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TTL signal : TTL is a type of binary electrical signaling based on the TTL (transistor-transistor logic)
standard. It is digital signal .It's a very low current level communication protocol, typically used for very
short distances. It is unipolar (e.g.+0v to +5v). Unipolar means just positive.

Square Wave: A digital signal with 50% Duty Cycle, that is same T-on & T-off period is called as
Square Wave. . The period is fixed, and the high to low ratio is fixed. Typical square waves are bipolar,
that is, the low is, for example, 10 volts with the high at +10 volts.

Low-pass filter RC Filter: A Low pass RC filter, again, is a filter circuit composed of a resistor
and capacitor which passes through low-frequency signals, while blocking high frequency signals. Since
capacitive reactance decreases with frequency, High frequency signals will go through the capacitor,
since the capacitor offers them a very low-resistance path.

Buffer: An ideal voltage buffer is an amplifier with the following properties the output voltage
of a buffer replicates the input voltage without distortion. The NOT gate is also called an inverting
buffer, which stresses its ability to amplify. If we hook two NOT gates together we will now have a non-
inverting buffer. Nand gate used as buffer as follow.

Bipolar junction transistor: The Bipolar Transistor basic construction
consists of two PN-junctions producing three connecting terminals with each
terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three
terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and the
Collector ( C ) respectively. Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the

Fundamental Topic about Trainer

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amount of current flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied
to their base terminal acting like a current-controlled switch.

Darlington transistor: In electronics, the Darlington transistor (often called a Darlington pair) is a
compound structure consisting of two bipolar transistors (either integrated or separated devices)
connected in such a way that the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by the
second one. It has Very high current gain and provide Very high input impedance for overall circuit.


Negative feedback amplifier: A negative feedback amplifier (or feedback
amplifier) is an electronic amplifier that subtracts a fraction of its output from its
input. has a dampening effect on an amplifier: if the output signal happens to
increase in magnitude, the feedback signal introduces a decreasing influence into
the input of the amplifier, thus opposing the change in output signal. While
positive feedback drives an amplifier circuit toward a point of instability
(oscillations), negative feedback drives it the opposite direction: toward a point of
stability and lower distortion.

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Negative Feedback Amplifier
Differential amplifier: A differential amplifier is a type of electronic
amplifier that amplifies the difference between two voltages but does not
amplify the particular voltages.
Inverting amplifier: An inverting amplifier is a special case of the differential
amplifier in which that circuit's non-inverting input V
2
is grounded, and inverting
input V
1
is identified with V
in
above. The closed-loop gain is R
f
/ R
in
, hence
.

It cancelling a positive voltage with a negative one, the inverting input allows a
circuit to remove signals selectively.
Non-inverting amplifier: A non-inverting amplifier is a special case of the
differential amplifier in which that circuit's inverting input V
1
is grounded, and
non-inverting input V
2
is identified with V
in
.
.

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Delta modulation Delta modulation (DM or -modulation) is an analog-to-digital and digital-
to-analog signal conversion technique used for transmission of voice information where quality
is not of primary importance. CVSD encoder are basically the improvement of delta modulation.