Seco4.

4 Straln-Senslng Elements
275
4.4 STRAIN-SENSING ELEMENTS
When a mechanical structure is subject to a force, it undergoes deformation.
Stress describes the intensity of the force on the structure as the force per unit
area (F/A) and strain describes the deformation as the fractional change in
length (t.LlL). Youngs modulus describcs the stiffriess of lhe structure as the
ratio of stress to strain. If the structure is very stiff, a large stress is required to
produce agiven strain and the Young's modulus is large.
One of the simplest resistive strain gauges is a rubber tube filled with
mercury. As the rubber tube is stretched, its length L increases and its cross-
sectional area A decreases. The electrical resistance R is given by R = pUA,
where p is the resistivity in ohm em, and for constant volume V = AL, R =
pU/V. For small changes in length M, and aconstant electrical resistivity p, 6.R
=2pL M/V and MIR =2 M/L is the measure of the strain. The mercury tube
strain gauge has been used for respiration monitoring.
4.4.1 lhe Bonded Resistance Strain Gauge
The metal-foiI strain gauge consists of a pattem of metal on a mylar backing
(Figure 4.26) that changes its resistance as it is placed under tension or com-
pression (Figure 4.27). This sensor has a very low cost and can be cemented to
structural members of buildings, bridges, boilers, hulls of submarines and ships,
etc. They can be used to detect strain in real-time and wam against excessive
strain that could cause material failure. A typical inaximum safe strain is L\LIL =
0.5%.
~ Bonding Pad
/ Long Conductor Path
"'""'-1.---~Direction of strain sensitivity
Figure 4.26 Metal-foil strain gauge, usually a metal pattem on Mylar
film. For most metais, the fractional change in electrical resistance (M/R)
is approximately twice the fractional change in length (!:::.UL).
276 Sensors and Actuators Chap. 4
Unstrained
U nder tension
Length increased
Area decreased
Resistance increased
Under cornpression
Length decreascd
Area increased
Resistance decreased
Figure 4.27 The metal-foil elcmcnt in the strain gauge changcs its shapc
during tension and expansion, resulting in a change in electricai resistance.
When rnetals are placed under tension, their length L will increase but the
girth D will not necessarily decrease to keep the volume a constant, as it was
for the mercury tube strain gauge. Defining the longitudinal strain ti =Sl.ll.
and the transverse strain Et = 'D/D, Poisson's Ratio u is defined as
-Et/EI. Because the cross-sectional area A varies as the square of the girth D,
M/A = 2 Iill/D = -2u(MJL).
The electrical resistance of arectangular bar of metal of volume resistivity
p is given by
R= Lp
A
Taking partial derivatives,
dR = E.aL _ pL aA +L ap = R aL _ R aA +R ap
A A
2
A L A P
In differential form,
M = M _ M +,p = (l +2u)M +,p
R L A P L P
The term M/L is dimensional and the term 'p/p is piezoresistive. For the
constant-volume mercury strain gauge, (J = 0.50 and the gauge factor Gs in the
expression M/R = Gs M/L has the value Gs = 2. For most metals, U= 0.30
(increase in volume with strain), but the piezoresistive term increases Gs so that
it is also about 2. The gauge factor ranges from 2 to 4.5 for metais and can be
Sec.4.5 Force and P ressure Transducers 277
as high as 150 for semiconductors (Table 4.11). The high gauge factor for serni-
conductive strain elernents is because the resistivity p is a strong function of
the strain.
TABLE 4.11 STRAIN GAUGE MATERIALSAND GAUGE FACTORS
Material Os :::
(L1RIR)1(LlliL)
(61UR)/t\T (LUf,)/6.T
(10-
5
1C)
Ni4SCUS5 alloy
Silicon (n-typc)
Silicon (p-type)
2.1
100 to 170
-100 to -140
2
70 to 700
70 to 700
1.6
0.23
0.23
For p-type silicon (p =2 X 10-
2
n-cm), t:..R1R=120 WL +4,000 (WL)2
For n-type silicon (p = 3x 1Q-4 n-crn), /'ill/R = -110 M.JL +10,000(M.) L)2
4.5 FORCE AND PRESSURETRANSDUCERS
4.5.1 Force Transducers
-
A cornrnon rnethod of rneasuring the force of gravity F on a rnass m uses a
spring and position sensor. F = mg = kx, whereg is the gravitational accelera-
tion, k is the spring constant, and x is the difference between the loaded and
unloaded lengths of the spring. Since the gravitational force does not depend
on displacernent, we can use a spring that perrnits a significant displacernent,
which helps the accuracy of the rneasurernent. In rnany cases, however, a
displacernent in the direction of the force (i.e. "yielding" to the force) signifi-
cantly reduces the magnitude of the force, so it is irnportant to rneasure the
force with asrnall displacement. One of the best methods for accomplishing this
uses the piezoelectric crystal, which produces a voltage that is proportional to
the force. Another method uses one or more strain gauges cemented to a flexi-
ble rod (Figure 4.28). One end of the rod is fixed and the other is attached to
the force. The stiffness of the rod is chosen to provide an accurate measure-
rnent over the loads of interest without excessive displacernent.
278
Sensors and Actuators Chap. 4
Tensile strain (L'lUL >O)
\
11
Elastic
Element
Compressive strain (L'lUL <O)
Fixed end
/ Load
Figure 4.28 Force transducer consisting of four strain gauges
mounted in opposing pairs to an elastic element.
The resistance of the strain gauge is measured by placing it in one arm of
an initially balanced Wheatstone bridge. If a single strain element is used (left-
hand side of Figure 4.29), the output will be sensitive to therrnal expansion of
the elastic element. A better design uses four strain elements in opposing pairs
(right-hand side of Figure 4.29). This results in a fourfold improvement in
sensitivity and arelative insensitivity to temperature changes.
For the single-element bridge (left-hand side of Figure 4.29) with an exci-
tation voltage Vb, the output is given by
v - V = V (~_ R ) = V ( M ) ~V (M) = V (G
s
M)
+ - b 2R ,2R+M b 4R+2M b 4R b 4 L
For the four-element bridge (right-hand side of Figure 4.29), assuming
that all four strain elements have the same unstrained resistance R, we have
V -V =v ( R+M _ R-M .)=v: (2M)=v (c M)
+ - b R+M+R-M R+M+R-M b 2R b S L
Note that the relationship for the four-element bridge is naturally linear,
whereas that of the single-strain-elernent bridge is not. In addition, the four
element force transducer has four times the sensitivity. A typical maximum
strain l.Jl, would be 0.5%, so that for a gauge factor Gs = 2, t lRIR would be
only 1% and Vowould be 1% of Vb.
."
Seco4.5 Force and P ressure Transducers
279
Figure 4.29 Forcc-transducer bridge circuits usmg a singlc str ain
element RS. ar four strain elernents, 11. 12. b 1. and b2. in opposing pairs.
Thc four-elernent bridge has four times lhe sensitivity of the single-
element bridge.
It should also be noted that a uniform change in temperature will cause a
change in the length of the bar and put an equal strain on all the gauges.
Therefore, the single-element force. transducer is sensitive to temperature
changes, while the four-element force transducer is not.
4.5.2 Pressure Transducers
The pressure of a gas or a fluid is the force per unit area exerted perpendicu-
larly on the surface of the surrounding container. One of the most sensitive
pressure transducers is the piezoresistive diaphragrn, which consists of four
nearly identical semiconductor piezoresistors buried in the surface of a thin
circular silicon diaphragm. Pressure causes the diaphragm to bend, inducing a
stress on the diaphrgm and the buried piezoresistors. Two of the resistors
increase in value' and two decrease, depending 00 their orientation with
respect to the crystalline direction of the silicon material. Gold pads attached to
the silicon diaphragm provide connection from the piezoresistors to a full
bridge similar to the force transducer described in the previous section. Silicon
is elastic throughout its operating range and fails by rupturing. Units are avail-
able for measuring pressures from 1to 15,000 psi and have typical accuracies
from 0.1% to 1% of full scale. For measuring absolute pressure, one side of the
diaphragm is evacuated and sealed. For measuring differential pressure, both
sides are used.
280 Sensorsand Actuators Chap. 4
4.5.3 P iezoelectric Transducers
The most commonly used piezoelectric materiais are bariurn titanatc anel singlc
crystal quartzo
Sensor Applications
Force, Accelcration, Prcssure
Ultrasound microphone
Phonograph stylus (sodium potassium tartrate)
Actuator Applications
Micromani pulator
Ultrasound ernitter
Crystal oscillator (single crystal quartz)
Sensor-Actuator Applications
Acousiic ranging
Medical imaging
Figure 4.30 shows a piezoelectric crystal and its equivalent circuit. The
charge separation produced in the crystal is given by
q=SqF=SqPA
where Sq is the charge sensitivity.
F=PA
d
A
Figure 4.30 Piczoelectric crystal and equivalem circuit,
Seco4.5 Force and P ressure Transducers 281
The voltage V produced by this charge is given by:
V =q/C where C =kA/d
and A is the area, d is the thickness, and k is the dielectric constant.
Cambining these, we have
V= qd = SqPd =S Pd
kA k v
For sensing acceleration, an inertial mass is used to convert acceleration
into a force. Typical sensitivitics are !OpC per g or 5 mV pcr g. Larger units
have ti frequency response frorn IHz to 10kHz (Figure 4.31). Smallcr units can
respond to 1MHz.
ro
c::
C!)
Vl
..
<U
Q)
E
o
..
<U
<U
u
u
<t:
--- Useful range
1
l Ok
Frequency (Hz) '_ .
Figure 4.31 Piezoelectric crystal accelerometer
EXAMPLE
For a typical barium titanate piezoelectric crystal of thickness 1 mm and area 1
cm-', what is the output voltage for apressure of 1atmosphere?
Assume the following:
Charge sensitivity Sq=1.5pCIN
Dielectric constant k =1.25 X 10-
8
Fim
Voltage sensitivity S, =1.2x 10-4Vm/N
A:::: 1em", c: = 1mr.: V::: SyPd
Prcssure P =1atmosphere =10.1 x 10-4 Nm-
2
282
Sensorsond Actuotors Chop. 4
For A = 1cm-, d = 1mm, we have V = SvPd, which evaluates to:
V =(1.2 x I()-4VrnIN)(1Q---3m)(10.1 x 1()-4Nm-2) =12.1 mV
Figure 4.32 shows a charge amplifier commonly used to produce a step
output Vo proportional to an input charge q. Vo = q (CICf). The resistor R has a
large value and is used to restore the output to zero over long time periods.
R
Figure 4.32 Piezoelectric crystal integrating amplifier readout
Inertial Navigation
The purpose of the inertial navigaton system is to accurately measure accelera-
tions in three directions and integrate them to determine velocity and position.
Drift and noise produces errors that increase with time. It is necessary to recali-
brate the system at a known location to remove these errors. This approach has
been largely replaced by the Global Positioning System (GPS), which uses the
transit time of radio signals to artifical earth satellites in known orbits to deter-
mine position.
4.5.4 Vacuum Sensors and Pumps
The vacuum has many practical applications, inc1uding the following:
Cathode ray tube - TV and computer display
Power amplifiers - radio, TV, and radar transmitters
Ion implantation - integrated circuit production
Electron, proton, and ion accelerators - medical therapy beams
Proton and deuteron cyc1otrons - medical isotope production
Seco4.5 Force and P ressure Transducers
283
Th following are techniques for measuring vacua (see TabIe 4.12 for
surnrnary):
Tabla 4.12 P RESSURE SENSORS AND THEIR P RESSURE RANGES
Pressure sensar . Pressure range
Silicon disk with strain gauges 1000 atm to 1 torr*
Capacitancc 1000 to 1torr
Thcrmocouplc 1to 0.01 torr
Ion gaugej 10-
2
to 10-
4
torr
Vac-ion pump 10-
4
to 10-12 torr
* 1 atm = prcssure of a 760 mm colurnn of Hg = 760 torr
t Bayart-Alpert gaugc can record 10-
6
torr
Capacitancc: Paral lel plate capacitor in a rcsonant circuito Rcsonancc
Ircqucncy em be mcasured vcry accurately- depenes 011 dielcctric constam
(proportional to gas pressure) between plates.
Thermocouplc: Heater element is placed below the sensing junction of a
thermocouple. Convcctive heat transfer to the therrnocouplc - gas prcssurc.
Ion Gauge: A heated filament generates electrons that are accelerated to
a (+) collection pIate. These can collide with gas atoms in the way to produce
(+) ions that are collected on a (-) collection plate. That current is proportional
to gas pressure.
Vac-Ion Pump: Electrons are generated and spiral in acombined eleetric
and magnetie field. These ean eollide with gas atoms to make (-) ions that are
driven into a(+) pIate. That current is proportionaI to gas pressure.
The following are means for producing vacua:
Aspirator: Uses the entrapment of air by a rapidly flowing fluid, such as
water. Limited to 10 mm Hg (10 torr) and is used bychernists in filtering solu-
tions. The solution is plaeed above the filter paper, n eontaet with atmospheric
pressure, and the aspirator provdes a vacuum in the beaker below the flter.
Bellows and valve: Limited to 1mmHg (1torr).
Roughing Pump: Mechanical pump (pistons and valves)- can achieve
0.01torroLubrication oil apotential contamination- an oil trap is usual1y placed
at pump inIet.
Turbomolecular Pump: High speed turbine blades collide with gas
molecules and drive them into roughing pump- operates below 0.1torr and can
achieve 10-s torro
.,'
284
Sensorsand Actuators Chap,4
Vac- Ion Pump: EIectrons are generated and spiral in a combined electric
and magnetic fieId. These can collide with gas atoms to make (-) ions that are
driven into a (+) plate. PIate is "degassed" as needed with heat and pumping
(usually a turbomolecular pump plus a roughing purnp). Operates below 10-
4
tOIT and can achieve 10-12 tOIT, '
Diffusion Pump: (Not used in modem systerns.) Boiling oil or Hg is
sprayed to entrain gas molecules and drive them to the roughing purnp.
Operates below 0,1tOIT and can achieve 10-
6
torr. Hot oil can contaminate
system and limits achievable pressure.
Cryopump: Conventional pumping techniques (such as the vac-ion
pump) are limited by the vapor pressure of residual gasses. These residual gases
can be frozen onto a cryogenically cooled surface to produce pressures below
10-,12 tOIT.
Not e: The 1990 Guinness book of Records states that the best vacuum
ever achieved was 10-
14
torr (using 4K cryopumping and an outer guard
vacuum): at the IBM Watson Research Center.
4.6 MEASURING L1GHT
4.6.1 The Silicon Photodiode
The best comrncrcially available photcdiode for lhe measurerncnt of low light
levels is the PIN photodiode, which is manufactured by diffusing donor (n-
type) impurities (usuaIly boron) and acceptor (p-type) impurities (usually
phosphorous ar arsenic) into opposite sides of a high-purity silicon crystal
(Figure 4.33). The crystal is typically 50 to 500 um thick and the P layer
transmits light in the wavelength range fram 400 nm to 800 nm. The relation-
ship between photon wavelength and energy E is given by:
E = hct ); where hc = 1240 eV nm
Photons of energy 2 eV have = 620 nm and are in the red. Photons of
energy 3 eV have = 413 nm and are in the blue.