACIV/Dipartimento
di Ingegneria Civile e Ambientale Università di Firenze, via S. Marta 3,

50133 Firenze, Italy
e-mails: stefanop@dicea.unifi.it, luca.facchini@dicea.unifi.it,
lorenzo.procino@pin.unifi.it, paolo.spinelli@dicea.unifi.it
Keywords: Random Vibrations, Tall Buildings, Wind-Induced Loads, Wind-Exposed Structures; Wind Tunnel
Abstract. The results of experimental campaigns on two tall buildings are presented. Tests
have been carried out in the CRIACIV boundary layer wind-tunnel by pressure-tap measurements and aerodynamic-balance tests, on both models. Numerical studies have been performed,
afterwards, to define the equivalent static background and resonant wind-induced loads considering the structure three-dimensionality. The multivariate extreme theory has been adopted to
propose design wind loading combinations.
1
INTRODUCTION
Among the tall buildings already built in Italy, those studied herein are of great concern
within wind-exposed structural design as, most probably, they are going to be the tallest Italian buildings. So, a careful design against wind-induced actions is a must in these cases. In
particular, the subjects of the present paper are the towers of UNIPOL (125m tall) located in
Bologna, and Piazza Garibaldi-Repubblica (140m tall) located in Milano. The towers have been
tested in the CRIACIV boundary-layer wind-tunnel by means of pressure-tap measurements and
aerodynamic-balance tests.
2
EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
The typical mean wind profile of an urban zone ( = 0.2274 within the exponential profile) has been reproduced in wind tunnel, as well as the atmospheric turbulence, within the
well-known approximations in simulating real turbulence length scales. Moreover, the towers
models and the surrounding urban contexts have been reproduced and placed in the text-section
of the wind-tunnel, as shown in Fig. 1. In particular, both the models are 1:350 scaled and
equipped by 125 and 140 pressure taps in the case of the Unipol and Garibaldi-Repubblica
towers, respectively (see Fig. 2). Pressure fields have been logged within 16 wind directions,
equally spaced by 22.5 degrees, by a sampling frequency of 250Hz during 30 seconds.
Stefano Pastò, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli
UNIPOL tower
Garibaldi-Repubblica tower
Figure 1: Showing of the wind-tunnel samples
Garibaldi-Repubblica tower
UNIPOL tower
Figure 2: Showing of the pressure-tap connections
2.1
Wind-induced pressure fields
For each pressure tap, the mean and Gumbel extreme values (Ref. [1]) of the pressure coefficients have been computed. The extremes values (maximum and minimum values) belong to a
return period of 50 years. In general, mean and extreme pressure coefficients should be agreed
upon as design values.
Some pressure maps for both towers are shown in Figs. 3, 4 and 5.
Mean Cp
Mean Cp
Figure 3: Mean pressure maps at wind angle of attacks = 0 and = 11o for the GaribaldiRepubblica tower (left) and the Unipol tower (right), respectively
Gumbel Maximum Cp
Gumbel Maximum Cp
Figure 4: Maximum pressure maps at wind angle of attacks = 0o and = 11o for the
Garibaldi-Repubblica tower (left) and the Unipol tower (right), respectively
In general, however, neither the mean nor the extreme maps, in Figs. 3, 4 and 5, can be
used as design pressure maps. In fact, the mean values alone let just the assessment of the static
structural response, whereas the extreme maps, although they take into account the fluctuating
component of the wind-induced pressures, might lead to a structural design too much conservative as the pressures themselves are not fully correlated among each other in time and space.
More reliable maps could be obtained by computing design maps within a multivariate extreme
theory, so to have sets of pressure coefficients showing themselves by a given return period.
Nevertheless, since, for the sake of good outcomes, pressure fields are supposed to be logged
by several pressure taps, analyses based on the multivariate extreme theory might be incredibly
onerous compared to other fields of application. Moreover each structural response should be
computed for each set of pressure coefficients carried out by this theory, in order to obtain the
worst situation. On the other hand, it is possible to use this theory reducing drastically the number of time histories being processed by referring to the base resultant moments and torque, as
3
it is being proposed later on.

From the foregoing it follows that those extreme maps might not be reliable for designing windexposed structure. So, other procedures might be by suitable. For instance, by computing a
certain response first and then defining the design pressure maps for the same response.
In the next section the design maps, providing the extreme values of the base resultant forces,
are being presented.
Gumbel Minimum Cp
Gumbel Minimum Cp
Figure 5: Minimum pressure maps at wind angle of attacks = 0o and = 11o for the
Garibaldi-Repubblica tower (left) and the Unipol tower (right), respectively
2.2
Design wind-induced pressure maps for base forces
By using the time histories of wind-induced forces it is possible to compute a certain structural response by means of its influence function both by quasi-static and dynamic fields.
The pressure fields of both towers have been integrated to obtain the resultant forces acting at
the structure bases. By considering the base resultant forces as the structural responses under
examination, it has been possible to map the pressure fields at the time instant supplying the
extreme design values of the respective forces. Each of those extreme values has been found
independently, that is by neglecting common threshold crossings. The results are reported in
Figs. 6. The above design maps should be agreed upon as quasi-static ones, as they derive from
the integration of the pressure fields logged on rigid wind-tunnel models. In general, the equivalent static background wind loads can be obtained by distributing the base moments and torque
to each floor as proposed in Ref. [2], [3] and [4].
The equivalent static wind loads for sway motions can be computed following the procedure
proposed in Ref. [5], later on discussed. Briefly, this procedure let the assessment of the equivalent static resonant wind-loads starting from the time-histories of the base resultant moments
and torque. Since the structure motion is considered, the base resultants must show frequency
contents in a frequency band involving the structure eigenfrequency at full scale. In order to
guarantee this, it is necessary to log the pressure maps by an opportune sampling frequency,
according to the similitude criteria necessary for simulating real problems at model scale (see
e.g. Ref. [3]).
Nevertheless, despite the sampling frequency of the pressure maps was quite high (250Hz), it
was not enough to make the base forces have frequency contents in the desired band. So, the
base resultant forces were also logged by means of aerodynamic-balance tests.
4
Map for maximum Fx at = 157.50o
Map for maximum Fx at = 11o
Map for maximum My at = 157.50o
Map for maximum My at = 11o
Map for minimum Fy at = 247.50o
Map for minimum Fy at = 67.50o
Map for maximum Mx at = 247.50o
Map for minimum Mx at = 67.50o
Map for maximum Mz at = 315.00o
Map for minimum Mz at = 67.50o
Figure 6: Design pressure maps providing the design values of the base resultant force. Left)
Garibaldi-Repubblica tower. Right) UNIPOL tower
5
Figure 7: Aerodynamic balance

3
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE TESTS
The base resultant forces and moments (along-wind and across-wind forces, moments and
torque) of both towers have been logged by means of an aerodynamic balance. The 5-components
aerodynamic balance is shown in Fig. 7. Tests have been carried out by means of a sampling
frequency of 1000Hz (4 times the frequency used for logging the pressure maps).
Comparisons between the base forces obtained by integrating the pressure fields, and by the
aerodynamic balance, are reported in Figs. 8, 9 and 10. In those figures, forces and moments
5
x 10
x 10
0.8
1.5
0.6
1
0.4
Mz (m )
Mz (m )
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.6
1
0.8
1.5
50
100
150
()
200
250
300
350
Mz vs.
50
100
150
()
200
250
300
350
Mz vs.
Figure 8: Base resultant pseudo-torques varying the wind angle of attack (). Left) GaribaldiRepubblica tower. Right) Unipol tower. Legend: : Aerodynamic-Balance tests; : Pressurefield integrations
should be understood as pseudo-forces and pseudo-moments as their measure units disagree

with the real ones. To switch to the full scale forces and moments, it is just necessary to multiply those quantities by the dynamic pressure at the top of the towers, at full scale.
It is dutiful to remember that pressure fields provide an approximation of real continuous fields
as the number of pressure taps is finite and each tap belongs to a certain influence area. On
the contrary, base forces obtained by aerodynamic-balance tests are much more reliable as they
belong to the continuous wind-induced pressure fields. So, differences may show themselves
6
in comparing the forces obtained within the two procedures. In particular, such differences
are more marked for the Garibaldi-Repubblica tower than for the Unipol tower. This might
highlight how relevant could be not only the aerodynamic of the structure itself, but also the
influence of the urban context: in the case of the Garibaldi-Repubblica tower, the urban context
is constituted by taller and closer buildings than the ones surrounding the Unipol tower.
As mentioned above, the base forces can be used to obtain the equivalent static wind loads
taking into account structure resonances. The procedure is shown in the next section.
10000
6000
9000
5000
8000
7000
4000
Fx (m )
Fx (m )
6000
5000
3000
4000
2000
3000
2000
1000
1000
50
100
150
()
200
250
300
350
50
100
Fx vs.
3.5
2.5
My (m )
M (m )
200
250
300
350
x 10
1.5
0.5
0.5
50
100
150
()
200
250
300
350
My vs.
x 10
()
Fx vs.
150
50
100
150
()
200
250
300
350
My vs.
Figure 9: Base resultant pseudo -forces and -moments varying the wind angle of attack ().
Left) Garibaldi-Repubblica tower. Right) Unipol tower. Legend: : Aerodynamic-Balance
tests; : Pressure-field integrations
6000
4000
3000
4000
2000
2000
1000
F (m )
F (m )
2000
1000
2000
4000
3000
6000
4000
8000
50
100
150
()
200
250
300
5000
350
50
100
Fy vs.
200
250
300
350
x 10
x 10
M (m )
M (m )
()
Fy vs.
150
50
100
150
()
200
250
300
350
50
Mx vs.
100
150
()
200
250
300
350
Mx vs.
Figure 10: Base resultant pseudo- forces and moments varying the wind angle of attack ().
Left) Garibaldi-Repubblica tower. Right) Unipol tower. Legend: : Aerodynamic-Balance
tests; : Pressure-field integrations
DESIGN WIND-INDUCED QUASI-STATIC AND RESONANT LOADS
The equivalent static resonant wind loads, at height z above ground for sway motions associated to a certain mode shape, can be computed by (see Ref. [5])
Pr (z) = Mr
m(z)i (z)
H
o
m(z)i (z)zdz
(1)
for bending moments and

Tr (z) = Tr
I(z)j (z)
H
o
I(z)j (z)dz
(2)
for torque. In Eqs. (1, 2), m(z) and I(z) are the structure mass and mass moment of inertia
for unit height, respectively; i (z) and j (z) are the generic eigenmodes associated to bending and torque deformations, respectively. The resonant moments, MR , and torque, TR , are
estimated amplifying the quasi-static moments by the structure transfer function at the bending
eigenfrequency, fi , and torque eigenfrequency, fj , respectively:

Mr = gri
fi SM (fi ) Tr = grj
4i
fj ST (fj )
4j
(3)
where k (k = i, j) is the damping ratio associated to the considered mode shape;

SM and
ST are the
quasi-static
spectra
of
base
moment
and
torque,
respectively;
g
=
2 ln fk t +
r
0.5772/ 2 ln fk t (k = i, j) is the resonant factor; t is the observation time.

The quasi-static spectra mentioned above usually are wide-band spectra. By virtue of this, moments and torque might show frequency contents at the structure eigenfrequencies, so contributing to amplify the structure response. In this case, MR and TR , in Eq.(3), must be evaluated at
the same frequency (e.g. fi for the mode i (z)) and then projected on the respective components
of the ith mode shape under consideration. Nevertheless, if the eigenmodes are uncoupled, that
is they just show deformations along a certain direction (x, y or z), the definition of the equivalent static wind loads in Eq.(2) only applies to the relevant moment or torque which yields
deformation along the eigenmode direction.
In the latter case, the equivalent static wind-induced loads, including quasi-static (Pb,x (z),
Pb,y (z) and Tb,z (z)) and resonant components (Pr,x (z), Pr,y (z) and Tr,z (z)), may be written
as following:
Px,tot (z) = Pb,x (z) + Pr,x (z) = Pb,x (z) + gri
fi SMy (fi )
4i
Py,tot (z) = Pb,y (z) + Pr,y (z) = Pb,y (z) + grj
fj SMx (fj )
4j
fk F SMz (fk )
4k
Ttot (z) = Tb (z) + Tr (z) = Tb (z) + grk
m(z)i (z)
H
o
H
o
m(z)i (z)zdz
m(z)j (z)
H
o
m(z)j (z)zdz
m(z)k (z)
(4)
m(z)k (z)zdz
where i (z), j (z) and k (z) are the mode shapes related to the eigenfrequencies fi , fj and fk ,
mainly developing along x, y and around z, respectively.
The quasi-static loads are obtained by integrating the wind-induced pressure fields. In particular, the following procedure have been adopted. For instance, in order to obtain Pb,x (z) we are
interested to find the pressure map corresponding to quasi-static design (Gumbel) value of the
y at the wind angle of attack cr = (M
y ). So, the time instant (te ), at which
base resultant M
the time-history My (t) crosses the Gumbel threshold (by positive or negative slopes according
to the sign of the design value) is searched. Then, the pressure map belonging to te is integrated
along x at each floor, assuming full scale structure by rigid slabs. Since structures are 3D, we
can also obtain, by the pressure map under examination, Pb,y (z) and Tb,z (z), related to Mx and
y ), respectively. Clearly, in general, Pb,y (z) = Pb,y (z) and Tb (z) = Tb (z).
Mz at cr = (M
The respective resonant components of those loads have been computed by the procedure de y.
scribed above, so getting the total wind-induced loads according to Eq.(4) in the case of M
x and M
z . In this way, the loads for each cr (at which
The procedure has been repeated for M
moments and torque approach their design values; see Fig. 6) have been found. The results are
reported in Figs. 11, 12 and 13 for the Garibaldi-Repubblica tower. In particular, the resonant
forces and torques have been computed by means of the quasi-static base resultants obtained by
both pressure-map integrations and aerodynamic-balance tests. Those loads are further different. This is ascribed to different frequency contents of moments and torque spectra, within the
two procedures.
9
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
20
50
100
150
20
Px,b(z) [kN/m]
0.5
20
50
Px,r(z) [kN/m]
100
20
150
20
40
20
Py,b(z) [kN/m]
Px,tot(z) [kN/m]
(a) Px,b (z), Px,r (z) and Px,tot (z)
0.5
20
z [m]
140
z [m]
z [m]
Py,r(z) [kN/m]
20
20
600
40
400
200
20
150
Tb(z) [kNm/m]
Py,tot(z) [kN/m]
(b) Py,b (z), Py,r (z) and Py,tot (z)
100
50
20
600
400
Tr(z) [kNm/m]
200
Ttot (z) [kNm/m]
(c) Tb (z), Tr (z) and Ttot (z)
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
20
30
40
50
60
20
Px,b(z) [kN/m]
0.5
20
20
Px,r(z) [kN/m]
40
60
20
100
80
50
20
1
P (z) [kN/m]
Px,tot(z) [kN/m]
20
100
P (z) [kN/m]
y,b
0.5
z [m]
140
z [m]
z [m]
x ).
Figure 11: Garibaldi-Republica tower: equivalent static wind loads at = 247.5o (Mx = M
Legend: resonant loads obtained by aerodynamic-balance time histories
50
y,r
20
(z) [kN/m]
500
1000
1500
20
T (z) [kNm/m]
y,tot
50
100
20
T (z) [kNm/m]
500
tot
1000
1500
(z) [kNm/m]
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
20
20
40
60
P (z) [kN/m]
x,b
80
20
0.5
P (z) [kN/m]
x,r
20
20
40
60
(z) [kN/m]
x,tot
80
20
20
40
P (z) [kN/m]
y,b
60
20
0.5
P (z) [kN/m]
y,r
20
z [m]
140
z [m]
z [m]
y ).
Figure 12: Garibaldi-Republica tower: equivalent static wind loads at = 157.5o (My = M
20
40
(z) [kN/m]
y,tot
60
20
2000
1500
1000
Tb(z) [kNm/m]
500
20
150
100
50
20
2000
Tr(z) [kNm/m]
1500
1000
500
Ttot (z) [kNm/m]
z ).
Figure 13: Garibaldi-Republica tower: equivalent static wind loads at = 315o (Mz = M
10
STATISTICAL COMBINATION OF DESIGN WIND-INDUCED LOADS

y . The quasi-static 3D-loading, at cr =
For the sake of clarity, lets keep considering M
y ), may be written as follows:
(M
Pb (z)|(M y ) = Pb,x (z)i1 + Pb,y (z)i2 + Tb (z)i3
(5)
where i1 , i2 and i3 are the versors along the Cartesian coordinates x, y and z. The total load in
Eq.(5) may be still re-written by introducing the following notation:
(z)i2 + 13 Tb (z)i3
Pb (z)|(M y ) = 11 Pb,x (z)i1 + 12 Pb,y
(6)
y ),
and Tb are the loads reproducing to the Gumbel values of Mx (t) and Mz (t) at (M
where Pb,y
that is Mx and Mz So, in order to get the latter loads, it is necessary to integrate the maps at the
y ). The coefficients 11 , 12 and
instant during which Mx (t) = Mx and Mz (t) = Mz at (M
13 have to be understood as coefficients to combine Pb,x (z), Pb,y

(z) and Tb (z) statistically, as
Mx (t), My (t) and Mz (t) are not fully correlated among each other and hence, generally, they do
not approach their Gumbel values simultaneously. In particular, those coefficients are proposed
herein as in the following:
11 =
12 =
13 =
H
0
y
Pb,x (z)zdz
M
=
=1
y
y
M
M
H
0
Pb,y (z)zdz
Mx (te )
=
Mx
Mx
H
0
Tb (z)dz
Mz (te )
=
Mz
Mz
(7)
y . The coefficients just defined belong to the

where te is the time instant so that My (te ) = M
quasi-static moments and torque. By the aim of considering the resonant loads as well, it would
be necessary to compute the above coefficients by the resultant forces logged at the base of
aeroelastic models, so involving also the effect of the structure motion. Since, the tested models
were rigid within the present experimental tests, the same coefficients are assumed for resonant
moments and torque. This assumption could appear further arbitrary. Nevertheless, this issue is
still under examination and it will be one of the matters of future researches. By this hypothesis,
the total loads, at the critical angles of Mx , My and Mz , will be finally written as:
Pb (z)|(M y ) = 11 Px,tot (z)i1 + 12 Py,tot

(z)i2 + 13 Ttot
(z)i3
(z)i3
(z)i1 + 22 Py,tot (z)i2 + 23 Ttot
Pb (z)| = 21 Px,tot
(Mx )
(8)
(z)i1 + 32 P,tot
Pb (z)|(M z ) = 31 Px,tot
(z)i2 + 33 Ttot (z)i3
The procedure just described refers to the mono-variate extreme theory, as the Gumbel values
of each moments and torque have been computed independently. By this theory, one of the
stochastic processes under examination crosses the respective threshold without regards of what
thresholds are crossed by the other processes. Going by this, we would say that each Gumbel
value is independent to the others. The coefficients mn for the Garibaldi-Repubblica tower are
reported in the following matrix , for each critical angle:

1 1 .996
11 12 13
= 21 22 23 = .999 1 .994
(9)
31 32 33
.997 1 1
11
In the case of the Garibaldi-Repubblica tower, it is possible to see by the matrix that the
design loads are practically equal to their respective Gumbel loads, for each critical angle.
Nevertheless, since this results refers to the mono-variate extreme theory, they might actually
be too conservative or, at least, unlikely. For this reason, it might be better to apply the multivariate extreme theory, in order to have the most likely coefficients combinations.
y ), given M = [My (t), Mx (t), Mz (t)] = [M1 , M2 , M3 ], the multi-variate
Assuming cr = (M
extreme value distribution of M is given by (see e.g. Ref.[6]):
3
(Mmi i ) = exp [(1 + 2 + 3 + 12 + 13 + 23 )]
(10)
i=1
where Mmi = max(min)0<t<ti Xi (t) (i = 1 . . . 3). In Eq.(10) the joint extreme value distribution can be also understood as the probability distributions of zero crossings of the thresholds
i during a certain time T . The parameters i are expressed as in the following:
T
i =
0
T
m
i (mi i )pMi ,M i (mi , m
i ; t)dmi dm
i dt
(11)
ij =
m
im
j (mi i )(mj j )
0
pMi ,Mj ,M i ,M j (mi , mj , m

i, m
j ; t1 , t2 )dmi dmj dm
i dm
j dt1 dt2 (12)
In the case in which M is a stationary vector, as it is herein, Eqs. (11, 12) become:
m
i (mi i )pMi ,M i (mi , m
i )dmi dm
i = i (i )T
dt
0
T
i =
(13)
ij =
m
im
j (mi i )(mj j )
0
pMi ,Mj ,M i ,M j (mi , mj , m

i, m
j ; t2 t1 )dmi dmj dm
i dm
j d(t2 t1 ) = ij (i , j )T (14)
where i (i ) is the expected number of threshold crossings per unit time for Mi , and ij (i , j )
is the expected number of contemporaneous threshold crossings of Mi and Mj per unit time.
Moreover, the probability of the first crossing of the thresholds (1 , 2 , 3 ), by both positive or
negative slopes, during the time T is
PT (t) = 1 exp [(1 + 2 + 3 + 12 + 13 + 23 )T ] = exp (T )
(15)
The probability density of T follows by differentiating of Eq.(15), so obtaining:

pT (t) = exp (T )
(16)
Equation (16) may be used to compute the statistical properties of the first-passage time T . In
particular, the mean and the variance of T are given by the following formula, respectively:
+
E [T ] =
tpT (t)dt =
0
E T
=
0
1
t
12
pT (t)dt =
(17)
1
2
(18)
y ) = 157.5o
(a) 11 , 12 , 13 at (M
y ) = 157.5o
(b) 11 , 12 , 13 at (M
x ) = 247.5o
(c) 21 , 22 , 23 at (M
x ) = 247.5o
(d) 21 , 22 , 23 at (M
z ) = 315o
(e) 31 , 32 , 33 at (M
z ) = 315o
(f) 31 , 32 , 33 at (M
Figure 14: Isosurfaces of (1 , 2 , 3 ) supplying the 50-years combination coefficients for the
Garibaldi-Repubblica tower obtained by using the base resultants moments and torque within
pressure-map integrations (Left), and aerodynamic-balance tests (Right). : ij by monovariate extreme theory
13
Finally, by fixing the return period E [T ] = T, it is possible to find all the thresholds sets
occurring once every T years.
Hereafter, by the aim of using the same notation for the loads combinations, the coefficients ij
will be re-written as
ij
ii = ii
ij =
(19)
i
Mj
M
1 = M
y , for instance, 11 , 12 and 13 constitute the set of moments and torque
By considering M
y ), within the multi-variate extreme theory. In general,
occurring once in T years at cr = (M
1 is the design value of M1 = My , whereas M2 and M3 are, respectively, the Gumbel values
M
y ), computed by the univariate extreme theory.
of Mx and My at (M
Herein, the return period has been fixed to 50 years, T = 50 years, so all the sets of (1 , 2 , 3 ),
supplying = 0.02 according to Eq.(17), have been computed for the base resultant moments
and torque obtained by integrating the pressure fields and by means of aerodynamic-balance
tests. In Fig.14, the isosurfaces of = (1 , 2 , 3 ), supplying all the 50-years-thresholds sets
for a certain critical wind angle of attack, are presented. As it is shown in Fig.14, the coefficients
sets computed by the univariate extreme theory (see. Eq.(9)) actually never happen and, above
of all, they dont appear as the safest combination for designing the tower under examination
(the Garibaldi-Repubblica one).
6
CONCLUSIONS
Within the result obtained in the present paper, it is possible to highlight the importance of
performing both pressure-tap measurements and aerodynamic-balance tests for defining equivalent static wind-induced loads acting on tall buildings. The comparison of the base result forces
logged by both methods can draw attention to the accuracy of studying wind-induced pressure
fields by means of pressure-tap measurements. Those fields, in fact, depend strongly on the
structure aerodynamic and on the impact of the surrounding urban contest on it, as shown in the
foregoing. Moreover, by the similitude criteria necessary to switch from model to full scale, it
might be possible that the frequency band of the stochastic pressures, logged by pressure-tap
tests, is not enough to cover a range of frequencies which itself would let the assessment of
the resonant structure response at full scale. In the case, high-frequency-aerodynamic-balance
tests become a must within this aim. In fact, the resonant loads obtained herein are sensitively
different among each other.
Moreover, the use of the mono-variate extreme theory for defining the wind-induced loads and
their combinations might be unlikely and not the safest solution. The results of the multi-variate
extreme theory show itself to be more efforts expensive, but absolutely the most likely and safest
way for designing structure whose importance is as high as design responsibilities are.
7
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The dynamic characteristics of the Garibaldi-Repubblica tower (eigenmodes and eigenfrequencies) have been taken by the degree thesis of Ing. F. Giovannelli and Ing. E. Tomberli who
are grateful acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] E.J. Gumbel. Statistic of extremes. Columbia University Press, New York, 1958.
14
[2] A. G. Davenport. Missing links in wind engineering. Proc., 10th ICWE, Copenhagen, 18,
1999
[3] C. Drybre, S.O. Hansen. Wind loads on structures Wiley, New York, 1997
[4] Y. Zhou, A. Kareem. Gust loading factor: new model. Journal of Structural Engineering
127:2, 168-175, 2001
[5] Y. Zhou, T. Kijewski, A. Kareem. Aerodynamic loads on tall buildings. Journal of Structural Engineering 129:3, 394-404, 2003
[6] S. Gupta, C.S. Manohar. Multivariate estreme value distributions for random vibration
applications. Journal of Engineering Mechanics. 131:7, 2005
15

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BBAA VI International Colloquium on:

Bluff Bodies Aerodynamics & Applications

EQUIVALENT STATIC WIND LOADS ON TALL BUILDINGS

di Ingegneria Civile e Ambientale Universit`a di Firenze, via S. Marta 3,

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

Figure 1: Showing of the wind-tunnel samples

Figure 2: Showing of the pressure-tap connections

Wind-induced pressure fields

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

it is being proposed later on.

Design wind-induced pressure maps for base forces

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

Map for maximum Fx at = 157.50o

Map for maximum Fx at = 11o

Map for maximum My at = 157.50o

Map for maximum My at = 11o

Map for minimum Fy at = 247.50o

Map for minimum Fy at = 67.50o

Map for maximum Mx at = 247.50o

Map for minimum Mx at = 67.50o

Map for maximum Mz at = 315.00o

Map for minimum Mz at = 67.50o

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

Figure 7: Aerodynamic balance

AERODYNAMIC BALANCE TESTS

should be understood as pseudo-forces and pseudo-moments as their measure units disagree

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

DESIGN WIND-INDUCED QUASI-STATIC AND RESONANT LOADS

for bending moments and

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

eigenfrequency, fi , and torque eigenfrequency, fj , respectively:

where k (k = i, j) is the damping ratio associated to the considered mode shape;

0.5772/ 2 ln fk t (k = i, j) is the resonant factor; t is the observation time.

Py,tot (z) = Pb,y (z) + Pr,y (z) = Pb,y (z) + grj

Ttot (z) = Tb (z) + Tr (z) = Tb (z) + grk

(a) Px,b (z), Px,r (z) and Px,tot (z)

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

(b) Py,b (z), Py,r (z) and Py,tot (z)

Ttot (z) [kNm/m]

(c) Tb (z), Tr (z) and Ttot (z)

(a) Px,b (z), Px,r (z) and Px,tot (z)

(b) Py,b (z), Py,r (z) and Py,tot (z)

(c) Tb (z), Tr (z) and Ttot (z)

(a) Px,b (z), Px,r (z) and Px,tot (z)

(b) Py,b (z), Py,r (z) and Py,tot (z)

Ttot (z) [kNm/m]

(c) Tb (z), Tr (z) and Ttot (z)

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

STATISTICAL COMBINATION OF DESIGN WIND-INDUCED LOADS

13 have to be understood as coefficients to combine Pb,x (z), Pb,y

y . The coefficients just defined belong to the

Pb (z)|(M y ) = 11 Px,tot (z)i1 + 12 Py,tot

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

(Mmi i ) = exp [(1 + 2 + 3 + 12 + 13 + 23 )]

pMi ,Mj ,M i ,M j (mi , mj , m

pMi ,Mj ,M i ,M j (mi , mj , m

The probability density of T follows by differentiating of Eq.(15), so obtaining:

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli

Stefano Past`o, Luca Facchini, Lorenzo Procino and Paolo Spinelli