Chirped Fourier Spectroscopy.

1:Dynamic Range
Improvement
and Phase Correction
Thomas P. Sheahen
Chirping is the deliberate dispersion of the frequencies in a signal to remove a strong central peak. In a
Fourier spectrometer, chirping improves dynamic range. For typical applications, the improvement is
equivalent to about 16 dB in SNR. A very large nonlinear phase correction is required, but this is shown
to be surprisingly simple to achieve in practice.
1. Introduction
The deliberate introduction of dispersion into an
electromagnetic system is known as chirping, a term
that originated' in radar technology. Dispersion re-
duces the magnitude of a central burst of energy that
would otherwise swamp the dynamic range of the ap-
paratus. The same rationale underlies the use of
chirping in optical systems
2
such as the Michelson in-
terferometer. Certain other advantages
3 4
accrue as
by-products of the chirping. Because achromaticity
is traditionally desirable in optical systems, chirping
has almost universally been regarded as a nuisance
5 6
to be avoided.
This paper has a twofold objective: to explain the
way in which chirping can be used to improve dy-
namic range and to demonstrate that phase correc-
tion is possible (indeed, surprisingly simple) even
when the dispersion is highly nonlinear. The effect
of chirping on resolution and contrast will be treated
in a subsequent
7
paper.
II. Definition of Terms
In a Michelson
8
interferometer with phase disper-
sion present,
9
when one mirror is moved through a
distance x, the detector sees an intensity
I(x) = f B(w){1 + cos[cox + o(w)l}dw, (1)
where w = 21r/X is the frequency expressed in rad-
cm-1, B(w) is the spectrum of the source, and the
phase delay s(w) is the optical pathlength difference
when the physical path difference is zero. If there is
imperfect compensation for the beam splitter, so is
The author was with Bell Laboratories, Whippany, New Jersey
when this work was done; he is now with Industrial Nucleonics
Corporation, Columbus, Ohio 43202.
Received 7 September 1973.
approximately a constant. If the zero position can-
not be determined accurately, there is a linear phase
shift in the signal, since wx + so() = w(x + x
0
),
implying so(co) = xow. If the index of refraction of
one arm, n1, differs from that of the other, n2, the
phase difference is
cp(w) = w[#[n
2
(z,w) - 1]dz - n(y,w) - 1]dy],
(2)
where y and z denote coordinate distances along
each arm. The circuital integrals express a very gen-
eral form; however, in all applications to date, both
indices of refraction are constant over some thick-
nesses, zo and yo, in which case Eq. (2) simplifies. In
conventional Fourier spectroscopy,'
0
every attempt is
made to minimize the phase; and the interferogram is
obtained by varying x, the physical position of one
mirror. An interferogram can also be generated by
varying the thicknesses z and/or y, often by rocking
or slidingl a wedge of refracting material; this is
equivalent to moving a mirror.
In principle, an interferogram could also be ob-
tained by varying one arm's index of refraction with
no physical mirror motion, but the nonlinear varia-
tion with frequency of most materials's index of re-
fraction has discouraged such attempts.'
2
In reality,
any means of varying [ax + p(&))] produces an inter-
ferogram.
111. Dynamic Range and Chirping
Setting so = 0 reduces Eq. (1) to the case of an un-
chirped interferogram, where the interferogram con-
tains a strong central peak.1
3
Because this central
fringe sets the dynamic range and hence the noise
level, some of the advantage of the Michelson inter-
ferometer can easily be lost. It can be shown
2
that
the dynamic range disadvantage is proportional to
VN, where N is the number of samples. Therefore,
dynamic range must be addressed in designing any
Fourier spectrometer.
December 1974 / Vol. 13, No. 12 / APPLIED OPTICS 2907
Analog recording of interferograms yields unac-
ceptable spectra, as we have displayed elsewhere.'
4
This difficulty has led the commercial market1
5
to di-
gitize interferograms in real time. The number of
bits and the digitization rate then limit the speed at
which data can be acquired.
In most laboratory applications, the source is un-
changing and scanning time is not at a premium, so
continuous mirror motion is not mandatory. The
step-and-integrate method of mirror scanning has
obtained spectra of spectacular quality,'
6
and has
thus gained preeminence for high resolution work.
This method allows the gain state to be switched in
midscan; and when care is taken to minimize low fre-
quency drift, it is possible to circumvent
7
the dy-
namic range problem. Unfortunately, discontinui-
ties in noise level introduce coherent structure into
the noise spectrum. Moreover, if the detector begins
to saturate under the intense illumination of the cen-
tral peak, false harmonics
3
of strong lines will appear
in the spectrum. Nevertheless, if step-and-integrate
methods were used throughout interferometry, dy-
namic range would not be a serious problem.'
7
There remain many applications of Fourier spec-
troscopy where data acquisition time is limited. Un-
fortunately, even fast servocontrolled'8 stepping
mechanisms scan much more slowly than the contin-
uous drive method. For field measurements de-
manding rapid data acquisition in an unstable envi-
ronment (such as the remote sensing of air pollutants
as a truck passes a sensor), the continuous scanning
method is preferable. This precludes switching of
gain states, making dynamic range a problem once
again.
A direct method of mitigating the dynamic range
problem is to shrink the central fringe by eliminating
the common point of zero path difference where all
frequencies can add constructively. To achieve this,
the various frequencies are deliberately dispersed by
introducing frequency dependent delay into one arm,
called chirping.
When an interferogram (or any electromagnetic
system) is chirped, there is still a region of construc-
tive interference among neighboring frequencies; ut
nowhere do all frequencies add in phase. As a re-
sult, the central fringe is dimmer, and many fringes
somewhat removed from the center are brighter.
The total power'
9
distributed throughout the central
region is preserved. Typical chirped interferograms
have already appeared elsewhere
2
"1
4
; we found that a
-40 dB chirped interferogram is equivalent to a -56
dB unchirped interferogram. Chirping generally al-
leviates the dynamic range problem, the actual im-
provement depending on the degree of chirping and
the structure of the spectrum. In unpublished data,
Howell et a
2 0
have shown that a blackbody spec-
trum improves in signal-to-noise ratio by 17 dB when
chirping is introduced; this is because the unchirped
interferogram has a very strong central peak. At the
other extreme, a pure line (e.g., a laser) has a sinusoi-
dal interferogram regardless of chirping; chirping in-
troduces delay but not dispersion and offers no ad-
vantage at all.
The optimal choice of chirping material depends
on the particular experiment. For laboratory appli-
cations, it is best to have a selection of removable and
interchangeable dispersive optical elements so the
chirping can be changed to optimize dynamic range
as the character of the spectrum changes. Figure 1
shows the retardation in central fringe location intro-
duced by two common ir materials. (In our experi-
ments,
2
' Irtran 5 was used because a spectrum domi-
nated by radiation near 2000 cm'1 was anticipated
and maximum dispersion in that spectral region was
needed; the compensator was CaF
2
.) For a different
spectrum or frequency range, another chirping medi-
um would be more appropriate. Mertz
2
displays
other popular choices.
Judicious choice of disperser and compensator can
manipulate the spread in central fringes. For exam-
ple, the use of Irtran 5 in one arm and Irtran 4 in the
other produces a net delay representing the differ-
ence between their separate delay curves. Then,
some frequencies would have their central fringes ad-
vanced rather than retarded; the distinction is not
important.
As part of the Reentry Measurements Program-
Phase B, Block Engineering built a series of chirped
interferometers for Bell Laboratories in 1966-69.
The experimental conditions
2
' and the data acquisi-
tion system'
4
have been described elsewhere. Brief-
ly, these very rugged interferometers were designed
to obtain data during space vehicle reentry into the
atmosphere amid severe vibration, deceleration, and
RETARDATION OF CENTRAL FRINGE
500
400
300 _
I-
z
cn
0a.
CL
00Z
w
I-
IRTRAN 5,Ca F
2
200 _
IRTRAN
100 _
14, Ca F
2
0
-100 _
I I I I I I
6000
FREQUENCY Cm
1
10,000
2000
Fig. 1. Optical retardation introduced by typical chirping plates.
Each frequency's point of stationary phase is defined as the loca-
tion of its central fringe within the interferogram.
2908 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 13, No. 12 / December 1974
ORIGINAL CHIRPD INTERFEROGRAM
I
I I I
000.4 0.06 0.0
-1.rII
I . I ..-
< 2
2< 000 2500 3000
TIME SECI
3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
WAVE NUMBER
RECONSTRUCTED UNCHIRPED INTERFEROGRAM
I I I
TIME -I
Fig. 2. Actual experimental data from the strongly chirped chan-
nel of the interferometer. Top: original chirped interferogram.
Center: phase corrected spectrum. Bottom: reconstructed un-
chirped interferogram. The origin of the bottom interferogram
has been shifted outward from the left-hand for ease of visualiza-
tion. Also, the vertical scale of the bottom interferogram has been
greatly compressed. Its central peak is much higher than that of
the top interferogram. The requirement that the total power be
the same in both cases suggests the extent of shrinkage in the un-
chirped plot.
heating effects. Each interferogram was recorded in
less than 0.1 sec because of the rapidly changing
source,
The need to acquire data rapidly led to an instru-
ment having 870-,m mirror motion. The interfero-
gram was sampled at 2048 points and the fast
22
Fou-
rier transform (FFT) yielded 1024 complex spectral
values, spaced Av = 11.456 cm-' apart. Because the
instruments contained mirrors radiating at about 280
K, no attempt was made to reach farther into the ir
than 5.5 ,im. Data were telemetered to earth in ana-
log form and tape recorded. Filtering, digitization,
and processing were carried out later. The signal-
to-noise (SNR) level of the recorded interferograms
was 40 dB (1% noise). Under these circumstances, it
is not surprising that the results are of lower quality
than can be obtained in the laboratory. Moreover,
all instruments were destroyed during the experi-
ments, so no after the fact testing could be done.
Despite all these limitations, the data obtained are
adequate for describing the behavior of chirped in-
terferometry. The absence of extensive laboratory
data on chirping has been the primary obstacle to its
acceptance.
Figure 2 is a typical chirped interferogram aiid
spectrum taken during atmospheric reentry and il-
lustrates the general features of chirping. The 4.3-
,m (2300-cm-') band of CO
2
that totally dominates
the spectrum has only moderately strong central frin-
ges spread over a wide section near the center of the
interferogram. This is due to the extreme chirping
of low frequencies by Irtran 5. The central fringes of
the 2.7-gm (3700 cm-') band of CO
2
are displaced to
the right. Moreover, the fringe contrast for the 4.3-
,m band is four times the fringe contrast of the 2.7-
,m band, and the spectral intensity of the 4.3-gm
band (in the raw uncalibrated spectrum, not shown
in Fig. 2) is nine times the intensity of the 2.7-,um
band. This enhancement of the 2.7-gm band in the
interferogram is due to the comparatively mild chirp-
ing associated with the 3700-cm-' region of the spec-
trum.
By referring to Fig. 1, it is possible to construct a
mapping from a given frequency to its point of sta-
tionary phase on the interferogram of Fig. 2. For the
particular chirping medium illustrated here, the low
frequencies are spread far apart; but frequencies
above 3500 cm1 are not dispersed significantly.
Moreover, the stationary phase points
2
of frequencies
above 6000 cm-l overlap those below 6000 cm-'.
This condition is acceptable for the spectra we stud-
ied but would defeat the purpose of chirping in a
spectrum with strong radiation near 6000 cm-'.
In Fig. 2, the phases have been computationally re-
stored to near zero by a method described in Sec. IV.
Using spectra with corrected phase, it is simple to re-
transform the data and reconstruct an interferogram
similar to that generated by an unchirped instru-
ment. This is shown at the bottom of Fig. 2, where
the bright central fringe stands out.
IV. Phase Correction
For data originating in an unchirped interferogram
starting at x = 0, the final spectrum is obtained by
keeping only the real part of the computed spectrum
and discarding the imaginary. Any other interfero-
gram, chirped or delayed, leads to spectra requiring
phase correction, which can be implemented in two
ways.
The first method, briefly reviewed here, is that of
Mertz.
2 3
Because the phase delay is linear in fre-
quency for any unchirped but delayed time signal,
24
phase correction for an unchirped interferometer can
be obtained as follows:
(1) .Locate the strong central fringe in the inter-
ferogram and compute the FFT of a short segment
2 3
near this point. A very broad, low resolution spec-
trum results, the phases of which are then least-
square fit to obtain a fiducial straight line, giving
of = CO + C
1
W.
(2) Transform the full interferogram, compute
the phases of the spectra (,g, and then correct each
frequency to a residual phase * = -pg- ,f.
(3) Obtain the corrected (real) spectrum by re-
ducing each amplitude lg(w)l by the cosine of this
phase; i.e., calculate R (w) = Ig (w)I cos or.
For chirped interferometry, this concept must be
generalized by two changes. The short central seg-
ment of interferogram must be long enough to in-
clude the fringes of stationary phase for all frequen-
cies. (This implied a disadvantage before Cooley-
December 1974 / Vol. 13, No. 12 / APPLIED OPTICS 2909
PHASE-CORRECTED SPECTRUM
V.VL
I I I I I
W
4
1 0 f ' '[' j -D '@
I-
Z 8 -
M 6
4
2
0
2130 3000 4000 5000 6000
WAVE NUMBER
Fig. 3. Defective phase correction; a discontinuity of +
2
7r was
misinterpreted as -27r.
Tukey.
22
) In addition, the least-square fit of phase
data runs to terms much higher than linear. In fact,
negative powers
25
of are generally useful in repre-
senting the phase delay curve. As a result, the fidu-
cial phase curve is given by a polynomial, typically
5
(Pf () = CO, (3)
n=-3
for the Irtran 5 curve shown in Fig. 1. The chirping
coefficients C are easily obtained at the time of in-
strument calibration: the same blackbody data that
establish the detector response D(cv) (by demanding
equality of measured and theoretical spectra) can be
used to get the fiducial phase. Detector response
D () depends only on the spectral amplitudes g (c,)l;
the chirping coefficients are found by least-square
fitting the phase data.
Actually, it is simplest to regard the detector re-
sponse as a complex quantity
DC (c) |D(c)|exp[-iv(()].
In this case, the fiducial phase is built into the table
of complex calibration coefficients and there is no
need to explicitly find the chirping coefficients C.
The ease with which modern computers handle com-
plex arithmetic recommends this method highly.
There is a second good reason to leave the detector
response as a table of complex numbers: it is always
difficult to fit a curve through phase data because the
phases defined by arctangent [Im(x)/Re(x)] suffer
occasional discontinuities of
2
. Restoring the con-
tinuous phase curve is a delicate computation; and
algorithms for this restoration work only for broad,
unstructured, noiseless spectra. Fortunately, this is
generally the case during calibration, so the fiducial
phase and the chirping coefficients can be obtained
without great difficulty.
Phase data discontinuities do not cause difficulty
until actual experimental data are processed; prob-
lems then originate in delay, not chirping. Minor
nuisances, such as thermal expansion of the optical
components, can cause the linear term in the phase
polynomial to drift during the experiment. The
other terms do not change as long as the index of re-
fraction of the chirping medium does not change.
In a chirped interferogram, there is no way to lo-
cate one strong central fringe uniquely; thus, the
phase polynomial cannot be updated for each scan.
As a result, the phases of the individual og march
away from the fiducial phases so>; and the residual
phases may pass through several cycles of 27r over the
frequency region of interest. This condition is illus-
trated by Fig. 3. To multiply by cos(p) would be di-
sastrous; another linear phase correction must be
found that involves fitting experimental data to a
straight line. Here, the ability to guess whether a
discontinuity is +27r or -2ir is crucial. Band edges,
noise, and related problems introduce enough sudden
swings in phase to deceive even very intricate algo-
rithms about 2% of the time; no scheme for weighting
data points has produced. residual phase lines that
are flat (to within 20') more than 95% of the time.
Figure 4 illustrates the sensitivity of the algorithm to
weighting prescriptions. Moreover, these phase de--
tection algorithms require as much computer time
and storage as the FFT routines.
Because of these difficulties, a second method of
phase correction has been introduced:
(1) Transform the original interferogram, opti-
mize resolutions and contrast, and rotate the complex
g (X) through their corresponding phase angles.
(This rotation is called dechirping.)
to
I 0
a.
10
I-
-8
id
2130 3000 4000 5000 6000
WAVE NUMBER
Fig. 4. Almost correct phase correction; slight error due to
weighting phases of spectral points in proportion to their ampli-
tudes in a least-squares determination of the linear phase correc-
tion term.
2910 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 13, No. 12 / December 1974
(2) Perform another FFT to reconstruct the un-
chirped interferogram; the very strong central fringe
is then easily detected.
(3) Retransform this new interferogram to fre-
quency space starting at this fringe.
All questions of phase discontinuities are thus cir-
cumvented, and the final phases are flat to within
L20
0
in every case.
This second method has certain computational
26
advantages. The final phase is so good that an addi-
tional linear phase correction
9
'
23
involving square-
roots and arctangents is seldom necessary; retaining
only the real parts of the final eigenvalues and inter-
polated points yield the final spectrum. The real
part of the output is then calibrated and plotted. If
the calibration data were treated as complex to in-
clude the phase rotation, applying the calibration
right after the first transform would also dechirp the
spectrum, and the reconstructed interferogram would
be that of the calibrated spectrum. The third FFT
output would then be plotted directly.
The significance here is simply this: the efficiency
of modern computers, together with the Cooley-
Tukey algorithm, make it more efficient to take sev-
eral successive Fourier transforms using complex
arithmetic throughout than to work with amplitudes
and phases after a single transform. This method is
in direct opposition to traditional'
9
handling of spec-
tral computations.
V. Discussion
Chirping was first done by Mertz,
2
whose interests
are centered in astronomy. However, in astronomi-
cal applications, the scintillation noise is comparable
with the central fringe; and so the dynamic range is
not determined by the central peak. Therefore,
chirping is not deliberately used in astronomy; but
recent advances
27
suggest that unavoidable chirping
requires correction.
One important objection to chirping arises when
coadding (coherently adding) interferograms to sup-
press noise. Obviously improperly aligned interfero-
grams give incoherent addition, which produces no
improvement in signal-to-noise ratio. Since chirping
removes the bright central peak from an interfero-
gram, it might be thought difficult to align interfero-
grams for proper coadding. Our instruments
2 1
cir-
cumvented the problem by using a special triggering
device in the reference cube that gave a digitizing
command at a consistent point defined as the start of
each interferogram. A better way to suppress noise
is to postpone coadding until the spectra are phase
corrected (by either of the schemes used in Sec. IV);
then no special flag is required. This is valid because
the Fourier transform, as well as the complex plane
rotation in dechirping and phase correction, are lin-
ear operations. Therefore, coadding in either do-
main gives the same result. The point is that chirp-
ing does not impair the coaddability of experimental
data.
Another objection deals with the degradation of
resolution and contrast due to- chirping; in a subse-
quent paper,
7
this is shown to be much less severe
than generally
2
supposed. The major weaknesses of
chirping today are that it has not been experimental-
ly vindicated using a high resolution instruments and
that it is seldom needed in a step-and-integrate mir-
ror scanning geometry.
While some applications do not necessarily require
chirping to conserve dynamic range, there is no real
reason not to use, it. The ability to embed the de-
chirping operation in a table of complex calibration
coefficients even avoids the need to know the explicit
numerical form of the dispersion. The phase can be
corrected easily by transforming back and forth be-
tween frequency and retardation domains.
The chief advantage of chirping is that it conserves
dynamic range by spreading one strong central fringe
out into many medium-size fringes; the improvement
is equivalent to a gain in SNR of roughly 16 dB. A
second advantage is that the envelope of a chirped
interferogram provides a crude dispersion spectrum,
helping to distinguish good and bad scans.
4
A third
advantage is the ability to correct for nonlinearities.
3
There may well be other advantages to chirping.
One is the possibility of using nonlinear optical
media to create an interferometer with no moving
parts. It is clear from Eq. (1) that, if x = 0 every-
where, an interferogram can still be generated if the
phase can be changed somehow. Most nonlinear op-
tical crystals have an index of refraction whose fre-
quency dependence varies
28
with temperature, angle,
or pumping laser intensity. The difficulties involved
in using Michelson spectrometers in the visible and
uv
29
would be partially mitigated by a device having
no mirror motion.
The no-moving-parts concept remains at the level
of speculation at the present time. However, as
other experimenters introduce chirping for their own
applications, further advantages may be discovered.
The late L. D. Tice of the Safeguard System Com-
mand first drew attention to the need for dynamic
range improvement in the interferometer and teleme-
try. L. Mertz and W. R. Howell of Block Engineer-
ing reduced chirping to practice by building the in-
struments, and their continued interest has been
most helpful. Particularly valuable has been the col-
laboration with G. F. Hohnstreiter and A. J. Kennedy
of Bell Laboratories.
References
1. J. R. Klauder, A. C. Price, S. Darlington, and W. J. Alber-
sheim, Bell Syst. Tech. J. 39, 745 (1960).
2. L. Mertz, Transformations in Optics (Wiley, New York,
1965).
3. T. P. Sheahen, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 64, 485 (1974).
4. T. P. Sheahen, Appl. Spectrosc. 28, 283 (1974).
December1974 / Vol. 13, No.12 / APPLIED OPTICS 2911
5. W. H. Steel, Interferometry (Cambridge U. P., Cambridge,
1967).
6. E. V. Loewenstein, Aspen International Conference on Fouri-
er Spectroscopy, 1970; Air Force Cambridge Research Labora-
tory Special Report 114 (5 January 1971), Ch. 1.
7. T. P. Sheahen, "Chirped Fourier Spectroscopy. 2: Theory of
Resolution and Contrast" (submitted to Appl. Opt.).
8. A. A. Michelson, Light Waues and Their Uses (Univ. of Chica-
go Press, Chicago, 1902, 1961).
9. M. L. Forman, W. H. Steel, and G. A. Vanasse, J. Opt. Soc.
Am. 56, 59 (1966).
10. J. Connes, Rev. Opt. 40, 45, 116, 171, 231 (1961).
11. P. Bouchareine and P. Connes, J. Phys. Radium 24, 134
(1963).
12. Chirped interferometry must not be confused with amplitude
spectroscopy, which measures the index of refraction of an un-
known medium by observing the phase of the spectrum pro-
duced by an interferometer containing the unknown in one
arm. See E. E. Bell, Ref. 6, Ch. 5.
13. G. A. Vanasse and H. Sakai, Progress in Optics, E. Wolf, ed.
(North Holland, Amsterdam, 1967), vol. 6, Ch. 7.
14. T. P. Sheahen, W. R. Howell, G. F. Hohnstreiter, and I. Cole-
man, Ref. 6, Ch. 25.
15. R. Curbelo and C. Foskett, Ref. 6, Ch. 21.
16. J. Connes, P. Connes, and J. P. Maillard, J. Phys. (Paris)
28C2, 120 (1967); Atlas des Spectres Planetaires Infrarouges
(Editions du CNRS, Paris, 1969).
17. P. Connes, Ref. 6, Oh. 8.
18. J. E. Hoffman, Jr., Ref. 6, Ch. 15.
19. R. B. Blackman and J. W. Tukey, Measurement of Power
Spectra (Dover, New York, 1959)
20. W. R. Howell, Digilab, Inc. (Cambridge, Mass.) private com-
munication.
21. G. F. Hohnstreiter, W. R. Howell, and T. P. Sheahen, Ref. 6,
Ch. 24.
22. J. W. Cooley and J. W. Tukey, Math. Comput, 19, 297 (1965).
23. L. Mertz, Infrared Phys. 7,17 (1967).
24. R. Bracewell, Fourier Transform and Its Applications
(McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965).
25. I. Coleman and L. Mertz, "Experimental Study Program to In-
vestigate Limits in Fourier Spectroscopy," Block Engineering,
Report AFCRL-68-0050 (January 1968).
26. A convenience of FORTRAN IV evades the problem of shift-
ing each point in the reconstructed interferogram by a few
points. The data array is slightly overdimensioned (viz., 2060
locations for a 211 = 2048 point interferogram); and typically
the first ten points are repeated at the end. This is legitimate
since the unchirped interferogram is the FFT of 1024 complex
eigenvalues and is periodic over 2048 points. Then, if the cen-
tral fringe is found at location 7, the FFT subroutine is called
with the argument X(7). In this way, the change of an ad-
dress in the computer in effect performs a rotation in frequen-
cy space, showing a rather unexpected relationship between
computers and mathematical operations.
27. M. F. A'Hearn, F. J. Ahern, and D. M. Zipoy, Appl. Opt. 13,
1147 (1974).
28. A. Yariv, Quantum Electronics (Wiley, New York, 1967).
29. A. S. Filler, Ref. 6, Ch. 42.
International Short Course in LASER-DOPPLER ANEMOMETRY
in Karlsruhe, Germany
An International Short Course on Laser-Doppler Anemometry will be presented
at the University of Karlsruhe in Germany. This course will take place
from 3rd March - 11th March 1975 and will be given in German and
Engl ish.
Each course is subdivided in two parts allowing time for detailed theore-
tical instructions and for experiments which will be carried out by the
participants themselves. During the theoretical part of the short course,
each participant is allowed to use three out of six different commercial
instruments to carry out measurements in laminar and turbulent gas and
water flows as well as in diffusion and premixed flames.
For further details and program please write to,
Sonderforschungsbereich 80
LDA - Short Course
University of Karlsruhe
D - 75 Karlsruhe 1, Kaiserstrafle 12
Germany
2912 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 13, No. 12 / December 1974