Solar Energy Book 2011-2012

Benha University
Shoubra Faculty Of Engineering

Mech. Power Eng. Dep.

PV Solar System
with Cooling

Supervised By:

Prof. Dr / . Osama E. Abd Ellatif

2012
PROJECT TEAM : ( 2012 )

Bola George Abd El Mesieh Farag

Hany Boshra Gerges Ghatas

John Salah Hanna Amgad

Saber Tawfik Sidhom Noaman

Wagdy Wagih Daoud

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We owe a great many thanks to a great many people who helped
and supported us during working in that project. Our deepest thanks to
Professor Osama Ezzat the guide of the project for guiding and
correcting various information and documents of ours with attention
and care. He has taken pain to go through the project and make
necessary correction as and when needed.
We would also thank our Institution and our faculty members
without whom this project would have been a distant reality. We also
extend our heartfelt thanks to our family and well-wishers.

Your Sons,
Project Team

ABSTRACT
The aim from this research is to study the behavior
of a photovoltaic monocrystalline cell under
cooling system to reach maximum efficiency.
The design of photovoltaic system and its
components will be illustrated with complete
details provided with computational experiments
and experimental work to study the whole system
and to get the optimum utilization in this study,
with mentioning the advantages of this system and
the difficulties facing the applying of this hopeful
project if we take all economical and technical
parameters into account.
These difficulties are owing to the little interest
here in Egypt towards this promising source of
clean energy, which easily can change the shape of
the future in Egypt and the lack of the available
financial resources.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter One: Renewable Energy

1.1 Uses of Renewable Energy..1
1.2 The Ultimate Renewable Energy...2
1.3 Forms & Types of Renewable Energy................3
1.3.1 Wind Energy.....4
1.3.2 Geothermal Energy6
1.3.3 Hydroelectricity......7
1.3.4 Biomass Energy......8
1.3.5 Waste Renewable Energy ......9
1.3.6 Solar Energy.....10
1.4 Uses of Solar Energy......10
1.5 Solar Energy Applications..11
1.6 Water Treatment.14

Chapter Two: Solar Energy

2.1 Electricity Generation from Sun. .19
2.2 Sun Energy Reaches Earth ...20
2.3 Solar Constant Calculation.... 23
-Emissivty26
-Solar angle27

Chapter Three: Photovoltaic System
3.1 How do Photovoltaics Work?...31
3.2 The photovoltaic effect...32
3.3. Electricity Generation.34
3.4. The Photovoltaic System .36
3.4.1. Photovoltaic System Components ...36
3.4.2. Photovoltaic Arrays Connections ..36
3.5.Type of Solar Panels....39
3.5.1 Monocrystalline Silicon Cells..40
3.5.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Cells..40
3.5.3 Thick - film Silicon...41
3.5.3 Amorphous Silicon.42
3.6. Charge Controller..43
3.7. Solar Batteries .44
3.8. Inverter ...45
3.9. Types of PV Systems ..46
3.9.1. Stand Alone Systems....46
3.9.2. Hybrid System ...47
3.9.3. Grid-Connected Systems ..47
3.10. Photovoltaic Benefits..49
3.11. Photovoltaic Limitations .....49
Chapter Four: Tracking system

-What are solar trackers?......................................................................................................50
4.1How do solar trackers work?...........................................................................................51
4.2.Advantage of solar trackers.51
4.3. Disadvantages of solar trackers ....52
4.4. Types of Solar Trackers ...52
4.4.1. Single Axis Solar Tracker 53
4.4.2. Dual Axis Solar Tracker..56
4.3.5 Tracker type selection..58
4.5. Drive types ..59
4.5.1. Active tracker59
4.5.2 Passive tracker . 60
- Disadvantages ..61
4.6. What is the difference between a passive tracking system and an active tracking
system ? ..62
4.7. Choosing Solar Trackers.62

Chapter Five: Computational Fluid Dynamics

4.1. Operation ...64
4.2. Operating Equations...66
4.2.1. Navier-Stokes Equations .67
4.2.2. Incompressible Navier-Stokes Equations .68
4.2.3. Euler Equations ..69
4.2.4. Discrete Phase Modeling .70
4.3. CFD Applications ...71
- Aerospace Applications .....71
- Automotive Applications 72
- Marine Applications ..73
4.4. Advantages of CFD...74
4.5. Limitations of CFD .75

Chapter SIX Experimental Work

6.1. Experiment component . 80
6.2.cooling system description .86
6.3 The cooling system component.. 88

Chapter Seven: ExperimentAL Result

7.1. Experimental Results ....92
7.2. Computational
Results.....100
7.1.1Gambit work.......100
7.2.2Modeling parameters....102
7.2.3 Modeling solving .102
7.2.4 CFD Rusult ...103
Conclusion ......105
4. Multimeters .88
...89
6. DC Motor with Gear Box .89
7. 12 Volts Lamp. 90
8. Tracking System ......90
9. Phynometer .91

Chapter: Results and Conclusion

7.1. Experimental
Results....95
7.2. Computational Results...105
8. Conclusion .....107

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Graduation project 2012 Page 1

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Renewable Energy Generally, renewable energy projects are used on a
large scale, however, this does not mean that renewable energy cannot be
used in smaller areas such as villages or more generally rural areas. A
clear example can be seen in Kenya, where it is estimated that roughly
30,000 small solar power units with a capacity of 20 to 100 watts are sold
every year. This is the largest solar ownership rate in the world for
residential communities. There are some renewable energy technologies
that are disliked for being unreliable but at the same time if you are to look
at the renewable energy market it seems to be growing every day.

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Renewable energy is of many uses and it can support small as
well large applications. Renewable energy from wind, sun and
geothermal is used to produce electricity and heat for use. The
solar power plants are used to generate electricity and steam
for industrial projects. The energy form the geothermal heat is
used to heat radiators in the homes. Thus the renewable
energy sources can viably help users to their heat homes.

Some other applications of renewable energy sources include
heating space, ventilation, day lighting, space cooling, water
heating, mechanical energy to cut woods and grinding grains.
The renewable energy sources and the technologies
associated with them are equally important to households and
industry.


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Of all the renewable energy sources, solar energy holds the most
promise for providing a sustainable energy source. The German
Advisory Council on Global Change is forecasting that by 2100 solar
power will be the largest source of global energy.
Scientists estimate that our Sun will continue producing solar energy
for another 5 billion years! Talk about a sustainable energy source!
We definitely do not have to worry about running out of solar energy.
It is the ultimate renewable energy available to us.
In one hour enough sunlight reaches the Earth to supply its energy needs
for an entire year. So not only is it sustainable, but it provides more than
enough energy for our needs. We just need to continue improving our solar
technology so that we can capture more of this energy and put it to
productive use.
Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels
Solar energy production does not require fossil fuels and is therefore less
dependent on this limited and expensive natural resource. Although there is
variability in the amount and timing of sunlight over the day, season and
year, a properly sized and configured system can be designed to be highly
reliable while providing long-term, fixed price electricity supply.
Global warming and solar energy
The use of fuels like oil and gas in homes, cars and industry has brought us
to the problem of global warming. The extreme production of harmful gases
like carbon monoxide has destroyed the ozone layer hence we receive both
the harmful and harmless sunrays. The extreme pollution in our planet has
disturbed the smooth working of our echo system. This has resulted in
lower rainfalls and dries weather. The use of sun to support industrial
processes can help us overcome the worst situation of global warming. It

can also help us stop destroying our fertile land from the harmful waste
resulting from industrial processes.
Flexible Locations
Solar power production facilities can be installed at the customer site which
reduces required investments in production and transportation
infrastructure.

Matching Peak Time Output with Peak Time Demand

Solar energy can effectively supplement electricity supply from an
electricity transmission grid, such as when electricity demand peaks in the
summer.

Modularity and Scalability

As the size and generating capacity of a solar system are a function of the
number of solar modules installed, applications of solar technology are
readily scalable and versatile.


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The first major form of renewable energy is wind power. Wind has
been an energy source for a very long time. It was used by the
Renewable Energy.

Fig. 1.1 Wind Turbine


Chinese about 4000 years ago to pump water for their crops and by
sailors to sail around the world. The energy in wind can be used by
making a tower which stands high above the sea level with a large
propeller at the top. What the wind does is it basically blows the
propeller round and round which in turn helps produce electricity. By
building not just one but multiple of these towers you can produce
more electricity at once. The most suitable area to build these wind
turbines would be in coastal areas, tops of hills, open fields or
basically anywhere the winds are strong and continuous.

Wind energy is a teeming energy source which never seems to
expire. Hence human race cannot go out of it unless we exist. This
plentiful and powerful natural resource can replace conventional
electricity production procedures.

Moreover the power generation from wind turbines does not pollute
the air. It is one of the worlds fastest emerging energy sources for
electricity production.

The traditional methods of producing electricity have resulted in
climate changes because of high rate pollution it discharges. Wind
power turbines can provide clean electricity which can cover its cost
in 5 to 6 months easily.
Wind turbines have been most popular energy source in
Europe because of its environment nature and no harm to
animals and human beings. Wind mills are also liked by their
aesthetic features, because they tend to increase the beauty of
the land.
A windmill gives us great impression, even If we observe it
from miles. This is the only power plant that has so far killed no
human being during the process of electricity. The design and
structure of wind mills is equally sturdy and beautiful.

They are designed so well that they can even withstand
tornadoes. Thus we need to build more wind mills in suitable
regions as a substitute for conventional and expensive
electricity power houses to rectify and recover the climate
disasters.

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As its name refers geo thermal energy is the energy which is
extracted from the heat of the sun that is why it falls under the
renewable energy. This energy is present into the earth due to the
decay of minerals and absorption of sunlight by earth. Geothermal
heat has innumerable applications form the ancient times it was
earlier used for bathing and space heating. However, now this
immense source of energy is used for producing electricity mostly.
Geothermal energy is a reliable, cost effective and inexhaustible
energy reservoir. Geothermal electric energy can be extracted from
the earth by installing heat exchangers into the earth. This
geothermal energy can or cannot be used with electricity in order to
support heating applications. The energy for the geothermal heat
pumps can be pulled out by earth tubes and heat exchangers. The
heat from the earth can be directly transferred to the radiators for
heating homes.

Fig.1.2 Binary Cycle Power Plant

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Hydroelectricity is the production of electricity from the falling water.
Hydroelectricity power plant is the renewable energy source and it
does not generate any harmful chemicals and gases during the
process of electricity generation. This electricity accounts for
approximately 20% of the world electricity and it comprises total 88%
of the renewable energy sources.

The different types of hydroelectricity come from the water stored in
dams; these dams convert the potential energy present in the water
to the electricity with the support of generators. The amount of energy
which can be pulled out from water depends upon the working of
Head (difference of height between the source and water flow).

Fig.1.3 Hydroelectric Power Plant


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Biomass energy is another form of renewable energy source and it is
derived from living or dead organisms like plants, waste and alcohol
mostly. Biomass energy is getting widespread popularity nowadays.
Biomass energy source is most often derived from plants either to
generate electricity or to produce heat.

Sources of Biomass Energy

Biomass energy is derived form various sources which help in
generating sufficient energy for use. The various source of generating
energy from biomass are wood, waste, alcohol, garbage, landfill
gases. Wood is either taken from trees or from the waste of industrial
processes. The waste material of industry like paper making is really
helpful in providing pulping liquor. The second major source of
deriving biomass energy is from the solid waste. This solid waste is
either provided by municipality waste or industrial waste. When
energy is extracted either from alcohol or from the fiber present in the
corn, it is termed as ethanol fuel. This ethanol fuel is really helpful in
providing fuel to the cars and farm tractors.

Biomass energy can also be extracted from various kinds of plants
like polar, willow, hemp, corn, miscanthus, sugar cane, spice trees,
eucalyptus, palm oil, switch grass and sorghum.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Biomass Energy
The biomass is used and produced throughout the world. It is the
most inexpensive way of producing electricity. So far it looks like an
inexhaustible natural resource. Biomass energy as a renewable
energy source is capable of replacing fossil fuels.

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On this earthly planet, human beings are busy to spend their lives.
They need energy to perform their daily activities. This energy comes
from food, oxygen in the air and water. After consuming these
resources there is a lot more production of waste material. This waste
material if not disposed properly would surely harm the environment
which ultimately is dangerous for human beings. With the ever
growing population, there is need to not only disposed this waste
rather by taking some advantage out of waste renewable energy

Fig.1.4 Energy Production from Waste Process


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Solar power ( or ) Solar Energy:

is the energy we derive form from rays and heat of sun. It is in use
from the time immemorial. However it is now that mankind has
realized its importance as a safe and inexpensive energy source. The
energy from the sun can be used to overcome the energy crisis
generated by the scarcity of resources like oil and gas. Solar energy
is free and it is everywhere. That is why now more and more
countries have switched to processes which help them conserve the
heat and light from sun.

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*Residential*
The number of PV installations on buildings connected to the electricity grid
has grown in recent years. Government subsidy programs (particularly in
Germany and Japan) and green pricing policies of utilities or electricity
service providers have stimulated demand. Demand is also driven by the
desire of individuals or companies to obtain their electricity from a clean,
non-polluting, renewable source. These consumers are usually willing to
pay only a small premium for renewable energy. Increasingly, the incentive
is an attractive financial return on the investment through the sale of solar
electricity at premium feed-in tariff rates.
In solar systems connected to the electricity grid, the PV system supplies
electricity to the building and any daytime excess may be exported to the
grid. Batteries are not required because the grid supplies any extra

demand. However, to be independent of the grid supply, battery storage is
needed to provide power at night.
Holiday or vacation homes without access to the electricity grid can use
solar systems more cost-effectively than if the grid was extended to reach
the location. Remote homes in sunny locations can obtain reliable
electricity to meet basic needs with a simple system comprising of a PV
panel, a rechargeable battery to store the energy captured during daylight
hours, a regulator (or charge controller), and the necessary wiring and
switches. Such systems are often called solar home systems (SHS).
*Commercial*
On an office building, roof areas can be covered with glass PV modules,
which can be semi-transparent to provide shaded light. On a factory or
warehouse, large roof areas are the best location for solar modules. If the
roof is flat, then arrays can be mounted using techniques that do not
breach the weatherproofed roof membrane. Also, skylights can be partially
covered with PV.
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We have always used solar energy as far back as humans have existed on
this planet. We know today, that there are multiple uses of solar energy. We
use the solar energy every day in many different ways. When we hang
laundry outside to dry in the sun, we are using the solar heat to do work,
drying our clothes. Plants use the solar light to make food. Animals eat
plants for food.

Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends.
However, all renewable energies, other than geothermal and tidal, derive
their energy from the sun.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active
depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active

solar techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert
sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting
materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally
circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active
solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply
side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for
alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies.

Solar Thermal
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating,
and space cooling and process heat generation.
Water Heating
Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical
latitudes (below 40 degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use
with temperatures up to 60 C can be provided by solar heating systems.
The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube.

Fig 1. 5 Solar Water Heaters


Collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used for
domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to
heat swimming pools.

Heating, Cooling and Ventilation

Fig. 1.5.1 Solar House

Solar House: of Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the United
States, built in 1939, used seasonal thermal storage for year-round
heating. In the United States, heating, ventilation.

1. A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar
ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior
and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is
heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the building.
Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass

materials in a way that mimics greenhouses. Deciduous trees and
plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating
and cooling. When planted on the southern side of a building, their
leaves provide shade during the summer, while the bare limbs allow
light to pass during the winter with winter solar availability.

1.6 Water Treatment

Fig.1 .6 Small Scale Solar Powered Sewerage Treatment
Plant

2. Solar distillation
Can be used to make saline or brackish water potable. The first recorded
instance of this was by 16th century Arab alchemists. A large-scale solar
distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town
of Las Salinas. The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700 m2, could

produce up to 22,700 L per day and operated for 40 years. Individual still
designs include single-slope, double-slope (or greenhouse type), vertical,
conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect. These stills can
operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes. Double-slope stills are the most
economical for decentralized domestic purposes; while active multiple effect
units are more suitable for large-scale applications.

Fig.1 .7 Compare between solar and wind energy in kwh


Fig.1 .8 System Availability and Capacity Factor


Fig.1 .9 Compare between solar and wind energy in kwh

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P V Solar System With cooling


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Is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is almost
perfectly spherical and consists of hot plasma interwoven with
magnetic fields. It has a diameter of about 1,392,000 km, about
109 times that of Earth, and its mass (about 21030 kilograms,
330,000 times that of Earth). The Sun is by far the largest
object in theolar system. It contains more than 99.8% of the
total mass of the Solar System (Jupiter contains most of the
rest). Chemically the Sun is, at present, about 70% Hydrogen,
and 28% Helium by mass, everything else (Metals") is less
than 2%. This changes slowly over time as the Sun converts
hydrogen to helium in its core.

Fig. 2.1 Sun Properties



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The Sun radiant power comes from nuclear fusion processes, during
which the sun loses 4.3 million tons of mass each second. This mass
is converted into radiant energy; each square meter of the suns
surface emits a radiant power of 63.1 MW, which means that just a
fifth of a square kilo-meter of the suns surface emits an amount of
energy equal to the global primary energy demand on earth.

Fig. 2.2 Sun internal Layers



The Sun's energy output in each second is the result of
conversion of about 700,000,000 tons of hydrogen into
695,000,000 tons of helium and 5,000,000 tons of energy (386
billion billion megawatts) is produced by Nuclear Fusion
reactions. As it travels out toward the surface, the energy is
continuously absorbed and re-emitted at lower and lower
temperatures so that by the time it reaches the surface of the
Sun, it is primarily visible light. For the last 20% of the way to
the surface, the energy is carried more by Convection than by
radiation. The surface of the Sun, called the photosphere, is at
a temperature of about 5800 K.

A small region known as the chromospheres lies above the
photosphere, the highly rarefied region above the
chromospheres, called the corona, extends millions of
kilometers into space but is visible only during a total solar
eclipse (left). Temperatures in the corona are over 1,000,000 K.
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The sun fusion process generates intense energy that travels
outwards as electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic
radiation from the Sun takes the form of visible light (41%),
Ultra violet, X rays, and Gamma rays (9%), and shortwave
infrared energy (50%).

The heat energy received by a surface perpendicular to the
sun's rays, outside the atmosphere would be a relatively
constant 1365 watts per square meter. This is called the solar
constant.



Isolation refers to incoming solar radiation.
The total daily isolation at a place on the earth's
surface is determined by:

a. The angle of the sun's rays.
b. The amount of time a place is exposed to the sun's rays.
c. The amount of clouds, dust, and water vapor in the
atmosphere.
Isolation also varies with latitude and the seasonal changes produced
by the tilt of earths axis in its orbit around the sun.
For the earth as a whole, insolation must equal long-wave radiation to
space.
However* low latitudes (0 - 40 North and South) receive more insolation
than they emit to space (energy surplus). Higher latitudes (40 - 90 North
and South) emit more radiation to space than they receive (energy deficit).
The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun shows a wide range of
wavelengths. It can be divided into two major regions with respect to the
capability of ionizing atoms in radiation-absorbing matter:
a) Ionizing radiation (X-rays and gamma-rays) and
b) Non-ionizing radiation (UVR, visible light, and infrared
radiation)





Fig. 2.3 Solar electro spectrum

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Fig. 2.4 Solar irradiance Calculation


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S = Solar Constant
E = 6.4 x 107 W/m2 = Surface Irradiance of the sun
R = 6.96 x 105 km = Radius of the sun
r = 1.51 x 108 km =Average Sun Earth Distance

Then S = 1367 W/m2



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The geometric relationships between a plane of any - particular
orientation relative to the earth at any time (whether that plane is
fixed or moving Relative to the earth) and the incoming beam solar
radiation that is, these Angles and the relationships between them
are as follows:


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That is the angular location north or south of the
Equator north positive -90 < < 90
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That is the angular position of the sun at solar
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That is, the angle between the plane surface in
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And the horizontal 0 < <180, ( > 90 mean that
the surface has a down ward facing component.

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that is, the deviation of the projection on a
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the local meridian With zero due south, east
negatives west positive -180 < < 180


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That is, the angular displacement of the sun east
or west of the local meridian due to rotation of the
earth on its axis at 150 per hour morning negative
afternoon positive Practical Work 18 .

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That is the angle between the beam radiation on a
Surface and the normal to that surface.
Cos = Sin Sin Cos - Sin Cos Sin Cos
+ Cos Cos Cos Cos + Cos Sin Sin Cos
Cos + Cos Sin Sin Sin

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Photovoltaics (PV), offer consumers the ability to generate electricity in a
clean, quiet and reliable way.
Photovoltaic systems are comprised of photovoltaic cells, which converts
sunlight otni electricity using solar cells. Because the source of light is
usually the sun, they are often called solar cells.
The word photovoltaic comes from photo, meaning light, and voltaic,
which refers to producing electricity. Therefore, the photovoltaic process is
producing electricity directly from sunlight. Photovoltaic are often referred
to as PV.
Semiconductor materials such as silicon, gallium arsenide, cadmium
telluride are used in these solar cells. The crystalline Solar cell is the most
commonly used variety. During 2006, these had a worldwide market share
of 95 per cent.

Fig.3.1 Photovoltaic Array


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Photovoltaics is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic
level. Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect
that causes them to absorb photons of light and release electrons.

Fig.3.2 How solar cell work



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The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist,
Edmund Bequerel, in 1839, who found that certain materials would
produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. In
1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the
photoelectric effect on which photovoltaic technology is based, for
which he later won a Nobel prize in physics. The first photovoltaic
module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was billed as a solar
battery and was mostly just a curiosity as it was too expensive to gain
widespread use. In the 1960s, the space industry began to make the
first serious use of the technology to provide power aboard
spacecraft. Through the space programs, the technology advanced,
its reliability was established, and the cost began to decline. During
the energy crisis in the 1970s, photovoltaic technology gained
recognition as a source of power for non-space applications.

Fig.3.3 Photovoltaic Array



The diagram above illustrates the operation of a basic photovoltaic cell,
also called a solar cell. Solar cells are made of the same kinds of
semiconductor materials, such as silicon, used in the microelectronics
industry. For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially treated to
form an electric field, positive on one side and negative on the other. When
light energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the
atoms in the semiconductor material. If electrical conductors are attached
to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the
electrons can be captured in the form of an electric current -- that is,
electricity. This electricity can then be used to power a load, such as a light
or a tool.
A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in
a support structure or frame is called a photovoltaic module. Modules are
designed to supply electricity at a certain voltage, such as a common 12
volts system. The current produced is directly dependent on how much light
strikes the module.

Fig.3.3 Difference between a Cell, Module and Array


Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array. In general,
the larger the area of a module or array, the more electricity that will
be produced. Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct-current
(dc) electricity. They can be connected in both series and parallel
electrical arrangements to produce any required voltage and current
combination.
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Fig.3.4 Operation of Photovoltaic Cell



Light, including sunlight, is sometimes described as particles called
"photons." As sunlight strikes a photovoltaic cell, photons move into
the cell. When a photon strikes an electron, it dislodges it, leaving an
empty "hole". The loose electron moves toward the top layer of the
cell. As photons continue to enter the cell, electrons continue to be
dislodged and move upwards.

If an electrical path exists outside the cell between the top grid and
the Backplane of the cell, a flow of electrons begins. Loose electrons
move out the top of the cell and into the external electrical circuit.
Electrons from further back in the circuit move up to fill the empty
electron holes. Most cells produce a voltage of about one-half volt,
regardless of the surface area of the cell. However, the larger the cell,
the more current it will produce.

Current and voltage are affected by the resistance of the circuit the
cell is in. The amount of available light affects current production. The
temperature of the cell affects its voltage. Knowing the electrical
performance characteristics of a photovoltaic power supply is
important, and is covered in the next section.


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a PV system consists of a number of interconnected components
designed to accomplish a desired task, which may be to feed
electricity into the main distribution grid, to pump water from a well, to
power a small calculator or any of possible uses of solar generated
electricity, the design of the system depends on the task it must
perform, the location and other site conditions under which it must
operates.
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1. Solar Panel (module).
2. Charge Controller.
3. Storage (Solar Batteries).
4. Inverter.

Fig.3.5 Photovoltaic System Components

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In many applications the power available from one module is
inadequate for the load. Individual modules can be connected in
series, parallel, or both to increase either output voltage or current.
This also increases the output power.


When modules are connected in parallel, the current increases. For
example, three modules which produce 15 volts and 3 amps each,
connected in parallel, will produce 15 volts and 9 amps.

Fig.3.6 Parallel Connection

If the system includes a battery storage system, a reverse flow of
current from the batteries through the photovoltaic array can occur at
night. This flow will drain power from the batteries. A diode is used to
stop this reverse current flow. Diodes are electrical devices which
only allow current to flow in one direction.



If the same three modules are connected in series, the output voltage
will be 45 volts, and the current will be 3 amps.

Fig. 3.7 Series Connection

If one module in a series string fails, it provides so much resistance
that other modules in the string may not be able to operate either. A
bypass path around the disabled module will eliminate this problem.

Many modules are supplied with a bypass diode right at their
electrical terminals. Larger modules may consist of three groups of
cells, each with its own bypass diode.

Isolation diodes are used to prevent the power from the rest of an
array from flowing through a damaged series string of modules. They
operate like a blocking diode.


They are normally required when the array produces 48 volts or
more. If isolation diodes are used on every series string, a blocking
diode is normally not required.

Fig. 3.8 Series and Parallel Modules Connected Together

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All PV cells consist of two or more thin layers of semi-conducting material,
most commonly silicon. When the semiconductor is exposed to light,
electrical charges are generated and this can be conducted away by metal
contacts as direct current (DC). The electrical output from a single cell is
small, so multiple cells are connected together to form a "string", which
produces a direct current.



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These are made using cells sliced from a single cylindrical crystal of
silicon, this is the most efficient photovoltaic technology, typically
converting around 15% of the sun's energy into electricity. The
manufacturing process required to produce monocrystalline silicon is
complicated, resulting in slightly higher costs than other technologies.

Fig.3.9 Monocrystalline silicon cell

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Also sometimes known as multicrystalline cells, these are made
from cells cut from an ingot of melted and recrystallised silicon.
The ingots are then saw-cut into very thin wafers and
assembled into complete cells; they are generally cheaper to
produce than monocrystalline cells, due to the simpler
manufacturing process, but they tend to be slightly less
efficient, with average efficiencies of around 12%.



Fig.3.10 Polycrystalline Silicon Cells

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This is a variant on multicrystalline technology where the silicon is
deposited in a continuous process onto a base material giving a fine
grained, sparkling appearance. Like all crystalline PV, it is normally
encapsulated in a transparent insulating polymer with a tempered
glass cover and then bound into a metal framed module.

Fig.3.11 Thick film Silicon



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Amorphous silicon cells are made by depositing silicon in a thin
homogenous layer onto a substrate rather than creating a rigid crystal
structure. As amorphous silicon absorbs light more effectively than
crystalline silicon, the cells can be thinner - hence its alternative
name of "thin film" PV. Amorphous silicon can be deposited on a wide
range of substrates, both rigid and flexible, which makes it ideal for
curved surfaces or bonding directly onto roofing materials. This
technology is however less efficient than using crystalline silicon, with
typical efficiencies of around 6%, but it tends to be easier and
cheaper to produce. If roof space is not restricted, an amorphous
product can be a good option; but if the maximum output per square
metre is required, specifiers should choose a crystalline technology.

Fig.3.12 Amorphous Silicon



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A Solar Charge Controller is a device that is installed directly in
between your solar panel and battery bank and it helps protect your
batteries from overcharging/discharging, and also helps to prevent an
overload or short circuit in your system. They are great for helping
you keep your batteries working to their optimal level. Additionally, a
good solar charge controller can also help to prevent the battery bank
from reverse charging a solar panel acting as a blocking diode if
your solar panel system does not have a one-way diode already
installed. Most Solar Charge Controllers can be used with a 12volt or
24volt battery bank system and can handle anywhere from 50 watts
to 400 watts of power.

Fig.3.13 Charge Controller



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Solar energy systems use a lead-acid deep cycle battery or
accumulator. This type of battery is different from a conventional car
battery, as it is designed to be more tolerant of the kind of ongoing
charging and discharging you would expect when you have variable
sun from day to day. Deep cycle batteries last longer but they also
cost more than a conventional battery. The major difference between
lead acid batteries and other batteries is that they have solid lead
plates; in conventional car batteries, the plate is made of a sponge-
like material. This difference is not easily seen, but is internal, the
units rating and electrical properties for discharging will indicate the
needed information.

Fig. 3.14 Solar Batteries



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Inverter The purpose of a solar inverter is to convert the DC output power
output from photovoltaic modules into a clean 50 or 60 Hz AC current sine
wave. This DC output is then directly applied to the commercial electrical
grid or to a local off grid electrical network. Communication to the inverter
can also be included in order to monitor the operating conditions, provide
firmware updates, to control the inverter grid connections and report on the
output power.

Fig.3.15 Inverter to Convert DC to AC


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As its name suggests this type of PV system is a separate electricity
supply system. It supplies electricity to a single system and is connected
only to that system. This means that it is not linked to the mains
electricity supply. Usually a standalone system includes one or more
batteries, used to store the electricity.

Fig.3.17 Stand Alone Direct Coupled System

Fig.3.16 Stand Alone System with A Battery Operating DC and AC Loads



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A hybrid system combines PV with other forms of power generation,
usually a diesel generator. Biogas is also used. The other form of
power generation is usually a type which is able to modulate power
output as a function of demand. However more than one form of
renewable energy may be used e.g. wind and solar. The photovoltaic
power generation serves to reduce the consumption of non-
renewable fuel.

Fig.3.17 Hybrid Power System
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A large number of photovoltaic systems installed in industrial nations
today are grid connected. An inverter converts the direct current (DC)
voltage of the modules to the two-phase or three-phase AC voltage of
the public grid. The inverter usually has an integrated MPP tracker
which operates the PV generator at the maximum power point.


However, the voltage and current generated by the PV modules must
fit within the inverter range. If PV modules are connected in series,
their voltage adds to the total voltage, whereas the current of parallel
PV modules adds to the total current. Photovoltaic inverters only
operate at rated power for a very few hours in any year, as, due to
changes in solar irradiance, they work predominantly at part load.
Therefore, it is very important that inverters have high efficiencies,
even when operating at these part loads. A representative efficiency
is used to compare different inverters, the so-calledEuro efficiency.
This is clearer than the term average efficiency, and is the average
efficiency for typical European irradiance conditions.

Fig.3.18 Grid Connected System



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Solar electric systems offer many advantages,
including the following:
They are safe, clean and quiet to operate;
They are highly reliable;
They require virtually no maintenance;
They operate cost-effectively in remote areas and for many
residential and commercial applications.
They are flexible and can be expanded at any time to meet your
electrical needs.
They give you increased autonomy independence from the grid or
backup during outages.

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You should also be aware of the practical limitations of PV systems:
PV systems are not well suited for highly energy-intensive uses such
as heating. If you wish to use solar energy for this purpose, consider
other alternatives such as a solar water heater, which produces heat
much more efficiently.

- Grid-connected systems are rarely economical, primarily because
the current cost of the PV technology is much higher than the cost of
conventional energy. Since these systems can be expensive,
choosing a solar electric power system often comes down to a
personal lifestyle decision just like the type of house or car you
might own.

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Solar trackers are racks for photovoltaic modules that move to point
at or near the sun throughout the day. Trackers add to the efficiency
of the system, reducing its size and the cost per KWH.

A tracking system can increase the output of your PV system by up to
30% in the summer and 15% in the winter over non-tracked systems.

Tracking systems are usually classified as being either passive or
active. In a passive system the tracker follows the sun from east to
west without using any type of electric motor to power the movement.
Instead the system rotates from a combination of heat and gravity.
Because no external source of electricity is needed such systems are
ideal for remote off-the-grid scenarios or use with water pumping
systems where peak the peak demand is in the summer.

Tracking systems are also sometimes classified as to the number of
axis they track against. Simple one axis systems rotate only left to
right rather than in an arch. A two axis tracking system will track both
left to right and up and down. This allows it more accurately to follow
the true arch of the sun throughout the day.



4.1. How do solar trackers work?
A solar tracker automatically follows the sun during the course of a day and
throughout the seasons of the year.

Fig.4.1 solar tracking doing

4.2. Advantage of solar trackers
The main reason to use a solar tracker is to reduce the cost of the
energy you want to capture. A tracker produces more power over a
longer time than a stationary array with the same number of modules.
This additional output or gain can be quantified as a percentage of
the output of the stationary array. Gain varies significantly with
latitude, climate, and the type of tracker you chooseas well as the


orientation of a stationary installation in the same location. (The
energy required to move the tracker is insignificant in these
calculations.) Climate is the most important factor. The more sun and
less clouds, moisture, haze, dust, and smog, the greater the gain
provided by trackers. At higher latitudes gain will be increased due to
the long arc of the summer sun. In the cloudiest, haziest locations the
gain in annual output
4.3. Disadvantages of solar trackers
Trackers add cost and maintenance to the system - if they add 25% to the
cost, and improve the output by 25%, the same performance can be
obtained by making the system 25% larger, eliminating associated
maintenance.
4.4. Types of Solar Trackers
Tracking systems are classified by the number and orientation of their
axes.
There are two basic tracker types:
Dual-axis trackers (full tracking)
Move on two axes to point directly at the sun, taking maximum
advantage of the suns energy.


Single-axis trackers
Follow the sun accurately enough that their output can be very close
to full tracking. Trackers need not point directly at the sun to be
effective. If the aim is off by ten degrees the output is still 98.5% of
the full-tracking maximum.
Photovoltaic trackers that operate with a single axis can increase
solar power output by approximately 30%, while a two axis tracker
can further increase output by up to 6% and possibly more when
compared to a fixed solar panel system.

Considering that the solar PV industry continually strives to improve
solar cell conversion performance by a single percentage point, or
less, an increase of 36% over fixed panel performance is impressive.
Solar trackers can boost daily energy production significantly.
Choosing what solar tracker to install simply comes down to
comparing the extra investment and cost of maintenance over time
against the increased solar energy and financial yield delivered by the
unit.
4.4.1. Single Axis Solar Tracker
The single axis tracker typically has one degree of freedom that acts
as an axis of rotation typically aligned along a true North meridian.
Most are programmed to automatically follow the sun throughout the
course of the day while compensating for the seasons of the year.
Some units permit manual adjustment of the tilt on the polar axis in


response to seasonal changes in the sun's orbit.

There are several common types of single axis trackers:
Horizontal Single Axis Tracker (HSAT)

Fig. 4. 2 Horizontal Single Axis Trackers (HSAT)

The HSAT axis of rotation is horizontal to the ground with the face of the
solar panel array oriented parallel to the axis of rotation. As the system
tracks, it sweeps a cylindrical arc to track the visible motion of the sun
throughout the day.

The benefit of the one axis design is that support posts at either end of the
single axis of rotation can be shared between tracking systems to lower the


cost of installation. Trackers can be easily positioned in close proximity for
commercial and utility scale solar power applications.
Vertical Single Axis Tracker (VSAT)
The VSAT axis of rotation is vertical to the ground with the face of the solar
panel array oriented at an angle with respect to the axis of rotation. As the
system tracks, it sweeps a cone-shaped arc to track the visible motion of
the sun throughout the day.
Tilted Single Axis Tracker (TSAT)

Fig. 4. 3 Tilted Single Axis Trackers (TSAT)


The TSAT axis of rotation is neither horizontal nor vertical to the
ground; its any angle between horizontal and vertical with the face of
the solar panel array oriented parallel to the axis of rotation. As the
system tracks, it sweeps a cylindrical arc to track the visible motion of
the sun throughout the day.
4.4.2. Dual Axis Solar Tracker
Two axis trackers typically have two degrees of freedom that acts as
axes of rotation typically normal to one another. The axis that's fixed
with respect to the ground is its primary axis, while the axis that's
referenced to the primary axis is its secondary axis. Most dual axis solar
trackers are programmed to automatically follow the sun throughout
the course of the day while compensating for the seasons of the year.
There are two common types of dual axis trackers:
Tip-Tilt Dual Axis Tracker (TTDAT)

Fig. 4. 4Tip-Tilt Dual Axis Tracker (TTDAT)


The TTDAT has its primary axis of rotation horizontal to the ground with its
secondary axis normal to the primary axis. The axes of these trackers are
typically aligned either along a true north meridian or an east west line of
latitude, but they are very flexible and can be aligned in any cardinal
direction desired.
Azimuth-Altitude Dual Axis Tracker (AADAT)

Fig. 4. 5 Azimuth-Altitude Dual Axis Trackers (AADAT)
The AADAT has its primary axis of rotation vertical to the ground with its
secondary axis normal to the primary axis. Like a telescope mount, one
axis is vertical allowing the system to orient to a compass point while the
second axis is a horizontal pivot, enabling the solar panel array to point to
any sky location. As it's a non-precision orientation, this type of tracker only


works best with solar panel systems rather than some types of
concentrating PV collectors.
4.3.5 Tracker type selection
The selection of tracker type is dependent on many factors including
installation size, electric rates, government incentives, land constraints,
latitude, and local weather.
Horizontal single axis trackers are typically used for large distributed
generation projects and utility scale projects. The combination of
energy improvement and lower product cost and lower installation
complexity results in compelling economics in large deployments. In
addition the strong afternoon performance is particularly desirable for
large grid-tied photovoltaic systems so that production will match the
peak demand time. Horizontal single axis trackers also add a
substantial amount of productivity during the spring and summer
seasons when the sun is high in the sky. The inherent robustness of
their supporting structure and the simplicity of the mechanism also
result in high reliability which keeps maintenance costs low. Since the
panels are horizontal, they can be compactly placed on the axle tube
without danger of self-shading and are also readily accessible for
cleaning.

A vertical axis tracker pivots only about a vertical axle, with the
panels either vertical, at a fixed, adjustable, or tracked elevation


angle. Such trackers with fixed or (seasonally) adjustable angles are
suitable for high latitudes, where the apparent solar path is not
especially high, but which leads to long days in summer, with the sun
travelling through a long arc.
Dual axis trackers are typically used in smaller residential installations
and locations with very high government feed in tariff.
4.5. Drive types
4.5.1. Active tracker
Active trackers : use motors and gear trains to direct the tracker as
commanded by a controller responding to the solar direction.
In order to control and manage the movement of these massive structures
special slewing drives are designed and rigorously tested. The
technologies used to direct the tracker are constantly evolving and recent
developments at Google and Eternegy have included the use of wire-ropes
and winches to replace some of the more costly and more fragile
components.
Counter rotating slewing drives sandwiching a fixed angle support can be
applied to create a "multi-axis" tracking method which eliminates rotation
relative to longitudinal alignment. This method if placed on a column or
pillar it will generate more electricity than fixed PV and its PV array will
never rotate into a parking lot drive lane. It will also allow for maximum
solar generation in virtually any parking lot lane/row orientation, including
circular or curvilinear.


Active two-axis trackers are also used to orient heliostats - movable
mirrors that reflect sunlight toward the absorber of a central power
station. As each mirror in a large field will have an individual
orientation these are controlled programmatically through a central
computer system, which also allows the system to be shut down
when necessary.
Light-sensing trackers typically have two photosensors, such as
photodiodes, configured differentially so that they output a null when
receiving the same light flux. Mechanically, they should be
omnidirectional (i.e. flat) and are aimed 90 degrees apart. This will
cause the steepest part of their cosine transfer functions to balance at
the steepest part, which translates into maximum sensitivity. For
more information about controllers see active daylighting.
Since the motors consume energy, one wants to use them only as
necessary. So instead of a continuous motion, the heliostat is moved
in discrete steps. Also, if the light is below some threshold there
would not be enough power generated to warrant reorientation. This
is also true when there is not enough difference in light level from one
direction to another, such as when clouds are passing overhead.
Consideration must be made to keep the tracker from wasting energy
during cloudy periods.
4.5.2Passive tracker
Passive trackers : use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid that
is driven to one side or the other (by solar heat creating gas pressure)
to cause the tracker to move in response to an imbalance. As this is a


non-precision orientation it is unsuitable for certain types of
concentrating photovoltaic collectors but works fine for common PV
panel types. These will have viscous dampers to prevent excessive
motion in response to wind gusts. Shader/reflectors are used to
reflect early morning sunlight to "wake up" the panel and tilt it toward
the sun, which can take nearly an hour. The time to do this can be
greatly reduced by adding a self-releasing tie down that positions the
panel slightly past the zenith (so that the fluid does not have to
overcome gravity) and using the tie down in the evening. (A slack-
pulling spring will prevent release in windy overnight conditions.)
The term "passive tracker" is also used for photovoltaic modules that
include a hologram behind stripes of photovoltaic cells. That way,
sunlight passes through the transparent part of the module and
reflects on the hologram. This allows sunlight to hit the cell from
behind, thereby increasing the module's efficiency. Also, the module
does not have to move since the hologram always reflects sunlight
from the correct angle towards the cells.
Disadvantages
Trackers add cost and maintenance to the system - if they add 25% to the
cost, and improve the output by 25%, the same performance can be
obtained by making the system 25% larger, eliminating associated
maintenance.


4.6. What is the difference between a passive
tracking system and an active tracking system
?
An active tracking system is kind of ground mounted system
that actively moves to track the suns position throughout the
day with the use of special optic sensors. This ensures that
the panels achieve the maximum amount of energy
generation. A passive tracking system uses the suns heat to
move a liquid inside the panel from side to side, physically
moving the device towards the area of optimum sunlight.
4.7. Choosing Solar Trackers
Single axis tracking systems can be more cost-effective for large
commercial power installations. Their relatively simpler components result
in less maintenance and installation costs, and their lower profile creates
less shadow thereby permitting closer positioning of solar modules. They
offer a definite energy yield advantage over fixed angle solar installations.

Double axis trackers are more cost-effective for smaller, residential solar
power installations when coupled with high Feed-in Tariff programs. Their
greater number of moving parts results in additional installation and
maintenance costs, and their higher profile requires greater space between
units, but this can be offset by the increased efficiency they offer, especially


in northern climates.

Unfortunately, not all solar panel installers promote the benefits of solar
tracking systems claiming they are prone to breakdowns and over
expensive. Neither is the case! Today's tracker technology ensures near
trouble free operation and the significant increase in energy they
produce results in a quicker system payback.

Some solar installation companies that discourage tracking don't
have the know-how to install trackers, or they cannot supply them,
or they opt for quick profits by hurrying to their next job not willing
to spend the extra time connecting them. If you live in a northern
climate and the installer won't recommend solar trackers, dump
him and find one that's better-qualified who will. You'll benefit in
the long run.
The benefit of solar trackers like

Chapter five
Computational Fluid
Dynamics
CFD

Graduation project 2012 Page64

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
is the science of predicting fluid Flow, heat transfer, mass transfer,
chemical reactions, and related
Phenomena by solving the mathematical equations which govern these
Processes using numerical methods (i.e., on a computer).

CFD results and analyses are relevant in:

conceptual studies of new designs (virtual prototyping)
detailed product development
troubleshooting
redesign/modification

CFD analysis complements testing and experimentation:

To reduce the total effort required in the lab.
To guide how to design the experiments.

5.1. Operation

Analysis begins with a mathematical model of a physical
Problem.
Conservation of mass, momentum, and energy must be
satisfied throughout the region of interest. Fluid
properties are modeled empirically.


Simplifying assumptions are made in order to make the
problem tractable (e.g., steady-state, incompressible, in
viscid, two-dimensional).

Provide appropriate boundary and initial conditions for the
problem

CFD applies numerical methods (called discretization) to
develop algebraic equations to approximate the governing
differential equations of fluid mechanics in the domain to
be studied.

Governing differential equations to algebraic.

The collection of cells is called the grid or mesh.
The system of algebraic equations are solved numerically
(on a computer) for the flow field variables at each node
or cell.

System of equations are solved (usually through iterations)
to provide solution.
The final solution is post-processed to extract quantities of
interest (e.g. lift, drag, heat transfer, separation points,
pressure loss, etc.).

In CFD we wish to solve mathematical equations which
govern fluid flow, heat transfer, and related phenomena
for a given physical problem.

5.2. Operating Equations
Navier-Stokes equations

Most general.
Can handle wide range of physics.

Incompressible Navier-Stokes equations

Assumes density is constant.
Energy equation is decoupled from continuity and momentum
equations if all fluid properties are constant.

Euler equations

Neglect all viscous terms.
Reasonable approximation for high speed flows (thin boundary
layers).
Can couple with boundary layer equations to determine viscous
effects.

Other equations and models

Turbulence modeling equations.
Thermodynamics relations and equations of state.
Discrete phase equations for particles.

5.2.1. Navier-Stokes Equations:

Conservation of Mass

Conservation of Momentum

Conservation of Energy

Equation of State


Property Relations

Navier-Stokes equations provide the most general model
of single-phase
fluid flow/heat transfer phenomena.
Five equations for five unknowns: , p, u, v, w.
The computation costs are high.
Requires additional turbulence model, i.e., additional
equation(s) in order to solve turbulent flows for practical
engineering problems.

5.2.2. Incompressible Navier-Stokes Equations:

Conservation of Mass

Conservation of Momentum


Simple form of the Navier-Stokes equations which assume;

incompressible flow
constant properties
For isothermal flows, we have four unknowns: p, u, v, w.
Energy equation is decoupled from the flow equations in this case.
Can be solved separately from the flow equations.
Can be used for flows of liquids and gases at low Mach number.
Still require a turbulence model for turbulent flows.

5.2.3. Euler Equations

Neglecting all viscous terms in the Navier-Stokes equations yields
the Euler equations:

No transport properties (viscosity or thermal conductivity) are needed.
Momentum and energy equations are greatly simplified.
But we still have five unknowns: r, p, u, v, w.

The Euler equations provide a reasonable model of compressible
fluid flows at high speeds (where viscous effects are confined to
narrow zones near wall boundaries).

5.2.4. Discrete Phase Modeling

We can simulate secondary phases in the flows (either liquid or solid) using
a discrete phase model.

This model is applicable to relatively low particle volume fractions (< %10-
12 by volume)

Model individual particles by constructing a force balance on the moving
Particle.

Assuming the particle is spherical (diameter D), its trajectory is
governed by


Applications of discrete phase modeling

Sprays.
Coal and Liquid Fuel Combustion.
Particle Laden Flows (Sand Particles in An Air Stream).

5.2.7. CFD Applications

Aerospace Applications
CFD methods are now widely used in most aerospace applications for the
purpose of predicting component performance and as an integral part of
the design cycle. The applications are numerous and we will only list few
examples
here.


The first example
Is flow around an aircraft. Wind tunnel tests require substantial scaling
which leads to some difficulties of matching the important flow parameters.
If we attempt to model the correct Mach number, the Reynolds number will
be substantially lower than the full scale Reynolds number leading to errors
in the modeled shear stress and other flow features. It is also very
expensive to replicate altitude conditions within a wind tunnel.

Fig.5.1 Grid and flow solution for a civil aircraft with nacelles
Automotive Applications
In automotive applications CFD is nowadays used in a large number of
areas including engine components, auxiliary systems and also for
modeling the
aerodynamics of the car to minimize drag and optimize the down force
tidier

various operating conditions. Figure shows two examples of
automotiveapplications. Figure shows the flow field around a family car
obtained using CFD
methods.

Fig.5.2 Flow around a car

Marine Applications


Fig.5.3 Flow around marine ship

5.3. Advantages of CFD

Low Cost

Using physical experiments and tests to get essential engineering data for
design can be expensive.

Computational simulations are relatively inexpensive, and costs are likely to
decrease as computers become more powerful.

Speed
CFD simulations can be executed in a short period of time.
Quick turnaround means engineering data can be introduced early in the
design process.

Ability to Simulate Real Conditions

Many flow and heat transfer processes cannot be (easily) tested - e.g.
hypersonic flow at Mach 20
CFD provides the ability to theoretically simulate any physical condition.

Ability to Simulate Ideal Conditions

CFD allows great control over the physical process, and provides the ability
to isolate specific phenomena for study.

Example: a heat transfer process can be idealized with adiabatic, constant
heat flux, or constant temperature boundaries.

Comprehensive Information

Experiments only permit data to be extracted at a limited number of
locations in the system (e.g. pressure and temperature probes, heat flux
gauges, LDV, etc.)

CFD allows the analyst to examine a large number of locations in the region
of interest, and yields a comprehensive set of flow parameters for
examination.

5.4. Limitations of CFD

-Physical Models

CFD solutions rely upon physical models of real world processes (e.g.
turbulence, compressibility, chemistry, multiphase flow, etc.).
The solutions that are obtained through CFD can only be as accurate as the
physical models on which they are based.

Numerical Errors

Solving equations on a computer invariably introduces numerical errors

Round-off error - errors due to finite word size available on the computer

Truncation error - error due to approximations in the numerical models

Round-off errors will always exist (though they should be small in most
cases)

Truncation errors will go to zero as the grid is refined - so mesh refinement
is one way to deal with truncation error.

E
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WWo
oor
rrk
kk



I
IIn
nnt
ttr
rro
ood
ddu
uuc
cct
tti
iio
oon
nn

The photovoltaic panel efficiency decreases further during the
operational period by increasing the cells temperature above a
certain limit. In addition, reflection of the suns irradiance from
the panel typically reduces the electrical yield of PV modules by 8-
15%. To increase the efficiency of PV systems one way is cooling
them during operation period. One method for cooling
photovoltaic module is to flow a film of water over the PV module
to decrease its temperature. By using this method reflection
would also be reduced and therefore the electrical efficiency will
improve.

In this chapter we deal with the solar radiation that incident on
photovoltaic cells. The cell plate has an area of 0.52 m
2
. The output
electric power generated from the cell is fed to the solar battery.

There is a film cooling system to decrease the cell temperature so
that cell output power increase.

The present work was carried out on two solar cell
cases:

30 titled solar cell with horizontal and faces to south without
cooling.
30 titled solar cell with horizontal and faces to south with cooling.



For every position the following readings are
obtained:

Solar Flux Q in W/m2, this reading is taken every hour from the
sun rise to the sun set.

The Volt and Ampere output from the cell, with and without charge
controller these readings are obtained using the digital Voltmeter,
which reads the Volts and Ampere according to the position used.

Solar cell back surface temperature by using five thermocouple
types K inserted on the back surface.

Air ambient temperature by using thermocouple type K inserted in
a shadow area.

Calculation of solar cell surface temperature by taken the
temperature difference between the back and front surface into
consideration.

Calculation of the output power produced by multiplying the output
Volt V output Ampere I

Power = V I = watts

Calculations of the cell efficiency. This calculation is based on
the following formula:



Where

V = Output Voltage of the cell in Volts.
I = Output Current of the cell in Amperes.
Q = Solar Flux in W/m
2
.
A = Area of the cell plate in m
2
.

These readings and calculations are performed
every hour from sun rise to sun set. The output
results will be shown later.

The following figure presents the experimental
system used in this project:



6.1. Experimental Cad layout

Fig. 6.2. actual layout



6.1. Experiment component

1
11.
.. S
SSo
ool
lla
aar
rr P
PPa
aan
nne
eel
ll

Fig. 6.2 Monocrystaline module inclined on a 30 alumital
Stand



Mono-crystalline panel containing 40 cells.
Panel dimension (85.5 66) cm.
Panel Area = 0.52 m
Maximum output = 20 V

2
22.
.. S
SSo
ool
lla
aar
rr B
BBa
aat
ttt
tte
eer
rri
iie
ees
ss

Fig. 6.2. actual layout

12 volt- acid lead solar battery.
24 ampere hour



.

2
22.
.. C
CCh
hha
aar
rrg
gge
ee C
CCo
oon
nnt
ttr
rro
ool
lll
lle
eer
rr

6.4 Fig. Charge Controller



4
44.
.. M
MMu
uul
llt
tti
iim
mme
eet
tte
eer
rrs
ss

6.5 Fig. Multimeters



5
55.
.. 3
330
00
d
dde
eeg
ggr
rre
eee
ee A
AAl
llu
uum
mm.
.. S
SSt
tta
aan
nnd
dd

A
AAl
llu
uum
mm.
.. S
SSt
tta
aan
nnd
dd w
wwi
iit
tth
hh d
ddi
iim
mme
een
nnt
tti
iio
oon
nn:
::

9
994
44 *
**1
110
003
33*
**5
556
66 c
ccm
mm

Fig 6.6 30degree alumital Stand



6
66.
.. 1
112
22 v
vvo
ool
llt
tts
ss l
lla
aam
mmp
pp

Fig 6.7 12 volts lamp

7
77.
.. solar power meter

It is used to measure solar irradiance on
a surface



Fig. 6.8. solar power meter

6.2.cooling system description


Fig. 6.8. cooling system description

A cooling system was designed to reduce the solar cell
surface temperature and increase the cell out power. In
which closed loop cooling circuit was connected to take
water from water tank and pumping it by using 1.5 l/min
Dc pump through an holed hose that hold on alumital
Stand top. A film water flowing over the cell surface and
it then collected and discharged to the tank .and so on



6.2. The cooling system component
1- Insulated galvanized steel tank
100 *91*20 water tank fabricated from galvanized steel mm and well
insulated by using 1 inch wool glass. The tank maximum capacity of
180 litters of fresh water .

Fig. 6.9. 180 littre water tank.



2- 12-volt pump
6 watt dc pump connected on the tank outlet to pumping1.5 l/min fresh water.

Fig. 6.10. 12 v water pump.
3-Closed loop hoses & connection
5 mm plastic hoses with 4 m length & 3 connection (2 L + 1 T ) . used
to handle water from the pump to solar cell.
4- Holed hose
5mm plastic hose with 90 cm length was holed 1mm every 0.5 cm
along the hose.



I
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ff E
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SSh
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.. A
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ppr
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ees
sse
een
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dd
t
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mme
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gg d
dde
eev
vvi
iic
cce
ees
ss i
iin
nnc
ccl
llu
uud
dde
ee.
..

1. Flux meter which measures the solar intensity of the solar intensity
incident on different plate positions.

2. Protractor that measures the angle of inclination of photovoltaic cell plates
with the horizontal plane.

3. Digital Multimeters to measure output volt and ampere

4. Closed loop system cooling consists of water tank, water pump,
connections & perforated hose. In order to reduce the cell surface
temperature.

5. Thermocouples type K to measure the surface temperature.

6. Digital thermometer to read thermocouple.

7. Mono crystalline Solar cell with an effective area of 0.52 m
2

T
TTh
hhe
ee m
mme
eea
aas
ssu
uur
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eem
mme
een
nnt
tts
ss a
aan
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cca
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llc
ccu
uul
lla
aat
tti
iio
oon
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ss i
iin
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tth
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ss c
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eer
rr i
iin
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ee
t
tth
hhr
rre
eee
ee c
cca
aat
tte
eeg
ggo
oor
rri
iie
ees
ss :
::

1. Measurement of the solar flux or solar intensity. This type of
measurements is performed using the flux meter where the output result is
transformed. Into W/m
2
. The main type of measurements is where the
Pyrometer faces the solar radiation i.e. the latitude angle approaches zero
the latter angle represents the angle between the normal to the measuring
surface and the solar rays.

2. Measurements the power produced from the photovoltaic cell plates which
is performed using the Multimeters connected to the terminals of the cell
plats. The output volt and output current is measured using the
Multimeters according to the adjusting position.



3. Measurement of the surface temperature. by using digital thermometer
connected to the thermocouple that inserted in the cell back .

4. Calculation of the efficiency of the system the efficiency is calculated based
on the following equation:

=

100 %

Where

V = output volt..in volt
I = output current.. In ampere
S = solar flux or solar intensity W/m2

A = surface area of the photovoltaic cell ..m2

F
FFo
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mm t
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tts
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a) The mechanical tracking produces an excess power about 10% more than
that produced from the fixed position =30 the main difference was
shown in the mid-day.

b) the cooling system reduce the cell temperature by

c) by using cooling system the cell output power increase about more than
the cell without cooling

d) By using cooling system the cell efficiency increased about more than the
cell without cooling.

e) The output power of cell plate has nearly values of 40 Watt at noon time.
This means that the efficiency is very low, for this type of photovoltaic cells.
The distribution of the output efficiency will be shown in the following
section.



f) From the first point of view one can notice that using charge controller in
the circuit reduces the output power which can be attributed to the loss
induced in the output power due to the connection of charge controller.
The decrease accompanying the connection of charge controller remains
exists all over the day from sunrise to sunset.

7
77.
..1
11.
.. E
EEx
xxp
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ssu
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tts
ss (
((F
FFi
iir
rrs
sst
tt D
DDa
aay
yy)
))
Development of Output Power of Mono Crystalline
Cell without cooling.

table 7.1. Development of Output Power of Mono Crystalline Cell
without cooling
without cooling
Time ( hr) Voltage Ampere power Solar Intensity ( w/m2) efficiency
00:00
am 19.03 2.11 38.6172 516 17.0089852
00:00
am 18.93 2.04 38.6172 550 15.95752066
00:00
am 18.89 2.55 48.1695 667 16.41321385
00:00
am 18.52 2.76 51.1152 735 15.80556586
00:00pm 18.49 2.86 52.8814 752 15.98204787
00:00
pm 18.41 2.7 49.707 623 18.13329928
00:00
pm 18.57 1.88 34.9116 450 17.63212121
00:00
pm 19.2 1.45 27.84 366 17.2876304
00:00
pm 17.23 0.3 5.169 79 14.87054085
00:00
pm 17.32 0.21 3.6372 50.5 16.3690369
00:00
pm 16.8 0.17 2.856 41 15.83148559


0
10
20
30
40
50
60
8:00
AM
9:00
AM
10:00
AM
11:00
AM
12:00
AM
1:00
PM
2:00
PM
3:00
PM
4:00
PM
5:00
PM
6:00
PM
output power & time
output power

Fig, 7.2. Daily solar intensity

Fig, 7.2 Mono Crystalline Cells Power Without cooling



Time ( hr) Voltage Ampere power Solar Intensity ( w/m2) efficiency
08:00 20 2.4 48 560 19.48051948
09:00 19.9 2.31 45.969 630 16.58333333
10:00 19.71 2.22 43.7562 650 15.29937063
11:00 19.58 2.62 51.2996 686 16.99562682
12:00 19.55 2.77 54.1535 725 16.97601881
01:00 19.41 2.72 52.7952 707 16.97158287
02:00 19.09 2.5 47.725 609 17.8104941
03:00 19.85 1.9 37.715 420 20.40854978
04:00 19.18 1.03 19.7554 182 24.66958042
05:00 18.32 0.44 8.0608 68 26.94117647
06:00 17.28 0.18 3.1104 28 25.24675325
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
8:00
AM
9:00
AM
10:00
AM
11:00
AM
12:00
AM
1:00
PM
2:00
PM
3:00
PM
4:00
PM
5:00
PM
6:00
PM
efficency & time
efficenc

Table 7.3 Mono Crystalline efficiency without cooling.
s
sse
eec
cco
oon
nnd
dd D
DDa
aay
yy

Development of Output Power of Mono Crystalline Cell with cooling

table 7.4. Development of Output Power of Mono Crystalline Cell without cooling


Fig, 7.5. Daily solar intensity

Fig, 7.6. Mono Crystalline Cells Power Without cooling



Fig 7.8. Mono Crystalline efficiency without cooling.

Comparison between the output power of
Mono Crystalline Cell with & without
cooling


Fig. 7.9. Comparison between the output power of Mono
Crystalline Cell with & without cooling.
Comparison between the Efficiency of Mono
Crystalline Cell with & without cooling

Fig. 7.10. Comparison between the efficiency of Mono
Crystalline Cell with & without cooling.


Cell surface temperature with & without cooling

table 7.4. Cell surface temperature with & without cooling

Fig 7.12. cell temperature without cooling.

Time ( hr) without cooling with cooling amount of temperature reduced
00:00am 51 41 10
00:00am 61 42.5 18.5
00:00am 61.2 43 18.2
00:00am 63.3 45 18.3
00:00pm 63.5 44.4 19.1
00:00pm 59 43.5 15.5
00:00pm 53 41 12
00:00pm 55 40.6 14.4
00:00pm 46 36.5 9.5
00:00pm 40.5 34 6.5
00:00pm 38 33.2 4.8


Fig 7.12. cell temperature with cooling.

Fig. 7.13. Comparison between the Cell temperature with &
without cooling.



Fig. 7.14. Amount af temperature reduced due to cooling.

7
77.
..2
22.
.. C
CCo
oom
mmp
ppu
uut
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ssu
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ss
7
77.
..2
22.
..1
11 g
gga
aam
mmb
bbi
iit
tt w
wwo
oor
rrk
kk

0
5
10
15
20
25
12:00
AM
12:00
AM
12:00
AM
12:00
AM
12:00
AM
12:00
AM
12:00
AM
12:00
AM
12:00
AM
12:00
AM
12:00
AM
temperature decrease& time
temperature


Fig. 7.15. Mesh for solar cell & ambient around it

I. Steady Flow with Constant Roof Temperature

Fig. 7.16. Grid for solar cell & ambient around it



7
77.
..2
22.
..2
22.
.. m
mmo
ood
dde
eel
lli
iin
nng
gg p
ppa
aar
rra
aam
mme
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tte
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rrs
ss

Air inlet velocity from door = 2 m/s
Constant roof temp =313 k
7
77.
..2
22.
..3
33 m
mmo
ood
dde
eel
lli
iin
nng
gg s
sso
ool
llv
vvi
iin
nng
gg

Fig. 7.17. iteration @ air velocity 2m/s



7
77.
..2
22.
..4
44.
.. C
CCF
FFD
DD r
rre
ees
ssu
uul
llt
tts
ss

Fig. 7.18. statice temperature contour

Fig. 7.19. static pressure contour



livrotitole rot

cett tememeratlre

Fig. 7.20. velocity vectors

Fig. 7.21. temperature distribution over solar cell panel


Conclusion
Photo voltaic solar cell performance is studied
experimental and numerical.

The experimental study is carried out in the shoubra
faculty of engineering (el khalafawy roof ).by using mono
crystalline solar cell 52 m
2

.
The experimental study is carried out on 52 m
2
mono
crystalline solar cell cooling & without cooling case.

From the preceding results that performed under
different parameters one can reach to the following
concluding remarks:

1- As the module surface temperature increase the
open circuit voltage decrease, the output power
and cell efficiency decrease.

2- Al though the solar irradiance is maximum at
midday, the output power is not maximum at that
time; this is due to the increase of the module
surface temperature.



3- Applying the cooling system we found that.

a. Solar cell surface temperature reduced by about 20 c
compared by solar cell without cooling.

b. Solar cell output power increase about by 25 % compared
by solar cell without cooling.

c. Solar cell efficiency increase about by 33 %
compared by solar cell without cooling.

4- Charge controller make losses in the output
power produced but it is necessary to protect the
battery from over charge and over discharge.

REFERENCES

http://nineplanets.org/sol.html
http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/pv-cell-prototype-
generates-electricity-from-ir-and-uv-light
http://solarbuzz.com/going-solar/using/uses
http://www.wikipedia.org/
http://www.thesolarguide.com/
http://www.pvresources.com
New and Renewable energy Authority: www.nrea.gov.eg
Ministry of Electricity and Energy: www.moee.gov.eg
Egyptian Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources:
www.emp.gov.eg
Organization for Energy Planning: www.oep.gov.eg
AbdelRassoul, Roshdy A. and El-sayed M. A. Rassoul. (1995).
Management of solar energy Utilization in Egypt.
EL-Hefnawi, Said H. Photovoltaic Applications and Research in Egypt
and Marketability of PV in Developing Countries, Photovoltaic Cells
Department, Electronics, Research Institute, NRC Building, Tahrir
Street, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt.
http://www.nef.org.uk/greencompany/active-pv-cells.htm
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_3/chpt_2/6.html
http://www.windsun.com/ChargeControls/ChargeCont.htm

Solar Energy Book 2011-2012

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Benha University

Shoubra Faculty Of Engineering

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