ICGSE GEOGRAPHY

WEATHERING
weathering erosion and transportation
deposition
WHAT IS WEATHERING?
Rocks that are exposed on the Earths surface become vulnerable to weathering.

Weathering is the disintegration (breaking up) and decomposition
(decay) of rocks in site, involving physical, chemical and biological
processes, resulting from the conditions in the atmosphere.

They break up in situ (where they lie). There is no movement involved.

Weathering, unlike erosion, need not involve the movement of material.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WEATHING?
There are three main categories of weathering:

PHYSICAL (mechanical) CHEMICAL BIOLOGICAL
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WEATHING?
Mechanical (sometimes also called physical) weathering: this involves the use of
some naturally created force to break the rock apart.

It is the disintegration of rock into smaller pieces by physical processes without
any change in the chemical composition of the rock.
It is most likely to occur in areas of bare rock where there is no vegetation to
protect the rock from extremes of weather.
Examples of physical weathering: freeze thaw; exfoliation and biological
weathering.

PHYSICAL WEATHERING
EXAMPLE 1: FROST SHATTERING (or FREEZE THAW)
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
EXAMPLE 1: FROST SHATTERING (or FREEZE THAW)
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
EXAMPLE 1: FROST SHATTERING (or FREEZE THAW)
This type of weathering is most likely to occur in those parts of the world where the
temperature between day and night fluctuates above and below freezing and where there is
enough rain or snow.

In the UK, it is most common in mountainous areas, such as the Lake District, where it
produces sharp ridges with lots of angular and fragmented pieces of rock lying around. The
ridge of Striding Edge, leading up to the summit of Helvellyn, is a good example.











The main product of this process is scree angular rock fragments.
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
EXAMPLE 2: EXFOLIATION (or ONION SKIN WEATHERING)
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
EXAMPLE 2: EXFOLIATION (or ONION SKIN WEATHERING)
Thick layers or rock peel off parallel
to the rock surface
In deserts, the process is often seen
on crystalline rocks like granite
It leads to the formation of large
domed hills (exfoliation domes) or
great piles of boulders.

Rocks are very poor thermal
conductors, therefore when they
are heated during the day, the
expansion effects are confined to
the surface layers, encouraging the
development of cracks parallel to
the surface. At night, the rock cools
and contracts and this cracks the
rock further, at right angels to the
surface.
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
EXAMPLE 2: EXFOLIATION (or ONION SKIN WEATHERING)
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
EXAMPLE 3: Biological weathering
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
EXAMPLE 3: Physical form of Biological weathering
Biological weathering is a combination of both
mechanical and chemical processes.

The roots of plants and trees grow downwards
through the soil and can exploit the cracks in
rocks beneath. As the plant grows, the roots get
bigger and are more able to force the crack
further apart. Eventually the crack will break open
completely. Seeds can also fall into cracks in the
rock, when they germinate they grow and expand
the cracks further.

This is an example of a mechanical form of
biological weathering.

PHYSICAL WEATHERING
EXAMPLE 3: Physical form of Biological weathering
Many animals, such as these
Piddock shells, bore into rocks for
protection either by scraping away
the grains or secreting acid to
dissolve the rock.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
EXAMPLE: Chemical form of Biological weathering
Biological weathering is a combination of both
mechanical and chemical processes.

The decay of leaves and other vegetation creates a
number of organic, humic, acids which are carried
down through the soil by water. These acids are then
able to attack the rocks beneath. This is an example of
the chemical form of biological weathering.

Even the tiniest bacteria, algae and lichens produce
chemicals that help break down the rock on which
they live, so they can get the nutrients they need.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WEATHING?
Chemical weathering: this is when the presence of water allows certain
chemical processes to occur that cause an alteration in the chemical structure
of the rock.
It is the decomposition of rocks caused by a chemical change within the rock.
It is more likely to occur in warm, moist climates, as these encourage chemical
reactions to take place
Example: limestone solution.
1) CARBONATION
Carbonation happens when the rock type is limestone
Limestone is made up of calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
), and mud
(clay)
All rainfall is slightly acidic, this is because naturally occurring
carbon dioxide (CO
2
), in the air is dissolved in the rainwater
(H
2
O) to produce a weak acid, carbonic acid (H
2
O + CO
2
->
H
2
CO
3).
The weak acid dissolves the carbon carbonate in the limestone
to form a solution, which is then washed away as a solution of
calcium ions (Ca
2+
) and hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO
3
-
). Any
impurities in the limestone are left behind as clay or sand.
What are the horizontal and vertical cracks called in a
limestone pavement?

How do these relate to weathering?
Clint
Clint
Clint
Clint
Clint
Gryke
Limestone pavement
Pot holes, swallow holes and
shake holes
Carboniferous
limestone
features
Limestone
pavements
Limestone
gorges
Caves and
caverns
Stalactites and
stalagmites
Intermittent
drainage
Limestone features
formed as a result of carbonation
1) CARBONATION
Carbonation is a natural
process
BUT! The rate of carbonation
can be increased by air
pollution from thermal power
stations, industry and fires
these produce gases like
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
dioxides which makes the
rainfall more acidic than it
would normally be
Acid rain can result in increased
damage to buildings and
statutes in urban areas
1) CARBONATION
Acid rain increases the rate of carbonation
CHEMICAL WEATHERING - OXIDATION
Oxidation is the reaction of rock minerals with oxygen, thus changing the
mineral composition of the rock. When minerals in rock oxidize, they become
less resistant to weathering. Iron, a commonly known mineral, becomes red or
rust colored when oxidized.
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction caused by water. Water changes the chemical
composition and size of minerals in rock, making them less resistant to
weathering.
What factors
increase the rate
of weathering?
ROCK TYPE
CLIMATE
The presence of lines
of weakness
Grain size of the rock
Mineral composition
Frost climates
Deserts
Temperate areas
Humid (wet) tropical
areas
ROCK TYPE
The presence of lines
of weakness
Grain size of the rock
Mineral composition
Joints and bedding planes allow water to
penetrate into the rocks increasing the physical
and chemical effects of weathering and control
the size and shape of the weathered fragments
All rocks are made of minerals. Some minerals
are more chemically resistant and weather
slowly.
In general, the bigger the grains or crystal that
make up the rocks, the faster the rate of
weathering. This is because the weathering of
one mineral in the rocks tends to weaken the
rock to a greater degree.
WHAT ARE ROCKS?
Rocks are made of grains that fit together.
Each grain in the rock is made from a mineral, which is a
chemical compound.
The grains in a rock can be different colours, shapes and sizes.




ROCK TYPE
Mineral composition
All rocks are made of minerals. Some minerals are
more chemically resistant and weather slowly.
LIMESTONE made from calcium carbonate,
which is susceptible to carbonation. It also
contains cracks, which allow water to penetrate
and increase the surface area vulnerable to
chemical attack
Rocks that contain IRON MINERALS (e.g. some
sandstones, shales, dolerite, basalt) are prone to
oxidation
ROCK TYPE
Mineral composition
All rocks are made of minerals. Some minerals are
more chemically resistant and weather slowly.
Rocks containing the mineral QUARTZ, is chemically
resistant and doesnt weather chemically
GRANITE often thought of as a resistant
rock, but is prone to breakdown, especially
in hot and wet climates where water is able
to penetrate through the joint systems in the
rock.
ROCK TYPE
Grain size of the rock
In general, the bigger the grains or crystal that make
up the rocks, the faster the rate of weathering.

This is because the weathering of one mineral in the
rocks tends to weaken the rock to a greater degree.
Crystalline rocks (igneous and metamorphic) have
greater resistance to physical disintegration than
rocks made out of grains or fragments (sedimentary
rocks)

This is because of the greater strength of interlocking
crystalline textures in comparison to granular ones.



Some types of rock have interlocking grains that fit tightly together.
Other types of rock have rounded grains.

Granite has interlocking grains. Sandstone has rounded grains.









Rocks with rounded grains are more softer and more porous, as the
water can get into the gaps between the grains. Making them more
susceptible to weathering.
THE RATE OF WEATHERING
An example of how differential weathering
rates between different rock types can be seen
by looking at the limestone surface near the
village of Austwick in the Yorkshire Dales.

During the Ice age glaciers from Scotland
brought with them large boulders of a hard,
resistant rock called grit.

When the ice melted about 10,000 years ago,
these boulders were dumped on the limestone
surface.

Since then, the rain has gradually and slowly
weathered away the limestone, but the area
beneath the boulders has been protected and
not affected. The boulders now sit on a 50 cm
high pedestal above the rest of the limestone
ROCK STRUCTURE
Can affect its resistance to erosion and permeability to water
RESISTANCE
Rocks have different strengths, so produce different landforms

The harder the rock is the more resistant it is to erosion. Harder rocks
therefore usually found as hills and mountains. The softer and less compact the
rock, the more likely it is to be broken up and worn away by the processes of
weathering.
At the coast, more resistant rocks
from steep cliffs, whereas less
resistant rocks from bays

In rivers, where the rock is more
resistant the valley sides will be
steeper

ROCK TYPE
The presence of lines of weakness
Joints and bedding planes allow
water to penetrate into the rocks
increasing the physical and chemical
effects of weathering

They also control the size and shape
of the weathered fragments
The rounded boulders often seen on the kopjes (isolated hills) of the
African landscape are due to the weathering of granite or similar rocks
which ave a a rectangular pattern of joints.

Water penetrates the joints and weathering occurs. This has the effect
of changing the original rectangular blocks into large, rounded boulders.
ROCK STRUCTURE
Can affect its resistance to erosion and permeability to water
PERMEABILITY

An Impermeable rock does not less
water pass through it. A permeable rock
does!

Permeable rocks may consist of
Tiny pores which allow the water to
pass through (e.g. chalk) porous rock
Areas of weakness, such as bedding
planes which separate the different
layers of rock along which the water can
flow
What factors
increase the
rate of
weathering?
CLIMATE
Frost climates
Deserts
Temperate areas
Humid (wet) tropical
areas
CLIMATE
Frost climates
High mountain ranges (high altitudes) and closer to the North and South poles
(high latitudes)
Main process = freeze thaw action
Amount of weathering depends on the number of freeze thaw cycles (therefore
you need temperatures to fluctuate above and below freezing rather than
permanent severe cold)
Chemical weathering is slow as cold slows the rate of chemical reactions.
CLIMATE
Temperate areas
Moderate temperatures
freeze thaw action and exfoliation do not occur
Main type of weathering is chemical but relatively low temperatures
mean the rate of weathering is slower than in the Tropics
CLIMATE
Deserts
Main type of weathering = exfoliation (due to the high diurnal temperature
range)
Chemical weathering is extremely slow due to the lack of moisture
Slowest weathering rates on earth
CLIMATE
Humid (wet) tropical
areas
Fastest weathering rates on earth
The layer of weathered material lying on top of the bedrock is up to 40
meters deep and rocks are seen to weather significantly within decades
Rates of chemical reaction are accelerated by the hot, wet conditions
Unlike some other forms of limestone, carboniferous limestone is very
hard. It has been used as a building material for thousands of years.

Used to build the Great Pyramid of
Giza, which is the only wonder of
the ancient world still standing. It is
over 4,500 years old.
This gravestone, in south east England is also
made out of carboniferous limestone. It has
only been around for 300 years
Some rocks have
many more cracks or
lines of weakness in
them and this means
that there is a greater
surface area for
chemical weathering
to attack. The
weaknesses also
make it easier for
exfoliation or freeze
thaw to operate.

In those parts of the world where it is very warm
and wet, such as the tropics, chemical
weathering is likely to be much more dominant
than mechanical weathering.

The chemistry of the rock
also has an important role,
because this helps to gives
the rocks their strength, and
some minerals are far less
affected by acids in the
water.
On mountain ridges the
presence of lots of water and
temperatures fluctuating
above and below freezing
make mechanical weathering
much more likely.

THE RATE OF WEATHERING
ROCK TYPES
IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks are formed by magma from the
molten interior of the Earth. When magma
erupts it cools to form volcanic landforms. If
magma cools inside the Earth it forms intrusive
rock, which may later be exposed by erosion
and weathering.

They consist of crystals which formed as the
rock cooled down

e.g. granite, basalt
ROCK TYPES
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are formed from
sediments that have settled at the bottom
of a lake, sea or ocean, and have been
compressed over millions of years. ]

The sediment comes from eroded rocks
carried there by rivers or ice, and from the
skeletons of sea creatures.

Examples of sedimentary rocks include
sandstone, limestone, chalk and clay.
ROCK TYPES
METAMORPHIC

Metamorphic rocks have been subjected to
tremendous heat and/or pressure, causing
them to change into another type of rock. They
are usually resistant to weathering and erosion
and are therefore very hard-wearing.

Examples of metamorphic rocks include marble,
which originates from limestone, slate, which
originates from clay, and schists formed from
sandstone or shale (sedimentary rocks).
PAST PAPER
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WEATHERING EXAM


1. Define the term weathering (2)

2. Explain, with the aid of an annotated diagram, the process of
freeze thaw weathering (6)

3. Explain how vegetation can cause biological weathering (4)

4. Explain how geology can have an effect on the rate and type
of weathering that takes place (4)