Aerospace Engineering University of Michigan

AERO 522 - Viscous Flow

Professor Luis P. Bernal
Introduction
Reading: Whites Viscous Fluid Flow
Chapter 1
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AE 522 - Introduction
Outline
Course Objectives and Expectations
Review of Thermodynamics
Review of Vector and Tensor Algebra
Kinematics of Flow Fields
Conditions at a Fluid Boundary
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Aero 522: Course Objectives
To provide a comprehensive description of the
fundamental flow physics and analysis tools of
viscous effects in fluid flows including internal
flows and external flows (aerodynamics)
3
AE 522 - Introduction
Physical Understanding
Analysis Engineering Application
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Aero 522: Course Expectations
Undergraduate course in fluid mechanics or
aerodynamics
Understanding of thermodynamics concepts and
application to engineering systems
Physics: good understanding of dimensional
analysis and conservation laws
Math: In this course we will use applied
knowledge/understanding of linear algebra,
ordinary differential equations, partial differential
equations, complex variables,
4
AE 522 - Introduction
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AE 522 - Introduction
Review of Thermodynamics
Hypothesis of local thermodynamic
equilibrium
Extensive vs. intensive properties
0
th
Law of Thermodynamics: Temperature
Equation of state
Caloric equation of state
1
st
Law of Thermodynamics: Entropy
2
nd
Law of Thermodynamics
Transport properties
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AE 522 - Introduction
Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Thermodynamic properties are defined as
averages of molecular properties over the entire
system.
Fluids in motion are not in thermodynamic
equilibrium in a strict sense
Hypothesis of Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Consider the flow around a body of size L.
Thermodynamic variables are defined as molecular
averages over very small regions of the flow.
These regions should be small compared to the size
of the body (<< L) and large compared to the mean
free path (>> )
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AE 522 - Introduction
Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Knudsen Number: K
n
= /L
0.1 0.01 1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
7
10
8
10
9
10
10
Free molecular flow
Gas Kinetic Theory
Continuum Fluid Mechanics
and Aerodynamics
1/K
n
= L/
In AE 522 we consider only large scale fluid dynamics phenomena.
Therefore theories based on the continuum hypothesis apply.
These theories are not valid for aspects of space flight (e.g. calculation
of orbital decay due to aerodynamic drag of satellites).
Consider the result of thermodynamic averages on a number of volumes
of size L, spaced a distance of order L
If L < the thermodynamic averages will give different results
If L > the thermodynamic averages will give the same result
is determined by the number of collisions: Mean Free Path
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AE 522 - Introduction
An Example from Micro Fluidics
Acoustic thrusters use sound to produce
thrust by generating a synthetic jet
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AE 522 - Introduction
An Example from Micro Fluidics
Back Cavity
Si
Perforated Electrode
Si
Si
Diaphragm
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AE 522 - Introduction
An Example From Micro Fluidics
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AE 522 - Introduction
An Example from Micro Fluidics
Question: What is the structural resonant frequency
of the membrane?
A: Do a vacuum test
Q: At what pressure?
A: Mean free path
large compared to
relevant size
Back Cavity
Si
Perforated Electrode
Si
Si
Diaphragm
1
~
n A
Mean free path
n - Number of molecules per unit volume [m
-3
]. Perfect gas:
A - Molecules cross section area 10
-15
cm
2
= 10
-19
m
2
23
138 10

= = p n k T; k . J/ K
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AE 522 - Introduction
An Example from Micro Fluidics
Back Cavity
Si
Perforated Electrode
Si
Si
Diaphragm
1
=
k T
~
n A p A
For:
T = 300 K,
~ 1 mm
A = 10
-19
m
2
Gives
p = 41 Pa = 0.3 Torr
=

k T
p
A
Better Answer: Consider the effect of the mass of air
moving with the membrane i.e. the apparent mass
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AE 522 - Introduction
Thermodynamic Properties
Some thermodynamic properties like the pressure and temperature do
not depend on the mass of the system. These are called intensive
properties
Other properties like the volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy
are proportional to the mass of the system. These are called extensive
properties
Extensive properties are made intensive by dividing by the mass of the
system. These are called specific properties, i.e. specific volume, specific
internal energy, specific enthalpy and specific entropy
IMPORTANT: In this course we only use specific properties and because
of it we drop the word specific
The main thermodynamic properties we use in Fluid Dynamics are
Density: [kg/m
3
]
Pressure: p [N/m
2
]
Temperature: T [K]
Internal energy or energy: e [m
2
/s
2
]
Enthalpy: h [m
2
/s
2
]
Entropy: s [m
2
/(s
2
K)]
Viscosity: [(N s)/m
2
]
Thermal conductivity: k [W/(m K)]
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AE 522 - Introduction
0
th
Law of Thermodynamics
There is a thermodynamic variable, the Temperature, that
characterizes the Thermodynamic state of the system
This variable is always zero or positive: T 0
If T = 0 the system has zero energy
IMPORTANT: In thermodynamics it is assumed that two
thermodynamic variables and the composition, uniquely
define the thermodynamic state of the system, i.e.
= (p, T) (equation of state)
e = e (p, T) (caloric equation of state)
h = h (p, T)
s = s (p, T)
= (p, T)
k = k (p, T)
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AE 522 - Introduction
Equation of State
The relation between density, pressure and temperature is the equation
of state
Except for a few simple fluids the equation of state is not known
The differential form of the equation of state is always defined
Specific Heat Ratio:
Speed of sound: Bulk modulus:
Coefficient of thermal expansion:
Perfect liquid: a ; | = 0
T p
d dp dT;
p T
| | | | c c
= +
| |
c c
\ . \ .
(p, T) =
1 1
T p
d
dp dT;
p T
| | | | c c
= +
| |
c c
\ . \ .
2
d
dp dT
a

= |

p v
c / c =
2
s
p
a ;
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
2
T
p K
K ; a
| | c
= =
|
c
\ .
1
p
T
| | c
| =
|
c
\ .
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AE 522 - Introduction
Equation of State: Perfect Gases
A perfect gas is a material formed by molecules that move freely in
space and only interact with each other through collisions
The equation of state for a perfect gas is
R
g
is the gas constant:
R
o
= 8,313 J/(kg-mol K) is the universal gas constant
M
g
is the molecular weight of the gas
For a perfect gas:
g
p
R T =

o
g
g
R
R
M
=
2
1
g
a R T;
T
= | =
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AE 522 - Introduction
Equation of State: Air
Air can be treated as a mixture of perfect gases. The molecular weight
is given by the equation
with the mass fraction and the mole fraction
which is also equal to the partial pressure of a component gas
The gas constant for dry air is:
In practice the air density is a function of ambient pressure, p,
temperature, T, and relative humidity, r
where p
v
is the partial pressure of the water vapor which is related to
the saturation vapor pressure, E
s
, and the relative humidity, r
( )
1
mix i i i i
i i
M C M X M = =

287
air
R J/(kg K) =
0378
v
air
p . p
R T

=
i i
C =
i i
X p p =
75 27315
3585
61078 10
. (T . )
T .
v s s
p r E ; E .

= =
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AE 522 - Introduction
Equation of State: Air (II)
The perfect gas law is not a good approximation near the critical point of a gas
This is quantified by the compressibility factor
Z is a function of the reduced pressure, p
r
, and reduced temperature, T
r
, defined
as
where p
c
and T
c
are the critical point pressure and temperature respectively
g
p
Z
R T
=

r r
c c
p T
p ; T
p T
= =
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AE 522 - Introduction
Caloric Equation of State
The relation between energy, pressure and temperature is the caloric
equation of state
or
The differential form of this equation is
The specific heats are defined as derivatives of the energy and enthalpy
Specific heat at constant volume
Specific heat at constant pressure
Specific heat ratio
{ }
1
p
dp
dh c dT T = + |

e e(p, T) =
p
h e h(p, T) = + =

v
e
c
T

| | c
=
|
c
\ .
p
p
h
c
T
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
=
p
v
c
c
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AE 522 - Introduction
1
th
Law of Thermodynamics
Equivalence of Heat and Work: Heat and work are different
forms of energy and, through thermodynamic processes,
can be exchanged with the internal energy of the fluid
This equivalence is expressed by the equations
These equations can be viewed as definitions of entropy
1
de T ds pd
| |
=
|

\ .
dp
dh T ds = +

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AE 522 - Introduction
2
th
Law of Thermodynamics
In an adiabatic closed system the entropy can
only increase (i.e. ds 0)
To meet this requirement the transport properties
must satisfy:
where is the viscosity coefficient, is the
second coefficient of viscosity and k is the
thermal conductivity
2
0 0 0
3
> + > > ; ; k ;
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AE 522 - Introduction
Transport Properties - Viscosity
Newtons Law of Friction: The friction force acting on a solid surface
due to the fluid motion is proportional to the velocity gradient.
u(y)
y
du
dy
t =
( ) F A d u d y A ~ t =
The proportionality constant is the viscosity coefficient [N s/m
2
].
For most fluids (like air, water, fuels, ) the viscosity coefficient is
independent of the fluid motion. These fluids are called newtonian fluids.
For Newtonian fluids the viscosity is a thermodynamic property that can
be modeled using a suitable molecular model and small departures from
thermodynamic equilibrium.
There are many fluids (like blood, ketchup, paints) that do not follow
Newtons law. These fluids are called non-newtonian fluids.
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AE 522 - Introduction
Viscosity
Viscosity is a thermodynamic property that depends on temperature and
pressure. For single component fluids, it is expressed as a universal
function of the reduced pressure and temperature
For gases the viscosity increases with temperature
For liquids the viscosity decreases with temperature
( )
c r r r c r c
F T,p ; T T T ; p p p = = =
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AE 522 - Introduction
Viscosity of Gases
For gases at low pressure the viscosity is a function of the
temperature only
Gas kinetic theory shows:
Sutherland law:
Power law:
3 2 /
o
o o
T S T
T T S
| |
+
=
|
+
\ .
n
o o
T
T
| |

=
|

\ .
~ 0.67 a
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AE 522 - Introduction
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction: The heat transferred per unit time
and area through a surface is proportional to the temperature gradient.
The proportionality constant is the thermal conductivity k [W/(m K)].
The thermal conductivity can also be modeled using a suitable molecular
model and small departures from thermodynamic equilibrium.
The Prandtl number relates viscous and thermal transport processes
For Gases Pr ~ 1. Molecular transport of heat and momentum occur at
approximately the same rate
For liquids Pr > 1. Molecular transport of momentum is faster than heat
transfer
For liquid metals (Mercury) Pr << 1. Molecular transport of heat is faster
than momentum transfer
Transport Properties: Thermal Conductivity
=
dT
q k
dy
T(y)
y
( ) ~ = dQ q A k d T d y A dt
p
c
Pr
k

=
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AE 522 - Introduction
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is a thermodynamic variable that depends on
temperature and pressure and is a function of the reduced pressure and
temperature
For gases the thermal conductivity increases with temperature
For liquids the thermal conductivity decreases with temperature
( )
c r r
k k F T,p =
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AE 522 - Introduction
Thermal Conductivity of Gases
For gases at low pressure the thermal conductivity is a function of
the temperature only
Sutherland law:
Power law:
3 2 /
o
o o
T S k T
k T T S
| |
+
=
|
+
\ .
n
o o
k T
k T
| |
=
|
\ .
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AE 522 - Introduction
Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity
of Gas Mixtures
The viscosity and thermal conductivity of dilute-gas mixtures can
be calculated using the relations (Whites section 1-3.10)
1
1
=
=

=
|

n
i i
mix
n
i
j ij
j
x
x
1
1
=
=
=

n
i i
mix
n
i
j ij
j
x k
k
x
i
i
i
p
x molar fraction
p
M molecular weight
=

2
1 2 1 4
1 2
1
8
8
(
| | | |

+
(
| |

\ . \ .
(

| =
| |
+
|
\ .
/ /
j
i
j i
ij
/
i
j
M
M
M
M
2
1 2 1 4
1 2
1
8
8
(
| | | |
+
(
| |
\ . \ .
(

=
| |
+
|
\ .
/ /
j
i
j i
ij
/
i
j
M
k
k M
M
M
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AE 522 - Introduction
Kinematics of Flow Fields
Derivative Following the Fluid Element
Acceleration of the Fluid Element
Local Analysis of the Fluid Motion
Translation
Deformation, strain rate
Rotation, vorticity
Properties of the strain rate tensor
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AE 522 - Introduction
Mathematical Description of Fluid Motions
There are two distinct approaches to the mathematical description of fluid
motion: Lagrangian Description and Eulerian Description
Lagrangian Description: The position of a fluid element is given as a
function of initial position and time
Here is the vector field describing the position of a fluid element at time t,
initially located at
The laws of mechanics apply to material elements and therefore are only
defined in a lagrangian frame of reference.
Eulerian Description: Fluid properties are given as a function of position
and time
The fluid properties are field variables giving the value of the properties of the
fluid element located at at time t.
To derive the conservation laws in fluid mechanics we need to convert from
the eulerian frame of reference to the lagrangian frame of reference
Substantive derivative or derivative following the fluid element
( )
r r a, t =

r

a.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
r, t ; p p r, t ; T T r, t ; V r, t
e e r, t ; h h r, t ; s s r, t
= = = =
= = =

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AE 522 - Introduction
The change in the value of properties is due to change with position and
time.
Following the fluid particle
Derivatives Following the Fluid Particle
In the Eulerian Description of fluid motion it is necessary to determine
the rate of change of fluid properties with time following the fluid element
( ) ( )
Q
Q Q r r, t t Q r, t t Q r
t
c
A = + A + A = A + V A
c

r (t)

( )
Q r, t

r A

( ) ( )
Q r r, t t Q r, t Q + A + A = + A

1 2 3
1 2 3
Q Q Q Q
Q t x x x
t x x x
c c c c
A = A + A + A + A
c c c c
Q Q
r V t Q t Q r V Q t
t t
| | c c
A = A A = A + V A = + V A
|
c c
\ .



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AE 522 - Introduction
The first term on the right hand side is called the unsteady term or
unsteady rate of change
The second term on the right hand side is the advection term or rate of
change due to advection
Using index notation, the derivative following a fluid element is given by
Derivatives Following the Fluid Element
In the limit dt 0 the rate of change of a fluid property is
t 0
DQ Q Q
lim V Q
D t t t
A
A c
= = + V
A c

k
k
DQ Q Q
V
D t t x
c c
= +
c c
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AE 522 - Introduction
Using index notation, the acceleration is
Acceleration of a Fluid Element
The acceleration of a fluid element is the rate of change of the velocity of
the fluid particle. Then
DV V
a V V
D t t
c
= = + V
c

( )
i i i
k
i
k
DV V V
a V
D t t x
c c
= = +
c c

The last term, the rate of change of the fluid velocity due to advection, is
nonlinear. This nonlinearity is the source of a lot interesting fluid flow
phenomena and mathematical difficulty
The advection term can be expressed in terms of the vorticity
( )
2 2
V V
V V V V V
2 2
| | | |
V = V V = V e
| |
\ . \ .

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AE 522 - Introduction
The first term is the strain rate tensor that characterizes the deformation
of the fluid element
The Velocity Gradient Tensor
In general the change of a fluid
element in time At is given by
i i k i k
ik ik
k k i k i
V V V V V 1 1
e
x 2 x x 2 x x
| | | |
c c c c c
= + + = +
| |
c c c c c
\ . \ .
The second term is related to the vorticity and gives the rotation of the
fluid element
3 2
i k
ik 3 1
k i
2 1
0
V V 1 1
0
2 x x 2
0
e e
| |
| |
c c
|
= = e e
|
|
c c
\ .
|
e e
\ .
x o

( )
i
k
i
k
V
x x t
x
c
Ao = o A
c

( )
x V x t Ao = V o A

The velocity gradient can be written as

x o

x x o + Ao

x Ao

V t A

( )
V V x t + V o A

In the limit At 0,
( )
i
t 0 i
x d x
A
Ao = o

i i
k
k
d x V
x
d t x
o c
= o
c
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AE 522 - Introduction
Cylindrical Coordinates
Cylindrical coordinates (r, u, z):
The strain rate tensor in cylindrical coordinates is
The vorticity in cylindrical coordinates is
Ref: Laminar Boundary Layers, L. Rosenhead Ed. Section III.12
r r z r
rr r rz
r r z
r z
zr z zz
z r z z
V V V 1 V V V
2
r r r r r z
e e e
V V V V 1 1 V 1 V 1 V
e e e 2
2 r r r r r z r
e e e
V V V 1 V V
2
r z z r z
u u
u
u u u u
u uu u
u
u
c c c c c | |
+ +
|
c c cu c c
|
| |
|
| | c c c c c
|
= + + +
|
|
|
c cu cu c c u
\ .
| |
\ .
|
c c c c c
+ +
|
c c c cu c
\ .
z
r
r z
z
r
V 1 V
r z
V V
z r
V V 1 V
r r r
u
u
u u
| | c c

|
c u c
|
e | |
|
c c
|
e =
|
|
c c
|
|
e
\ .
|
c c
+
|
c cu
\ .
u
z
V
r
V
V
u
z
r
0
x
x r cos ; y r sin ; z = u = u
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AE 522 - Introduction
Spherical Coordinates
Spherical coordinates (r, u, |):
The strain rate tensor in spherical coordinates is
The vorticity in cylindrical coordinates is
Ref: Laminar Boundary Layers, L. Rosenhead Ed. Section III.13
r r r
rr r r
r r
r
r
r
V
V V 1 V 1 V
2 r r
r r r r r r r sin
e e e
V
V V V 1 1 V 1 V 1 sin
e e e r 2
2 r r r r r r sin r sin
e e e
V
V 1 V 1
r
r r r sin r sin
|
u
u |
|
u u u
u uu u|
| |u ||
|
u
| | c c c c c | |
+ +
| |
c c c u c u c|
\ .
\ .
| |
|
| | | | c c c c u c | |
= + + +
|
| | |
c c u c u u c | c u u
\ .
\ . \ .
|
\ .
| | c c c
+ +
|
c u c| u c|
\ .
r
V V
V cot sin 1 V
2
r sin r sin r r
| |
u
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
c | | | | u u c
|
+ +
| |
|
cu u u c|
\ . \ .
\ .
( )
( )
( )
r
r
r
V 1
V sin
r sin
V 1 1
r V
r sin r r
V 1 1
r V
r r r
u
|
u |
|
u
| |
c c
u
` |
u c u c|
)
|
| | e
|
c c |
e =
|
|
u c| c
|
|
e
\ .
|
c c

|
|
c cu
\ .
0
V
|
r
V
V
u
z
u
r
|
x
x r sin cos ; y r sin sin ; z r cos = u | = u | = u
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AE 522 - Introduction
1
x
2
x
1
x o
2
x o
The change of the length of ox
1
in At is
The rate of chance of the length of ox
1
is
Local Analysis of the Fluid Motion
Consider the motion during time At of a small fluid element of
size ox
1
, ox
2
1
1 1
1
V
x x t
x
c
o + o A
c
( )
1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1
V V
x x x t x x t
x x
c c
A o = o + o A o = o A
c c
1 1 1 1
1 1
t 0 t 0
1 1
d x x V V
lim lim x t t x
x dt t x
A A

o Ao c c

= = o A A = o
` `
c A c
)
)
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AE 522 - Introduction
Then
Similarly, the rate of chance of the length of ox
2
is
And
The diagonal components of the velocity gradient tensor are the relative
rate of change of the length of fluid elements aligned with the coordinate
axes
Local Analysis of the Fluid Motion
2
2 2
2
V
x x t
x
c
o + o A
c
1
x
2
x
1
x o
2
x o
1
1 1
1
V
x x t
x
c
o + o A
c
2 2
2
2
d x V
x
dt x
o c
= o
c
1 1
1 1
V 1 d x
x x dt
c o
=
c o
2 2
2 2
V 1 d x
x x dt
c o
=
c o
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AE 522 - Introduction
The volume of the fluid element is
The rate of change of the volume of the fluid element is
The sum of the diagonal components of the velocity gradient tensor
(the trace of the tensor) gives the relative rate of change of the volume
of the fluid element
Local Analysis of the Fluid Motion
3 1 2
2 3 1 3 1 2
d x d d x d x
x x x x x x
dt dt dt dt
o 9 o o
= o o + o o + o o
1 2 3
x x x 9 = o o o
3 1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3
V d V V
x x x
dt x x x
| |
c 9 c c
= + + o o o
|
c c c
\ .
3 1 2
1 2 3
V 1 d V V
dt x x x
| |
c 9 c c
= + +
|
9 c c c
\ .
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AE 522 - Introduction
The rotation of the fluid element
ox
1
is
Rotation rate of ox
1
is
Similarly the rotation rate of ox
2
is
The off-diagonal components of the velocity gradient tensor give the
rotation rate of fluid elements aligned with the coordinate axes
Local Analysis of the Fluid Motion
1 1 2
t 0
1
d V
lim
dt t x
A
o Ao c

= =
`
A c
)
2
2 2
2
V
x x t
x
c
o + o A
c
1
2
2
V
x t
x
c
o A
c
1
x
2
x
1
x o
2
x o
1
1 1
1
V
x x t
x
c
o + o A
c
2
1
1
V
x t
x
c
o A
c
2
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
V
x t
x
tan
V
x x t
x

c
o A
c
Ao =
c
o + o A
c
1
2
1
2 2 1 2
t 0 t 0
2
2
2 2
2
V
x t
d 1 V x
lim lim tan
V
dt t t x
x x t
x

A A
c

o A

o Ao c c
= = =
` `
c
A A c
)

o + o A
c

)
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41
AE 522 - Introduction
The motion of the fluid element
consists of:
Translation
Rotation. Consider the diagonal
of the parallelogram formed by ox
1
ox
2
.
The diagonal forms an angle O with
the x
1
axis
The rotation rate of the fluid element is
Local Analysis of the Fluid Motion
1
V t A
2
V t A
1
x
2
x
1
x o
2
x o
1
o
2
o
|
|
1 2
90
2
o o
| =
1 2
d 1 d d
dt 2 dt dt
| | O o o
=
|
\ .
1 2
1
90
2
+ o o
O = | + o =
3 2 1
1 2
d 1 V V
dt 2 x x 2
| |
e O c c
= =
|
c c
\ .
Aerospace Engineering University of Michigan
42
AE 522 - Introduction
Shear deformation. The shear rate is the rate of change of the angle |
There is also a volume change of the fluid element associated with the diagonal
elements of the strain rate tensor
Local Analysis of the Fluid Motion
1
o
2
o
|
|
1 2
d 1 d d
ShearRate
dt 2 dt dt
| | | o o
= = +
|
\ .
1 2
12
2 1
1 V V
ShearRate e
2 x x
| |
c c
= + =
|
c c
\ .
3 1 2
1 2 3
V 1 d V V
dt x x x
| |
c 9 c c
= + +
|
9 c c c
\ .
Aerospace Engineering University of Michigan
43
AE 522 - Introduction
The strain rate tensor e
ik
gives the deformation rate of the fluid element
Recap: Velocity Gradient Tensor
The velocity gradient tensor gives the time evolution of fluid elements
The change of a fluid element in time
At is given by
i i k i k
ik ik
k k i k i
V V V V V 1 1
e
x 2 x x 2 x x
| | | |
c c c c c
= + + = +
| |
c c c c c
\ . \ .
The second term ,
ik
gives the rotation rate of the fluid element with is
also equal to the vorticity
3 2
i k
ik 3 1
k i
2 1
0
V V 1 1
0
2 x x 2
0
e e
| |
| |
c c
|
= = e e
|
|
c c
\ .
|
e e
\ .
( )
i
k
i
k
V
x x t
x
c
Ao = o A
c

( )
x V x t Ao = V o A

The velocity gradient can be written as

x o

x x o + Ao

x Ao

V t A

( )
V V x t + V o A

In the limit At 0,
( )
i
t 0 i
x d x
A
Ao = o

i i
k
k
d x V
x
d t x
o c
= o
c
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44
AE 522 - Introduction
Invariants of the strain rate tensor are properties of the tensor that do not
depend on the coordinate system used to evaluate them
There are three scalar invariants
The Strain Rate Tensor
The symmetric part of the velocity gradient tensor gives the deformation
rate of the fluid element
i k
ik
k i
V V 1
e
2 x x
| |
c c
= +
|
c c
\ .
1 11 22 33
2 2 2
2 11 22 11 33 22 33 12 23 13
11 12 13
3 21 22 23
21 32 33
I e e e
I e e e e e e e e e
e e e
I det e e e
e e e
= + +
= + + + + +
=
Note that the first scalar invariant I
1
gives the rate of change of the
volume of the fluid element
i
1 11 22 33
i
V 1 d
I e e e div V
x d t
c 9
= + + = = =
c 9

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45
AE 522 - Introduction
Another invariant of the strain rate tensor are the principal directions.
When the strain rate tensor is expressed in a coordinate system aligned with the
principal directions it takes the form
The Strain Rate Tensor
1
ik 2
3
e 0 0
e 0 e 0
0 0 e
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .
The principal directions can be determined by solving an eigenvalue problem.
The normal strain rates along the principal directions are the eigenvalues. The
principal directions are the eigenvectors
Note that in this particular coordinate system there is no shear deformation
In this case the first scalar invariant I
1
takes the form
9
= =
9

1 d
div V 0
d t
For incompressible fluid motion and the normal strain rates
can be ordered such that with
c 9
= + + = = =
c 9

i
1 1 2 3
i
V 1 d
I e e e div V
x d t
> >
1 2 3
e e e
> s
1 3
e 0 and e 0
Aerospace Engineering University of Michigan
46
AE 522 - Introduction
Review of Vector and Tensor Algebra
Scalar fields
Vector fields
Tensor fields
The V operator
The gradient
The divergence
The curl
The velocity gradient and related tensors
Strain rate and vorticity
Cylindrical and spherical coordinates
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47
AE 522 - Introduction
Review of Vector and Tensor Algebra
In Fluid Mechanics we use Scalar, Vector and Tensor fields
Scalar Fields: Scalar fields are used to describe the thermodynamic
state of the fluid and the components of vector and tensor fields
Vector Fields: Vector fields are used to describe properties that have
directionality like the velocity and position
Vector fields require a coordinate system defined by unit vectors pointing
along three mutually orthogonal directions: the basis. We will use almost
exclusively a cartesian coordinate system for the derivations.
A vector field is described by three scalar fields giving the components of the
vector on each coordinate
The component of a vector along a coordinate is given by the scalar product of the
vector with the unit direction vectors. Example - the velocity vector:
The magnitude is:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
r, t ; p p r, t ; T T r, t
e e r, t ; h h r, t ; s s r, t
= = =
= = =


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
i v j w k V V r, t u r, t r, t r, t + + = =



( ) ( ) ( )
i ; v j; w k u r, t V r, t V r, t V = = =




2 2 2
v w V V V u + + = =

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48
AE 522 - Introduction
Index Notation: Frequently well use index notation. In this case:
Basis:
Position vector:
Velocity vector:
Review of Vector and Tensor Algebra
x
y
z

i
j

x i

y j

zk

r

u i

v j

wk
V
Example:
Basis:
Position vector:
Velocity vector:
( )
i , j, k

r x i y j zk = + +

i v j wk V u + + =

( ) ( )
i 1 2 3
e e , e , e =

1 1 2 2 3 3 i i
x x e x e x e e x = + + =

1 1 2 2 3 3 i i
V V e V e V e e V = + + =

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49
AE 522 - Introduction
Review of Vector and Tensor Algebra
Index Notation: We will use index notation frequently in this course.
There are two types of indices appearing in equations:
Free indices appear only ones in each term of an equation. They indicate the
direction or component
Repeated indices appear twice in a term. It implies summation over all
possible values of the index
Frequent errors:
A free index must appear in all the terms of an equation
An index cannot appear more than two times in a term
Example - The following term appears frequently in this course
In this case the index i is a free index, and the index k is a repeated index.
i i i i
k 1 2 3
k 1 2 3
V V V V
V V V V
x x x x
c c c c
= + +
c c c c
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50
AE 522 - Introduction
Review of Vector and Tensor Algebra
Tensor Fields: Tensor fields are used to describe transformations of a
vector field to another vector field.
In 3-D a tensor, requires nine scalar components
The components of a tensor in a cartesian coordinate system with basis
vectors are given by:
The transpose of a tensor is defined as
Symmetric tensors:
In Fluid Mechanics we use the following tensors.
The velocity gradient tensor,
The strain rate tensor,
The stress tensor,
i
j
V
x
c
c
j
i
ij
j i
V
1 V
e
2 x x
| |
c
c
= +
|
|
c c
\ .
ij
t
A,
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
A A A
A A A A
A A A
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .
( ) ij i j
A e A e =


T
ij ji
A A; or A A = =
( )
i
e

( )
T
ji
i j
A A =
Aerospace Engineering University of Michigan
51
AE 522 - Introduction
Vector and Tensor Operations
Scalar Product: The scalar products of two vectors is a scalar
given by
Vector Product: The vector product of two vectors is a vector normal to
the plane containing the vectors and magnitude given by
where is a third order tensor called the permutation tensor
imk
c
( )( )( )
( )( )( )
imk
1 for even permutations 1,2,3 2,3,1 3,1,2
1 for odd permutations 1,3,2 3,2,1 2,1,3
0 if i mor m k or i k

c =

= = =

c a b; c a b sin = = u


a, b

i i
a b a b cos ab = u =

1 2 3
1 2 3 i imk m k
1 2 3
e e e
c det a a a ; c a b
b b b
= = c

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52
AE 522 - Introduction
Vector and Tensor Operations
The product of a tensor and a vector is another vector
The dyadic product of two vectors is a tensor
ik i k
C a b; C a b = =

i ik k
c A b; c A b = =

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53
AE 522 - Introduction
The V Operator
The V is a vector operator given by
Gradient of a Scalar: The gradient of a scalar is a vector given by
Divergence: The divergence of a vector is a scalar given by
Curl: The curl of a vector is a vector given by
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
i i 2 3
i 1 2 3
e e e e
x x x x
c c c c
V = = + +
c c c c

1 2 3 i
1 2 3 i
p p p p
c p e e e ; c
x x x x
c c c c
= V = + + =
c c c c

( )
1 2 3
k
imk
i
1 2 3 m
1 2 3
e e e
a
a det ; a
x x x x
a a a
c c c c
V = V = c
c c c c


3 1 2 i
1 2 3 i
a a a a
a
x x x x
c c c c
V = + + =
c c c c

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54
AE 522 - Introduction
The V Operator
Gradient of a Vector: The gradient of a vector is a tensor given by
The V
2
operator: The V
2
operator is the divergence of gradient. It can
be applied to scalars or vectors. In cartesian coordinates equals the
Laplacian operator
1 1 1
1 2 3
2 2 2 i
ik
1 2 3 k
3 3 3
1 2 3
a a a
x x x
a a a a
B a ; B
x x x x
a a a
x x x
c c c
c c c
c c c c
= V = =
c c c c
c c c
c c c
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\ .

( )
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
i i 1 2 3
T T T T
T div gradT
x x x x x
| |
c c c c c
V = = = + +
|
c c c c c
\ .
( )
( )
2 2
k
k
i i
a
a div grada ; a
x x
| |
c c
V = V =
|
c c
\ .

Aerospace Engineering University of Michigan
55
AE 522 - Introduction
The Velocity Gradient and Related Tensors
The velocity gradient tensor is
Deformation Rate Tensor: The deformation rate tensor is
Strain Rate Tensor: The strain rate tensor is given by
( ) ( )
T
i k
ik
k i
V V
def V V V ; def V
x x
c c
= V + V = +
c c

( )
1 1 1
1 2 3
2 2 2 i
ik
1 2 3 k
3 3 3
1 2 3
V V V
x x x
V V V V
V ; V
x x x x
V V V
x x x
| |
c c c
|
c c c
|
|
c c c c
V = V =
|
c c c c
|
|
c c c
|
c c c
\ .

( )
T
i k
ik
k i
V V
V V 1 1
e def V; e
2 2 2 x x
V + V
| |
c c
= = = +
|
c c
\ .

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56
AE 522 - Introduction
Vorticity
Vorticity: The vorticity is the curl of the velocity
In cartesian coordinates
1 2 3
k
i imk
1 2 3 m
1 2 3
e e e
V
V det ;
x x x x
V V V
c c c c
e = V = e = c
c c c c

x
y
z
w v
y z
u w
z x
v u
x y
| |
c c

|
c c
|
e
| |
| c c
|
e =
|
|
c c
|
|
e
\ .
| c c

|
c c
\ .
Aerospace Engineering University of Michigan
57
AE 522 - Introduction
Cylindrical Coordinates
Cylindrical coordinates (r, u, z):
The strain rate tensor in cylindrical coordinates is
The vorticity in cylindrical coordinates is
Ref: Laminar Boundary Layers, L. Rosenhead Ed. Section III.12
r r z r
rr r rz
r r z
r z
zr z zz
z r z z
V V V 1 V V V
2
r r r r r z
e e e
V V V V 1 1 V 1 V 1 V
e e e 2
2 r r r r r z r
e e e
V V V 1 V V
2
r z z r z
u u
u
u u u u
u uu u
u
u
c c c c c | |
+ +
|
c c cu c c
|
| |
|
| | c c c c c
|
= + + +
|
|
|
c cu cu c cu
\ .
| |
\ .
|
c c c c c
+ +
|
c c c cu c
\ .
z
r
r z
z
r
V 1 V
r z
V V
z r
V V 1 V
r r r
u
u
u u
| | c c

|
cu c
|
e | |
|
c c
|
e =
|
|
c c
|
|
e
\ .
|
c c
+
|
c cu
\ .
u
z
V
r
V
V
u
z
r
0
x
x r cos ; y r sin ; z = u = u
Aerospace Engineering University of Michigan
58
AE 522 - Introduction
Spherical Coordinates
Spherical coordinates (r, u, |):
The strain rate tensor in spherical coordinates is
The vorticity in cylindrical coordinates is
Ref: Laminar Boundary Layers, L. Rosenhead Ed. Section III.13
r r r
rr r r
r r
r
r
r
V
V V 1 V 1 V
2 r r
r r r r r r r sin
e e e
V
V V V 1 1 V 1 V 1 sin
e e e r 2
2 r r r r r r sin r sin
e e e
V
V 1 V 1
r
r r r sin r sin
|
u
u |
|
u u u
u uu u|
| |u ||
|
u
| | c c c c c | |
+ +
| |
c c cu c u c|
\ .
\ .
| |
|
| | | | c c c c u c | |
= + + +
|
| | |
c cu cu u c| cu u
\ .
\ . \ .
|
\ .
| | c c c
+ +
|
c u c| u c|
\ .
r
V V
V cot sin 1 V
2
r sin r sin r r
| |
u
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
c | | | | u u c
|
+ +
| |
|
cu u u c|
\ . \ .
\ .
( )
( )
( )
r
r
r
V 1
V sin
r sin
V 1 1
r V
r sin r r
V 1 1
r V
r r r
u
|
u |
|
u
| |
c c
u
` |
u c u c|
)
|
| | e
|
c c |
e =
|
|
u c| c
|
|
e
\ .
|
c c

|
|
c cu
\ .
0
V
|
r
V
V
u
z
u
r
|
x
x r sin cos ; y r sin sin ; z r cos = u | = u | = u
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59
AE 522 - Introduction
Boundary Conditions for Fluid Flows
General Considerations
Solid Boundaries
Liquid Surface
Liquid-Vapor & Liquid-Liquid Interfaces
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60
AE 522 - Introduction
General Considerations
Consider a small volume with surfaces parallel to the interface and
very small thickness
As the thickness is reduced and the volume collapses on the
interface the volume and mass go to zero
The temperature and speed of the fluids at the interface must be
the same
If the molecular structure of the two fluids are different there can be
a force acting on the interface
If molecules move through the interface (phase change) or if the
interface area changes there is energy change of the system
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61
AE 522 - Introduction
Solid Boundaries
If a liquid or gas is in contact with a solid at the interface the fluid
velocity and temperature satisfy
The condition is called the No Slip boundary condition
Force balance at the interface requires that the stress produced by
the fluid motion be equal to the force acting on the body
In most cases the solid's velocity is known and we are interested in
calculating the force acting on the body resulting from the fluid
motion
The heat conduction condition at the wall can have different forms
depending on the thermal conductivity of the solid. The general
expression is
fluid solid
V V =

fluid solid
T T =
w fluid solid
fluid solid
T T
q k k
n n
| | | | c c
= =
| |
c c
\ . \ .
fluid solid
V V =

| |
t =
|
\ .
w
wall
dV
dn
( ) F A d u d y A ~ t =
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62
AE 522 - Introduction
Solid Boundaries
If the thermal conductivity is high, a very small temperature change
in the solid will support the fluid heat transfer at the wall. Thus, the
solid temperature is uniform. In this case the wall temperature is
known and the wall heat transfer q
w
is unknown
If the thermal conductivity of the solid is very low compared to the
fluid
This is called the adiabatic wall condition
In this case the temperature is not known. The wall temperature is
determined from the conditions
The wall temperature in this case is called the adiabatic wall
temperature (or recovery temperature)
w fluid
fluid
T
q k 0
n
| | c
= ~
|
c
\ .
fluid solid
V V =

fluid
T
0
n
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
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AE 522 - Introduction
Accommodation Effects
For gases at low pressure the mean free path could be comparable to
the length scale of the flow
The velocity of the gas at the wall is then given approximately by
This velocity is called the slip velocity. No Slip requires u
w
= 0
Or in terms of relevant flow properties (c.f. )
where M is the Mach number and is the skin friction
coefficient.
For laminar flow (Re < 510
5
):
For turbulent flow (Re > 510
5
):
w
w
du
u
dy
| |

|
\ .

2 3 a =
w w
f
2
u 3 U 2
0.75 Mc
U 4 a U
t
=

2
f w
c 2 U = t
1/ 2
w
f x
1/ 2
x
u 0.4M Ux
c 0.6Re ; ; Re
U Re

= = =

1 7
1 7
002
0027
/
w
f x
/
x
u . M
c . Re ;
U Re

= =
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64
AE 522 - Introduction
Conditions at a Free Liquid Surface
At the interface between a liquid and a gas the velocity of the gas
and the liquid must be the same. The interface velocity is the
component of the fluid velocity normal to the interface
There is surface tension acting tangent to the interface due to
difference molecular force fields in the liquid and gas
Force balance normal to the interface gives
where o is the surface tension coefficient and R
1
, R
2
are the
principal radii of curvature of the surface
R
p
t
liquid gas
1 2
1 1
p p
R R
| |
= + o +
|
\ .
Aerospace Engineering University of Michigan
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AE 522 - Introduction
Conditions at a Free Liquid Surface
Force balance tangent to the liquid surface gives
where are the tangential friction stress on the surface due
to the liquid and gas motion, respectively.
This tangential stress can be caused by temperature changes at
the surface (Marangoni effects)
R
p
t
liquid gas s
t = t + V o

liquid gas
, t t

liquid gas s
s
d
T
d T
| | o
t = t + V
|
\ .

Aerospace Engineering University of Michigan
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AE 522 - Introduction
Liquid-Liquid & Liquid-Vapor Interfaces
At a liquid-liquid or liquid-vapor interface the velocity, temperature, shear
stress and heat flux must be continuous across the interface
Note that the derivatives of the velocity and temperature are not equal in
general since
However for interfaces between a liquid and a vapor when
1
<<
2
and
k
1
<<k
2
. The boundary condition for the liquid can be approximated by
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
V V ; ; T T ; q q = t = t = =

1 2 1 2
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
V V T T
; q k q k
n n n n
| | | | | | | | c c c c
t = = t = = = =
| | | |
c c c c
\ . \ . \ . \ .
2 2
V T
0; 0
n n
| | | | c c
~ ~
| |
c c
\ . \ .
Aerospace Engineering University of Michigan
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AE 522 - Introduction
Section I Introduction
Summary
Review of Thermodynamics
Mean free path and the hypothesis of local
thermodynamic equilibrium
Equation of state. Caloric equation equations. General
differential form of these equations, Perfect gas law
1
st
and 2
nd
Laws of Thermodynamics
Transport properties for gases and liquids. Newtonian
and non-newtonian fluids
Review of Vector and Tensor Algebra
Index notation and tensor algebra
Scalar product, vector product
The V operator, the gradient, the curl
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AE 522 - Introduction
Section I Introduction
Summary (Cont.)
Kinematics of Flow Fields
Derivative following the fluid element, acceleration of the
fluid element
The velocity gradient tensor. Strain rate tensor and
deformation of the fluid element. Vorticity and solid body
rotation of the fluid element
Conditions at a Fluid Boundary
Conditions at a solid wall. The No-Slip condition.
Accommodation effects
Heat transfer at a solid wall. Adiabatic wall temperature
(recovery temperature)
Conditions at a liquid-gas interface. Surface tension.
Effect of varying surface tension