ersuas|on

1heory & 8esearch

uanlel !. C'keefe

































Lnd terms
1) knowledge of Lheorles abouL aLLlLudes,
2) knowledge of models of persuaslon,
3) knowledge of message feaLures, and aspecLs of source and audlence LhaL have an
effecL on persuaslon,
4) knowledge of research meLhods and deslgns LhaL are used ln Lhls sclenLlflc
domaln,
3) AblllLy Lo read and undersLand handbooks and research arLlcles ln Lngllsh

1. ersuas|on, Att|tudes and Act|ons

1be potoJlqm cose of petsoosloo
When we say LhaL a person ls persuaded, we ordlnarlly ldenLlfy a successfu| aLLempL Lo
lnfluence. 8ecognlLlon LhaL persuaslon ls connecLed Lo success leads Lo Lhe nexL Lwo
feaLures: 1he presence of some cr|ter|on or goa| and |ntent to reach that goa|. 1he fourLh
feaLure ln Lhe paradlgm of persuaslon ls some measure of freedom. 1he flfLh paradlgm ls ln
whlch Lhe effecLs are ach|eved trough commun|cat|on. llnally, lL lnvolves a change |n the
menta| state of Lhe persuadee.

1be coocept of ottltoJe
An aLLlLude ls a menLal sLaLe LhaL ls mosL cenLrally lmpllcaLed ln persuaslon. ?ou Lry Lo
'change' an aLLlLude. CharacLerlsLlc of ottltoJes.
are relaLlvely sLable
are dlrecLed Loward ob[ecLs, persons, behavlor, lnsLlLuLlons, evenLs, eLc.
are evaluaLlve: elLher favourable or unfavourable, poslLlve or negaLlve
have a cognlLlve base, are rooLed ln bellefs regardlng Lhe ob[ecL of Lhe
aLLlLude
have an emoLlonal base, are rooLed ln affecLlve responses Loward Lhe ob[ecL
of Lhe aLLlLude
have consequences for behavlor LhaL perLalns Lo Lhe ob[ecL of Lhe aLLlLude

Measur|ng att|tude.
- ultect tecbolpoes
- Ooosl Jltect tecbolpoes
- loJltect tecbolpoes

D|rect techn|ques
ulrecL aLLlLude measuremenL Lechnlques dlrecLly ask Lhe respondenL for an evaluaLlve
[udgmenL of Lhe aLLlLude ob[ecL. 1wo examples are:
- SemanLlc ulfferenLlal LvaluaLlve Scales (7 scale from good - bad, poslLlve - negaLlve)
- Slngle-lLem aLLlLude quesLlons

AdvanLage: Lasy Lo consLrucL
ulsadvanLage: uo noL address characLerlsLlcs or relaLlon Lo Lhe ob[ecL of aLLlLude




uas|-D|rect techn|ques
Cuasl-dlrecL Lechnlques ask Lhe respondenL for an evaluaLlve [udgmenL of
characLerlsLlcs, aspecLs or lnformaLlon relaLed Lo Lhe ob[ecL of Lhe aLLlLude.
1wo examples:
- 1hursLone scales
- LlkerL scales

1hurstone:
SeL of 20 evaluaLlve sLaLemenLs LhaL perLaln Lo Lhe aLLlLude ob[ecL, each sLaLemenL has
known scale values, respondenL selecLs sLaLemenLs wlLh whlch Lhey agree. 1he hlgher Lhe
sLaLemenL ls ln Lhe llsL, Lhe more value lL has.





















L|kert:
8espondenL's aLLlLude from Lhe respondenL's agreemenL or dlsagreemenL wlLh aLLlLude-
relevanL sLaLemenLs. Sounds dlfflculL buL lL ls noL. We all know Lhe LlkerLscale.

1hls bank ls rellable
SLrongly agree 1 2 3 4 3 sLrongly dlsagree


cbotoctetlstlcs
- MosL popular Lechnlque for aLLlLude measuremenL
- LvaluaLlve sLaLemenLs LhaL perLaln Lo Lhe aLLlLude ob[ecL
- 3-polnL blpolar scales anchored by expresslons of (dls)agreemenL
- 8espondenL express degree of agreemenL for each lLem
- 8elaLlvely easy Lo consLrucL

Ind|rect techn|ques
lndlrecL aLLlLude measuremenL Lechnlques assess aLLlLude noL by dlrecLly ellclLlng an
evaluaLlon of Lhe aLLlLude ob[ecL, buL lnsLead by some more lndlrecL (roundabouL) mean.
Lxamples:
- hyslologlcal lndlces (pupll dllaLlon and conLracLlon, elecLrodermal lndlces, hearL
raLe, resplraLlon raLe, persplraLlon raLe, faclal elecLromyography Lechnlques, fM8l)
- lnformaLlon LesLs
- LosL leLLer Lechnlque

AdvanLages: unobLruslve, non-reacLlve
ulsadvanLages: lndlrecL, uncerLaln relaLlon Lo aLLlLude

AttltoJes ooJ bebovloots
ln general aLLlLudes and behavlor are qulLe conslsLenL. uegree of conslsLency depends on:
- Lhe correspondence of aLLlLudlnal and behavloural measures
- Lhe formaLlve basls of aLLlLudes (aLLlLudes lnduced by dlrecL experlence are more
conslsLenL wlLh behavlor Lhan Lhose lnduced by lndlrecL experlence)
- Lhe percelved relevance for behavlor of Lhe aLLlLude

ocootoqloq AttltoJe-cooslsteot 8ebovloot
SomeLlmes Lhe Lask faclng Lhe persuader ls noL LhaL of lnduclng or changlng an aLLlLude,
lnsLead Lhe [ob ls LhaL of geLLlng Lhe audlence Lo acL conslsLenLly wlLh Lhe exlsLlng aLLlLude.
lor example: MosL people have a poslLlve aLLlLude Lowards good healLh, your [ob ls make
Lhem aLLlLude-conslsLenL Lo LhaL aLLlLude, by noL eaLlng fasLfood.

ALLlLude-conslsLenL behavlor can be encouraged by:
- enhanclng Lhe percelved relevance for behavlor of Lhe aLLlLude
- lnduclng feellngs of hypocrlsy
- encouraglng anLlclpaLlon of feellngs

(LxLra explanaLlon: 1he perce|ved re|evance sLraLegy says: '?ou mlghL noL have reallzed lL,
buL Lhls really ls an opporLunlLy Lo acL conslsLenLly wlLh your aLLlLude.' 1he hypocr|sy
|nduct|on says: '?ou haven'L been acLlng conslsLenLly wlLh your aLLlLude, buL here ls an
opporLunlLy Lo do so.' And Lhe ant|c|pat|on: 'Pere ls an opporLunlLy Lo acL conslsLenLly wlLh
your aLLlLude - and Lhlnk how bad you feel lf you don'L')

Measure of an att|tude change:
Measurlng change of:
- Lhe aLLlLude lLself
- aspecLs of Lhe aLLlLude (sallence, confldence, sLrengLh, .)
- relaLed consLrucLs (self-efflcacy, normaLlve bellefs)


2. Iunct|ona| approaches to att|tude
1he baslc ldea ls LhaL aLLlLudes may serve varlous funcLlons for persons. 1he mosL effecLlve
Lechnlque for changlng an aLLlLude may vary dependlng on Lhe aLLlLude's funcLlon.

AttltoJe fooctloos (kotz, 1960)
ALLlLude funcLlons:
- uLlllLarlan (Maxlmlze rewards, mlnlmlze punlshmenLs)
- ego-defenslve (uefendlng one's self-lmage by denlgraLlng oLhers)
- value-expresslve (Poldlng and expresslng aLLlLudes LhaL reflecL Lhelr cenLral values
and self-lmages)
- knowledge (organlzlng and undersLandlng lnformaLlon and evenLs)

1wo dlmenslons lnvolved ln aLLlLude funcLlons:
- lnsLrumenLal
- symbollc
All klnds of facLors may lnfluence whaL funcLlon a glven aLLlLude serves:
- lndlvldual dlfferences (e.g. self-monlLorlng)
- characLerlsLlcs of Lhe aLLlLude ob[ecL (ls a car funcLlonal (drlves you) or symbollc
(looks sexy))
- slLuaLlonal varlables

letsoosloo. looctloo motcbloq
Accordlng Lo Lhe funcLlonal approach, persuaslve appeals should maLch Lhe funcLlonal basls
of Lhe aLLlLude.

lor example: lf a negaLlve aLLlLude Loward a nelghbourhood faclllLy for persons wlLh AluS ls
based on a symbo||c assoclaLlon of AluS and homosexuallLy, Lhen perhaps LhaL aLLlLude
mlghL be changed by lnformlng LhaL AluS also aLLacks heLerosexuals. 8uL lf lL ls based on Lhe
|nstrumenta| concerns abouL Lhe conLaglousness of AluS, dlfferenL argumenLs wlll be
needed.

8esearch evldence: maLched appeals are more persuaslve Lhan mlsmaLched ones. 8ecause:
- MaLched appeals saLlsfy psychologlcal needs
- MaLched appeals are processed more carefully


3. 8e||ef-8ased Mode|s of Att|tude
1he cenLral Lheme of Lhls chapLer ls LhaL one's aLLlLude Loward an ob[ecL ls a funcLlon of Lhe
bellefs LhaL one has abouL Lhe ob[ecL.

5ommotlve moJel of ottltoJe (llsbbelo)
1he model ls based on Lhe clalm above. (ALLlLude -> 8ellef). 8uL aL any glven Llme, only some
of Lhese bellefs are llkely Lo be solleot (ptomloeot). And lL ls Lhose LhaL are clalmed Lo
deLermlne one's aLLlLude.

nexL Lhe model holds LhaL one's aLLlLude Loward an ob[ecL ls a funcLlon of bellef stteoqtb
(tbe stteoqtb yoo bolJ yoot solleot bellef oboot tbe object) and bellef evolootloo (tbe
evolootloo ooes bos of tbese bellefs)


A = ALLlLude Lowards Lhe ob[ecL
8 = SLrengLh of a glven bellef
L = LvaluaLlon of a glven bellef

1he Slgma slgn () means LhaL Lhe [8 x L] can be added Lo each oLher and sLlll means A.
Lxample: A = b1e1 + b2e2 + b3+e3 + eLc.

1he model of llshbeln looks llke Lhls:


8e||ef b
|

(probab||ty)
e
|

(eva|uat|on)
b
|
e
|

(product)





8esulLlng esLlmaLlon
of aLLlLude:

When we flll lL ln wlLh Lhe case: Us|ng condoms and someone has a nLCA1lvL aLLlLude Lhe
model wlll look llke Lhls:

8e||ef b
|

(probab||ty)
e
|

(eva|uat|on)
b
|
e
|

(product)
prevenL Lransmlsslon of AluS -3 3 -9 (-3 x 3)
prevenL pregnancy -2 3 -6 (-2 x 3)
are expenslve 3 -2 -6
are dlfflculL Lo apply 2 -2 -4
lmpalr Lhe romance of lovemaklng 3 -3 -9
8esulLlng esLlmaLlon of aLLlLude: -34 (LoLal)

letsooslve 5ttoteqy lmpllcotloos
When Lhe resulL of Lhe summaLlve model ls clear. ?ou can lmpllcaLe dlfferenL sLraLegles.
lmpllcaLlons for persuaslon:
- lnsLll poslLlve bellefs
- lncrease poslLlve evaluaLlons
- 8educe negaLlve evaluaLlons
- lncrease probablllLy of poslLlve bellefs
- uecrease probablllLy of negaLlve bellefs
- lncrease sallence of poslLlve bellefs




4. Cogn|t|ve D|ssonance theory
1hls Lheory ls based on Lhe concepL of coqoltlve cooslsteocy. 1he ldea LhaL persons seek Lo
maxlmlze lotetool psycboloqlcol cooslsteocy of Lhelr cognlLlons (bellefs, aLLlLudes, eLc).
CognlLlve lnconslsLency ls Laken Lo be an uncomforLable sLaLe, and hence persons are seen
as sLrlvlng Lo avold lL.

CognlLlve conslsLency as a preferred emoLlonal sLaLe: people sLrlve for balance, conslsLency,
and reducLlon of cognlLlve dlssonance. ulssonance ls an averslve emoLlonal sLaLe, when
dlssonance lncreases, Lhe pressure Lo reduce lL lncreases as well.

CognlLlve elemenLs can be lttelevoot, coosoooot ot Jlssoooot
lrrelevanL: Pave noLhlng Lo do wlLh each oLher (1ulLlon fees go up nexL year, l love coffee)
ConsonanL: 1hey hang LogeLher. (Colf ls a noble game, l llke Lo play golf)
ulssonanL: A and 8 are dlssonanL when A lmplles Lhe opposlLe of 8 (A - -8)

D|ssonant]D|ssonance
uegree of dlssonance depends on Lhe proporLlon of dlssonanL elemenLs and Lhelr
lmporLance. ulssonance can be reduced by addlng consonanL cognlLlons or by changlng Lhe
lmporLance of cognlLlons. xomple. My coqoltloo tbot l smoke ooJ my coqoltloo tbot
smokloq cooses coocet ote Jlssoooot wltb eocb otbet. l sboolJ stop smokloq, bot l Joot.


1here are Lwo means of reduclng dlssonance, lnfluenclng Lhe magnlLude of dlssonance:
- cbooqloq tbe telotlve ptopottloos of coosoooot ooJ Jlssoooot elemeots.
(Smoklng example: 'Smoklng doesn'L cause cancer')
- Altetloq tbe lmpottooce of tbe lssoe ot tbe elemeots lovolveJ
('lL's noL LhaL lmporLanL')

Dec|s|on Mak|ng
ueclslons lnvolve a sequence of sLages:
ConfllcL - cholce - dlssonance - dlssonance reducLlon

Induced Comp||ance
1he greaLesL amounL of dlssonance-Lheory-lnsplred research concerns whaL ls called:
loJoceJ compllooce. lnduced compllance ls sald Lo occur when an lndlvldual ls lnduced Lo acL
ln a way dlscrepanL from hls or her bellefs and aLLlLudes.

ersuadlng someone? 8emember:
Large lncenLlves for counLer aLLlLudlnal behavlor - relaLlvely llLLle dlssonance
lncenLlves LhaL are [usL enough Lo lnduce compllance - maxlmal dlssonance

nypocr|sy Induct|on
SomeLlmes a persuader's Lask ls noL Lo encourage people Lo have Lhe deslred aLLlLudes, as lL
ls Lo encourage people Lo acL oo exlstloq ottltoJes. Lxample: eople have a poslLlve aLLlLude
Lowards recycllng, buL yeL ofLen fall Lo acL so. ersuaders can explolL Lhese lnconslsLencles.

ALLenLlon Lo hypocrlsy may arouse dlssonance. Pypocrlsy can be lnduced by focus on
dlscrepancy beLween bellefs or aLLlLudes and behavlor
8lsk of backflre: aLLlLudes are changed, raLher Lhan behavlor


S. 1heor|es of behav|oura| |ntent|on
1he behavlours of cenLral lnLeresL LoL persuaders are volunLary acLlons, ones under Lhe
acLor's vollLlonal conLrol. ln oLher words: lf you can lnfluence someone's lnLenLlon, you can
lnfluence hls or her behavlour. 8ehavloural lnLenLlon: mosL lmmedlaLe deLermlnanL of
behavlor. So whaL are Lhe deLermlnanLs of lnLenLlon? 1wo models wlll be descrlbed.

- 1heory of reasoned acLlon (18A)
- 1heory of planned behavlor (18)

1kA
8ehavloural lnLenLlon ls a funcLlon of:
ALLlLudes (1)
Sub[ecLlve norms (2)
1.ALLlLudes depend on bellefs (Ch 3)
2. Sub[ecLlve norms depend on:
normaLlve expecLaLlons (whaL people Lhlnk oLher people wanL Lhem Lo do)
MoLlvaLlon Lo comply (how much people wanL Lo do whaL oLhers Lhlnk Lhey
should do)

SummaLlve model, behavloural lnLenLlon ls a welghLed sum of aLLlLudes and soclal-
normaLlve conslderaLlons.
















1be 1kA ooJ lts lmpllcotloos of petsoosloo
! ALLlLude change
! Change of sub[ecLlve norm:
! Add new referenLs or lncrease sallence of exlsLlng referenLs
! Change normaLlve expecLaLlons
! Change percepLlon of behavlour of oLher people
! Change welghL of componenLs (welghLs of aLLlLudes and of soclal-normaLlve
conslderaLlons)

18
1he 18 suggesLs LhaL ln addlLlon Lo Lhe aLLlLudlnal and normaLlve lnfluences ldenLlfled by
Lhe 18A, a Lhlrd elemenL - letcelveJ bebovlootol coottol (l8c) - also lnfluences behavloural
lnLenLlon.

8C
8C refers Lo Lhe person's percepLlon of Lhe ease or dlfflculLy of performlng Lhe behavlor. ln
oLher words: ercelved behavloural conLrol depends on Lhe percepLlon of:
conLrol facLors
Lhe power of Lhe conLrol facLor Lo lnhlblL or faclllLaLe behavlour
















1be 1l8 ooJ lts lmpllcotloos of petsoosloo.
LllmlnaLe obsLacles, facLors LhaL lmpede conLrol of behavlour:
More or beLLer lnformaLlon
8emove concreLe obsLacles
CreaLe condlLlons for successful behavlour (exerclse, role play, menLal
rehearsal)
rovlde examples, show behavloural models
Lncourage ('?ou can do lL')

ke|at|ons between |ntent|ons and behav|our
CfLen qulLe sLrong (for volunLary behavlor), buL sLrengLh of relaLlonshlp depends on:
Correspondence of measures
SLablllLy of lnLenLlons
lannlng of behavlor
PlsLory, prlor behavlor


6. L|aborat|on L|ke||hood Mode|
1he elaboraLlon llkellhood model (LLM) of persuaslon ls a dual process Lheory of how
aLLlLudes are formed and changed. 1he model examlnes how an argumenL's poslLlon on Lhe
"elaboraLlon conLlnuum", from processlng and evaluaLlng (hlgh elaboraLlon) Lo perlpheral
lssues such as aLLracLlveness (low elaboraLlon), shapes lLs persuaslveness.

lobototloo = lssue-relevanL Lhlnklng
ALLend closely Lo presenLed message
Carefully scruLlnlze argumenLs
8eflecL on oLher relevanL conslderaLlons

cootlooom. ranglng from heavy elaboraLlon, Lo no elaboraLlon, tbe mote elaboraLlon, Lhe
sttooqet Lhe aLLlLude.

L|ke||hood of e|aborat|on depends on 3 facLors:
Motlvotloo Lo process message
Ablllty Lo process message
Oppottoolty Lo process message

Motlvotloo (or lovolvemeot) ls very lmporLanL, because people are 'cognlLlve mlsers'
S|tuat|ona| (do l geL a reward?)
Issue-re|ated (hlgh and low lnvolvemenL ob[ecLs, whaL ls Lhe cosL of a wrong
declslon?)
ersona| (ls Lhls lssue lmporLanL Lo me personally? uoes lL affecL me
personally?)
ersona||ty (need for CognlLlon)

Ablllty (or copoclty)
rlor knowledge
CognlLlve capaclLy

Oppottoolty
ulsLracLlon
ClarlLy of presenLaLlon

















Centra| and er|phera| koutes to ersuas|on
1he model deflnes Lwo processlng rouLes: cenLral and perlpheral.

ceottol toote
CenLral-rouLe processes requlre Lhe audlence Lo Lhlnk more, and are llkely Lo predomlnaLe
under hlgh-elaboraLlon condlLlons. CenLral-rouLe processes lnvolve crlLlcal vlew of Lhe
persuaslve communlcaLlon (e.g., a speech or an adverLlsemenL) Lo deLermlne Lhe
argumenLs.

ln shorL: ersuaslon Lrough Lhe cenLral rouLe ls achleved Lrough Lhe recelver's LhoughLful
examlnaLlon of lssue-relevanL conslderaLlons.

letlpbetol toote
erlpheral-rouLe processes do noL lnvolve elaboraLlon of Lhe message Lhrough cognlLlve
processlng of an argumenL's merlLs. 1hey rely on a message's envlronmenLal characLerlsLlcs:
Lhe percelved credlblllLy of Lhe source, message presenLaLlon quallLy, Lhe source's
aLLracLlveness or a caLchy slogan, and ls frequenLly used when Lhe argumenL ls weak or lacks
evldence.

1he perlpheral rouLe ls a menLal shorLcuL, whlch accepLs (or re[ecLs) a message based on
exLernal cues, raLher Lhan LhoughL. lL ls used when Lhe audlence ls unable Lo process Lhe
message due Lo Lhe message's complexlLy or Lhe audlence's lmmaLurlLy. 1he commonesL
lnfluences are rewards such as food, sex or money, whlch creaLe rapld changes ln mlnd and
acLlon.

erlpheral rouLe: processlng of everyLhlng LhaL ls oot lssoe-televoot:
AspecLs of Lhe adverLlsemenL (layouL, colours, lmages, words)
AspecLs of Lhe source (aLLracLlveness, 'nlceness', experLness,
LrusLworLhlness)
AspecLs of Lhe message (number of argumenLs, sLyle, pollLeness)

erlpheral rouLe leads Lo weaker aLLlLudes:
uo noL perslsL over Llme
Are less predlcLlve of lnLenLlons and behavlour
Are less reslsLanL Lo counLer persuaslon


7. 1he study of persuas|ve effects
varlous experlmenLal arrangemenLs are used ln persuaslon effecLs research, buL Lhese can
usefully be LhoughL of as varlaLlons on a baslc deslgn.

8as|c des|gn
1. Causal lnference: x caused ? Lo occur.
2. Cause = lndependenL varlable (lv)
3. LffecL = dependenL varlable (uv)
4. lv - uv

Va||d|ty
valldlLy: 'ls experlmenLal deslgn Ck?' ln oLher words: valldlLy ls Lhe exLenL Lo whlch a
concepL, concluslon or measuremenL ls well founded and corresponds accuraLely Lo Lhe teol
wotlJ.

ln general: when manlpulaLlng a facLor, alm for Mlolmol lolts LhaL only dlffer on one and
only one aspecL.

lmporLanL klnds of valldlLy:
ls your manlpulaLlon Ck? (consLrucL valldlLy)
ls your measuremenL Ck? (measuremenL valldlLy)
ls your experlmenL Ck? (lnLernal valldlLy)
Can you generallze? (exLernal valldlLy)

coosttoct vollJlty
lor example: Lhe memory load of rememberlng numbers.
1o easy: remember 3 dlglLs
1o hard: remember 14 dlglLs
Cood: remember 7 dlglLs.

Meosotemeot vollJlty
- Maklng cholce should be clear and easy: wrlLlng down ple" or frulL" ls easlesL, A" and
8" mlghL be sllghLly confuslng (whaL ls A or 8?)
- lnsLrucLlons should be clear and correcL
- Mlnlmlze soclolly Jesltoble answers

lotetool vollJlty
Was lL Lhe moolpolotloo LhaL led Lo cbolce? Cr was lL for example LhaL one group had much
more hlgh-educaLed people.

xtetool vollJlty
Can we generallze? ls Lhe ouLcome of Lhls experlmenL on sLudenLs ln Lhe class saylng
someLhlng abouL ALL Lhe sLudenLs ln Lhe world?


ke||ab|||ty
8ellablllLy ls always abouL measuremenL, more speclflcally: meosotemeot ettot
- MeasuremenL vollJlty ls abouL: dld you measure Lhe rlghL Lhlng? (snack cholce)
- MeasuremenL telloblllty ls abouL dld you measure wlLhouL Loo much error / varlablllLy

8ules of Lhumb for rellablllLy:
Lo whaL exLenL are concepLs menLally accesslble (do people know Lhelr
aLLlLudes, and can Lhey esLlmaLe Lhelr behavloral lnLenLlons?)
how much lnLerpreLaLlon ls needed? (open quesLlons, observaLlons,
mulLlple cholce quesLlons, scales, .)


Cpt|ma| research des|gn
- 8andom asslgnmenL of parLlclpanLs
- Whenever posslble, use w|th|n sub[ecLs deslgn
- use mulLlple message deslgn
- 1hlnk abouL valldlLy and rellablllLy befote you deslgn Lhe experlmenL
- 1hlnk especlally abouL your maLerlals (mlnlmal palrs)
- lnclude manlpulaLlon checks

8. Source factors
1he source of communlcaLlon: Lhe communlcaLor. 1hls chapLer ls focused on Lhe
communlcaLor's cteJlblllty and llkoblllty. (8emlnder: Lhls ls an example of Lhe perlpheral
rouLe of Lhe LLM-model)

D|mens|ons of Cred|b|||ty
1he [udgmenLs made by a percelver, concernlng Lhe bellevablllLy of a communlcaLor. 1hls
general noLlon can be speclfled and measured.

loctot Aoolysls
1. ConsLrucL lLems LhaL descrlbe aspecLs of credlblllLy of a source
(ooo-expett 1 2 3 4 3 6 7 expett)
(oot llkeoble 1 2 3 4 3 6 7 llkeoble)
(oot ttostwottby 1 2 3 4 3 6 7 ttostwottby)
2. Pave a large number of parLlclpanLs [udge communlcaLors, and collecL Lhe daLa
3. Look whlch lLems behave slmllarly, form clusLers or facLor
4. 1ry Lo flgure ouL whaL Lhe lLems ln a glven clusLer have ln common

1be most lmpottoot Jlmeosloos.
- xpettlse. wheLher Lhe communlcaLor ls ln Lhe poslLlon Lo koow Lhe LruLh
- 1tostwottbloess. wheLher Lhe communlcaLor ls loclloeJ to tell Lhe LruLh

8oLh musL be presenL for Lhe communlcaLor Lo be credlble


votlobles lofloeocloq cteJlblllty
- LducaLlon / CccupaLlon (rofessor or sLudenL)
- Lxperlence (flrsL Llme user)
- Speech characLerlsLlcs ('uh' and pauses are percelved low)
- ClLaLlon of source of evldence (SLudles show LhaL..)
- oslLlon advocaLed (mlllLary offlcer who says LhaL defense budgeL cuLs are
lnevlLable)

Lffects of Cred|b|||ty
- MagnlLude of Lhe effecL
- ulrecLlon of Lhe effecL

MoqoltoJe of cteJlblllty effect
- uepends on lnvolvemenL / personal relevance (see LLM): Lhe hlgher Lhe
relevance, Lhe smaller Lhe effecL
- And on Llmlng of ldenLlflcaLlon of Lhe communlcaLor: before or afLer Lhe
message. Smaller or no effecLs wlLh ldenLlflcaLlon afLer Lhe message

ultectloo of cteJlblllty effect
- coootetottltoJlool message: hlghly credlble presenLer ls more persuaslve
- lto-ottltoJlool message: non-credlble presenLer ls more persuaslve


L|k|ng
Llklng -> persuaslon, llked sources are more persuaslve Lhan dlsllked sources. 8esearch
evldence suggesL aL leasL Lhree lmporLanL caveaLs concernlng Lhe effecLs of llklng for Lhe
communlcaLor on persuaslve ouLcomes:
- 1he effecLs of llklng can be overrldden by credlblllLy
- 1he superlorlLy of llked over dlsllked communlcaLors ls mlnlmlzed as Lhe
Loplc becomes more personally relevanL Lo Lhe recelver
- ulsllked communlcaLors can aL leasL someLlmes be more effecLlve Lhan llke
communlcaLors

hys|ca| Attract|veness
hyslcal ALLracLlveness: PelghLened physlcal aLLracLlveness generally enhances one's
effecLlveness as a soclal lnfluence agenL"

oslLlve resulLs: aLLracLlveness -> llklng -> persuaslon


Conc|us|on of chapter Source effects
- Source effecLs are generally effecLlve vla Lhe perlpheral rouLe
- 1hls rouLe ls mosL acLlve when message ls noL really personally relevanL, and
recelver ls noL really moLlvaLed Lo process Lhe message deeply
- 1he worklng of source varlables can be raLher complex and someLlmes lead
Lo unexpecLed and counLerlnLulLlve resulLs

CounLerlnLulLlve resulLs comprlse
- Low credlble communlcaLors belng more persuaslve Lhan credlble ones (vla
'helplng')
- CommunlcaLors LhaL are dlsllked can be more effecLlve regardlng aLLlLude
change Lhan llkeable ones (vla dlssonance)
- unaLLracLlve presenLers can be more persuaslve Lhan aLLracLlve ones (agaln
vla dlssonance)







9. Message factors
1hree sLrucLural feaLures of persuaslve messages LhaL have been lnvesLlgaLed for Lhelr
posslble effecLs on persuaslve ouLcomes:
- 1he order of argumenLs ln Lhe message
- WheLher Lhe messages concluslon should be expllclLly sLaLed
- uegree of speclflclLy wlLh whlch Lhe communlcaLors advocaLed acLlon ls
descrlbed

1be otJet of otqomeots
- Lhe cllmax order: mosL lmporLanL argumenLs lost
- Lhe anLl-cllmax order: mosL lmporLanL argumenLs fltst

lolots to toke lo occooot wbeo otqomeots ote stoteJ.
- Concluslon omlsslon (lmpllclL sLandpolnL)
- ulscrepancy (dlsLance beLween sLandpolnLs of persuadee and message)
- Cne-slded versus Lwo-slded messages*

* Crder of effecLlveness when handllng argumenLs wlLh an opposlng vlew:
1. 8efuLaLlonal Lwo-slded message (Acknowledge and refuLe)
2. Cne-slded message (neglecL)
3. nonrefuLaLlonal Lwo-slded message (Acknowledge and nonrefuLaLlonal)


10. 1ype of Lv|dence (Not |n C'keefe, |ecture mater|a|)
ArgumenLaLlon on Lhe basls of advanLages and dlsadvanLages of a proposed behavlor:
ptoqmotlc otqomeototloo

ersuadlng:
AcLlon A leads Lo Consequence C
Consequence C ls deslrable
1herefore, acLlon A ls deslrable

Lxample:
keJocloq tbe coosomptloo of meot leads Lo keJoctloo of oolmol soffetloq
8educLlon of anlmal sufferlng ls deslrable
1herefore, reduclng meaL consumpLlon ls deslrable




CrlLlcal quesLlons:
- uoes A leoJ to c?
uoes reducLlon of meaL consumpLlon lead Lo reducLlon of anlmal sufferlng?
- ls c Jesltoble?
ls reducLlon of anlmal sufferlng deslrable?
- Ate tbete otbet coosepoeoces beslJes c?
Are Lhere more advanLages / dlsadvanLages relaLed Lo reduced meaL consumpLlon?



WhaL can a persuader do?
1) ueLermlne whaL advanLages / dlsadvanLages are televoot? (vla pre-LesL?) Pow are Lhey
ranked?
2) lncrease Jesltoblllty of advanLage / decrease 'undeslrablllLy' of dlsadvanLages
3) lncrease ptoboblllty of advanLages / decrease probablllLy of dlsadvanLages

n8:
1) ke|evance
- 5ome coosepoeoces ote oot teoJlly meotolly ovolloble
(producLlon of anlmal feeds leads Lo desLrucLlon of 8razlllan ralnforesL)
- Ot eveo completely ookoowo
(meaL secLor responslble for 18 of global CC2 emlsslon, more Lhan LransporLaLlon
secLor, 13)

-> persuader should provlde LhaL lnformaLlon and Lry Lo make lL 'Lop of mlnd'

2) Des|rab|||ty
- ceottol voloes (kokeocb, 197J)
llvlng comforLably, belng successful, clean and beauLlful earLh, safeLy, llvlng
dangerously, respecL, self-respecL, equallLy, peace, happlness, freedom, pleasure,
- Most of tbe tlme lt ls polte cleot wbetbet coosepoeoces ote Jesltoble ot oot
- 5ometlmes petcelveJ Jesltoblllty coo be telofotceJ by oJJltloool lofotmotloo. evlJeoce

3) robab|||ty
- leople bove o botJ tlme estlmotloq tbls ptoboblllty (A leoJs to 8)
- letcelveJ ptoboblllty coo be telofotceJ by oJJeJ evlJeoce


8oLh uesltoblllty and ltoboblllty can be sLrengLhened by evldence
Lvldence can Lake a number of dlfferenL forms:
AnecdoLal (sLorles/examples)
SLaLlsLlcal (numbers/percenLages)
Causal (how Lhlngs are relaLed)
LxperL (lf a experL says someLhlng)

Strengthen des|rab|||ty:

Anecdota| ev|dence
ueslrablllLy of consequence (ln Lhe example: reduclng anlmal sufferlng):
- Make people more senslLlve Lo 'anlmal sufferlng'
- 1ell a sLory (abouL a slngle anlmal) LhaL ls vlvld and LhaL wlll acLlvaLe feellngs and moral
[udgmenLs
- Lxample: (say abouL a plg called llqqy)
8ecause llqqy ls relevanL and comparable Lo oLher facLory farm anlmals Lhe persuaslon has
effecL on people. 8ecause people generallze.
Stat|st|ca| ev|dence
SLaLlsLlcal evldence conslsLs of numbers or percenLages LhaL descrlbe a collectloo of cases
- 93 of all plgs never go ouLslde (excepL once)
- 90 of meaL chlckens never see dayllghL


lor facLory farm anlmals, holds LhaL Lhey suffer
- 8ecause: lor 90 of facLory farm plgs, holds Lhey suffer
- And: 90 of facLory farm plgs ls comparable Lo (all) Lhe facLory farm anlmals

Casua| ev|dence
lor foctoty fotm oolmols holds Lhey soffet
- 8ecoose: lor foctoty fotm oolmols, holds tbey ote oevet olloweJ to qo ootslJe
- AoJ: oevet qoloq ootslJe leads Lo soffetloq

Lxpert ev|dence
lor foctoty fotm oolmols holds tbey soffet
- 8ecoose: dr. !. de CrooL (8uC) says LhaL for foctoty fotm oolmols holds tbey soffet
- AoJ: dr. !. de CrooL ls an experL on oolmol welfote lo foctoty fotmloq

Strengthen robab|||ty
Case: lor lnsLance, a provlnce ln lndla called Cu[araL ls all vegeLarlan and has less anlmal
sufferlng

Anecdota| ev|dence
Cver 60.000.000 lnhablLanLs (almosL 4 Llmes more Lhan neLherlands), SevenLeen alrporLs,
Cne of Lhe fasLesL growlng economles ln Lhe world, All vegeLarlans!

Stat|st|ca| ev|dence
lor lnsLance, suppose 30 of all people ln lndla are vegeLarlans and lndla has below average
number of facLory farms

Causa| ev|dence
lf meaL consumpLlon decreases, Lhe number of facLory farms decreases, hence anlmal
sufferlng wlll decrease.

Lxpert ev|dence
lf experLs from Lhe nlcolaas lerson loundaLlon on anlmal welfare say LhaL reduclng meaL
consumpLlon wlll reduce anlmal sufferlng


Conc|us|on
1here are Lhree ways Lo lncrease Lhe effecLlvlLy of persuaslon:
se|ect advanLages / dlsadvanLages LhaL are mosL relevanL
sLrengLhen Lhe des|rab|||ty of Lhe advanLages
sLrengLhen Lhe relaLlon beLween Lhe proposed behavlour and Lhe
advanLages = Lhe probab|||ty wlLh whlch Lhe behavlour brlngs abouL Lhe
advanLage

1o sLrengLhen deslrablllLy and probablllLy clalms, Lhe persuader can use anecdoLal,
sLaLlsLlcal, causal and experL evldence