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Animal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Animal disam!iguation"#
$Animalia$ redirects here# For other uses, see Animalia disam!iguation"#
Animals
Temporal range: Ediacaran Recent
Pre

O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
Scientific classification
%omain: &ukaryota
'nranked" (pisthokonta
'nranked" )olo*oa
'nranked" Filo*oa
+ingdom:
Animalia
Linnaeus, ,-./
P!la
S"#$ingdom Para%oa
o Porifera
o Placo*oa
S"#$ingdom E"meta%oa
o Radiata &"nran$ed'
0tenophora
0nidaria
o (ilateria &"nran$ed'
(rthonectida
1hom!o*oa
Acoelomorpha
0haetognatha
S"perp!l"m De"terostomia
0hordata
)emichordata
&chinodermata
2enotur!ellida
3etulicolia 4
Protostomia &"nran$ed'
S"perp!l"m Ecd!so%oa
+inorhyncha
Loricifera
Priapulida
5ematoda
5ematomorpha
(nychophora
6ardigrada
Arthropoda
S"perp!l"m Plat!%oa
Platyhelminthes
7astrotricha
1otifera
Acanthocephala
7nathostomulida
Micrognatho*oa
0ycliophora
S"perp!l"m )opotroco%oa
8ipuncula
)yolitha 4
5emertea
Phoronida
9ryo*oa
&ntoprocta
9rachiopoda
Mollusca
Annelida
S!non!ms
Meta*oa )aeckel, ,/-:
Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia also called
*eta%oa"# 6heir !ody plan eventually !ecomes fi;ed as they develop, although some undergo a
process of metamorphosis later on in their lives# Most animals are motile, meaning they can
move spontaneously and independently# All animals must ingest other organisms or their
products for sustenance see )eterotroph"#
Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the 0am!rian
e;plosion, a!out .:< million years ago# Animals are divided into various su!=groups, some of
which are: verte!rates !irds, mammals, amphi!ians, reptiles, fish"> molluscs clams, oysters,
octopuses, s?uid, snails"> arthropods millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders, scorpions, cra!s,
lo!sters, shrimp"> annelids earthworms, leeches"> sponges> and @ellyfish#
Contents
, &tymology
< 0haracteristics
o <#, 8tructure
o <#< 1eproduction and development
o <#A Food and energy sourcing
A (rigin and fossil record
: 7roups of animals
o :#, 0tenophora, Porifera, Placo*oa, 0nidaria and 9ilateria
o :#< %euterostomes
o :#A &cdyso*oa
o :#: Platy*oa
o :#. Lophotrocho*oa
. Model organisms
B )istory of classification
- 8ee also
/ 1eferences
C 9i!liography
,D &;ternal links
Et!molog!
6he word $animal$ comes from the Latin word animalis, meaning $having !reath$#
E,F
Gn everyday
non=scientific usage the word e;cludes humans H that is, $animal$ is often used to refer only to
non=human mem!ers of the kingdom Animalia> often, only closer relatives of humans such as
mammals, or mammals and other verte!rates, are meant#
E<F
6he !iological definition of the word
refers to all mem!ers of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges,
@ellyfish, insects, and humans#
EAF
Caracteristics
Animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things# Animals are
eukaryotic and multicellular,
E:F
which separates them from !acteria and most protists# 6hey are
heterotrophic,
E.F
generally digesting food in an internal cham!er, which separates them from
plants and algae#
EBF
6hey are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi !y lacking rigid cell
walls#
E-F
All animals are motile,
E/F
if only at certain life stages# Gn most animals, em!ryos pass
through a !lastula stage,
ECF
which is a characteristic e;clusive to animals#
Str"ct"re
With a few e;ceptions, most nota!ly the sponges Phylum Porifera" and Placo*oa, animals have
!odies differentiated into separate tissues# 6hese include muscles, which are a!le to contract and
control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals# 6ypically, there is also an
internal digestive cham!er, with one or two openings#
E,DF
Animals with this sort of organi*ation
are called meta*oans, or eumeta*oans when the former is used for animals in general#
E,,F
All animals have eukaryotic cells, surrounded !y a characteristic e;tracellular matri; composed
of collagen and elastic glycoproteins#
E,<F
6his may !e calcified to form structures like shells,
!ones, and spicules#
E,AF
%uring development, it forms a relatively fle;i!le framework
E,:F
upon
which cells can move a!out and !e reorgani*ed, making comple; structures possi!le# Gn contrast,
other multicellular organisms, like plants and fungi, have cells held in place !y cell walls, and so
develop !y progressive growth#
E,DF
Also, uni?ue to animal cells are the following intercellular
@unctions: tight @unctions, gap @unctions, and desmosomes#
E,.F
Reprod"ction and de+elopment
8ee also: 8e;ual reproduction I Animals and Ase;ual reproduction I &;amples in animals
A newt lung cell stained with fluorescent dyes undergoing the early anaphase stage of mitosis
5early all animals undergo some form of se;ual reproduction#
E,BF
6hey have a few speciali*ed
reproductive cells, which undergo meiosis to produce smaller, motile spermato*oa or larger, non=
motile ova#
E,-F
6hese fuse to form *ygotes, which develop into new individuals#
E,/F
Many animals are also capa!le of ase;ual reproduction#
E,CF
6his may take place through
parthenogenesis, where fertile eggs are produced without mating, !udding, or fragmentation#
E<DF
A *ygote initially develops into a hollow sphere, called a !lastula,
E<,F
which undergoes
rearrangement and differentiation# Gn sponges, !lastula larvae swim to a new location and
develop into a new sponge#
E<<F
Gn most other groups, the !lastula undergoes more complicated
rearrangement#
E<AF
Gt first invaginates to form a gastrula with a digestive cham!er, and two
separate germ layers J an e;ternal ectoderm and an internal endoderm#
E<:F
Gn most cases, a
mesoderm also develops !etween them#
E<.F
6hese germ layers then differentiate to form tissues
and organs#
E<BF
,ood and energ! so"rcing
Main article: Animal nutrition
All animals are heterotrophs, meaning that they feed directly or indirectly on other living things#
E<-F
6hey are often further su!divided into groups such as carnivores, her!ivores, omnivores, and
parasites#
E</F
Predation is a !iological interaction where a predator a heterotroph that is hunting" feeds on its
prey the organism that is attacked"#
E<CF
Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding
on them, !ut the act of predation almost always results in the death of the prey#
EADF
6he other main
category of consumption is detritivory, the consumption of dead organic matter#
EA,F
Gt can at times
!e difficult to separate the two feeding !ehaviours, for e;ample, where parasitic species prey on
a host organism and then lay their eggs on it for their offspring to feed on its decaying corpse#
8elective pressures imposed on one another has led to an evolutionary arms race !etween prey
and predator, resulting in various antipredator adaptations#
EA<F
Most animals indirectly use the energy of sunlight !y eating plants or plant=eating animals# Most
plants use light to convert inorganic molecules in their environment into car!ohydrates, fats,
proteins and other !iomolecules, characteristically containing reduced car!on in the form of
car!on=hydrogen !onds# 8tarting with car!on dio;ide 0(<" and water )<(", photosynthesis
converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy in the form of simple sugars e#g#, glucose",
with the release of molecular o;ygen# 6hese sugars are then used as the !uilding !locks for plant
growth, including the production of other !iomolecules#
E,DF
When an animal eats plants or eats
other animals which have eaten plants", the reduced car!on compounds in the food !ecome a
source of energy and !uilding materials for the animal#
EAAF
6hey are either used directly to help
the animal grow, or !roken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy
re?uired for motion#
EA:FEA.F
Animals living close to hydrothermal vents and cold seeps on the ocean floor are not dependent
on the energy of sunlight#
EABF
Gnstead chemosynthetic archaea and !acteria form the !ase of the
food chain#
EA-F
Origin and fossil record
Further information: 'rmeta*oan
Dunkleosteus was a ,D=metre=long AA ft" prehistoric fish#
EA/F
Animals are generally considered to have evolved from a flagellated eukaryote#
EACF
6heir closest
known living relatives are the choanoflagellates, collared flagellates that have a morphology
similar to the choanocytes of certain sponges#
E:DF
Molecular studies place animals in a supergroup
called the opisthokonts, which also include the choanoflagellates, fungi and a few small parasitic
protists#
E:,F
6he name comes from the posterior location of the flagellum in motile cells, such as
most animal spermato*oa, whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella#
E:<F
6he first fossils that might represent animals appear in the 6re*ona Formation at 6re*ona 9ore,
West 0entral Flinders, 8outh Australia#
E:AF
6hese fossils are interpreted as !eing early sponges#
6hey were found in BB.=million=year=old rock#
E:AF
6he ne;t oldest possi!le animal fossils are found towards the end of the Precam!rian, around B,D
million years ago, and are known as the &diacaran or 3endian !iota#
E::F
6hese are difficult to
relate to later fossils, however# 8ome may represent precursors of modern phyla, !ut they may !e
separate groups, and it is possi!le they are not really animals at all#
E:.F
Aside from them, most known animal phyla make a more or less simultaneous appearance
during the 0am!rian period, a!out .:< million years ago#
E:BF
Gt is still disputed whether this event,
called the 0am!rian e;plosion, is due to a rapid divergence !etween different groups or due to a
change in conditions that made fossili*ation possi!le#
8ome paleontologists suggest that animals appeared much earlier than the 0am!rian e;plosion,
possi!ly as early as , !illion years ago#
E:-F
6race fossils such as tracks and !urrows found in the
6onian period indicate the presence of triplo!lastic worms, like meta*oans, roughly as large
a!out . mm wide" and comple; as earthworms#
E:/F
%uring the !eginning of the 6onian period
around , !illion years ago, there was a decrease in 8tromatolite diversity, which may indicate the
appearance of gra*ing animals, since stromatolite diversity increased when gra*ing animals went
e;tinct at the &nd Permian and &nd (rdovician e;tinction events, and decreased shortly after the
gra*er populations recovered# )owever the discovery that tracks very similar to these early trace
fossils are produced today !y the giant single=celled protist Gromia sphaerica casts dou!t on
their interpretation as evidence of early animal evolution#
E:CFE.DF
-ro"ps of animals
6he relative num!er of species contri!uted to the total !y each phylum of animals#
Ctenopora. Porifera. Placo%oa. Cnidaria and (ilateria
Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the Porifera and 0tenophora diverged !efore a clade
Para)o;o*oa" that gave rise to the 9ilateria, 0nidaria and Placo*oa#
E.,F
Another study !ased on
the presence or a!sence of introns suggests that 0nidaria, Porifera and Placo*oa may !e a sister
group of 9ilateria and 0tenophora#
E.<F
A %ecem!er, <D,A, study,
E.AF
and a Kune, <D,:, study
E.:F

!oth concluded, using entirely distinct methodologies, that the cladogram of animals is:

0hoanoflagellata
Anima
l
0tenophora

Porifera
Placo*oa
0nidaria
9ilateria
(range elephant ear sponge, Agelas clathrodes, in foreground# 6wo corals in the !ackground: a
sea fan, Iciligorgia schrammi, and a sea rod, Plexaurella nutans#
6he sponges Porifera" were long thought to have diverged from other animals early#
E..F
6hey
lack the comple; organi*ation found in most other phyla#
E.BF
6heir cells are differentiated, !ut in
most cases not organi*ed into distinct tissues#
E.-F
8ponges typically feed !y drawing in water
through pores#
E./F
Archaeocyatha, which have fused skeletons, may represent sponges or a
separate phylum#
E.CF
)owever, a phylogenomic study in <DD/ of ,.D genes in <C animals across
<, phyla revealed that it is the 0tenophora or com! @ellies which are the !asal lineage of animals,
at least among those <, phyla# 6he authors speculate that spongesJor at least those lines of
sponges they investigatedJare not so primitive, !ut may instead !e secondarily simplified#
EBDF
Among the other phyla, the 0tenophora and the 0nidaria, which includes sea anemones, corals,
and @ellyfish, are radially symmetric and have digestive cham!ers with a single opening, which
serves as !oth the mouth and the anus#
EB,F
9oth have distinct tissues, !ut they are not organi*ed
into organs#
EB<F
6here are only two main germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, with only
scattered cells !etween them# As such, these animals are sometimes called diplo!lastic#
EBAF
6he
tiny placo*oans are similar, !ut they do not have a permanent digestive cham!er#
A new family of animals, the %endrogrammatidae, was discovered in Australian water# Further
%5A tests is re?uired, !ut scientists suspects they could represent a whole new phyla, possi!le
descendants of the &diacaran fauna#
EB:F
6he remaining animals form a monophyletic group called the 9ilateria# For the most part, they
are !ilaterally symmetric, and often have a speciali*ed head with feeding and sensory organs#
6he !ody is triplo!lastic, i#e# all three germ layers are well=developed, and tissues form distinct
organs# 6he digestive cham!er has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is also an
internal !ody cavity called a coelom or pseudocoelom# 6here are e;ceptions to each of these
characteristics, however J for instance adult echinoderms are radially symmetric, and certain
parasitic worms have e;tremely simplified !ody structures#
7enetic studies have considera!ly changed our understanding of the relationships within the
9ilateria# Most appear to !elong to two ma@or lineages: the deuterostomes and the protostomes,
the latter of which includes the &cdyso*oa, Platy*oa, and Lophotrocho*oa# Gn addition, there are
a few small groups of !ilaterians with relatively similar structure that appear to have diverged
!efore these ma@or groups# 6hese include the Acoelomorpha, 1hom!o*oa, and (rthonectida# 6he
My;o*oa, single=celled parasites that were originally considered Proto*oa, are now !elieved to
have developed from the Meduso*oa as well#
De"terostomes
8uper! Fairy=wren, Malurus cyaneus
%euterostomes differ from the other 9ilateria, called protostomes, in several ways# Gn !oth cases
there is a complete digestive tract# )owever, in protostomes, the first opening of the gut to
appear in em!ryological development the archenteron" develops into the mouth, with the anus
forming secondarily# Gn deuterostomes the anus forms first, with the mouth developing
secondarily#
EB.F
Gn most protostomes, cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the
mesoderm, called schi*ocoelous development, !ut in deuterostomes, it forms through
invagination of the endoderm, called enterocoelic pouching#
EBBF
%euterostome em!ryos undergo
radial cleavage during cell division, while protostomes undergo spiral cleavage#
EB-F
All this suggests the deuterostomes and protostomes are separate, monophyletic lineages# 6he
main phyla of deuterostomes are the &chinodermata and 0hordata#
EB/F
6he former are radially
symmetric and e;clusively marine, such as starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucum!ers#
EBCF
6he latter
are dominated !y the verte!rates, animals with !ack!ones#
E-DF
6hese include fish, amphi!ians,
reptiles, !irds, and mammals#
E-,F
Gn addition to these, the deuterostomes also include the )emichordata, or acorn worms#
E-<F

Although they are not especially prominent today, the important fossil graptolites may !elong to
this group#
E-AF
6he 0haetognatha or arrow worms may also !e deuterostomes, !ut more recent studies suggest
protostome affinities#
Ecd!so%oa
Lellow=winged darter, Sympetrum flaveolum
6he &cdyso*oa are protostomes, named after the common trait of growth !y moulting or ecdysis#
E-:F
6he largest animal phylum !elongs here, the Arthropoda, including insects, spiders, cra!s, and
their kin# All these organisms have a !ody divided into repeating segments, typically with paired
appendages# 6wo smaller phyla, the (nychophora and 6ardigrada, are close relatives of the
arthropods and share these traits#
6he ecdyso*oans also include the 5ematoda or roundworms, perhaps the second largest animal
phylum# 1oundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where
there is water#
E-.F
A num!er are important parasites#
E-BF
8maller phyla related to them are the
5ematomorpha or horsehair worms, and the +inorhyncha, Priapulida, and Loricifera# 6hese
groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom#
6he remaining two groups of protostomes are sometimes grouped together as the 8piralia, since
in !oth em!ryos develop with spiral cleavage#
Plat!%oa
Pseudobiceros bedfordi, 9edfordMs flatworm"
6he Platy*oa include the phylum Platyhelminthes, the flatworms#
E--F
6hese were originally
considered some of the most primitive 9ilateria, !ut it now appears they developed from more
comple; ancestors#
E-/F
A num!er of parasites are included in this group, such as the flukes and
tapeworms#
E--F
Flatworms are acoelomates, lacking a !ody cavity, as are their closest relatives,
the microscopic 7astrotricha#
E-CF
6he other platy*oan phyla are mostly microscopic and pseudocoelomate# 6he most prominent are
the 1otifera or rotifers, which are common in a?ueous environments# 6hey also include the
Acanthocephala or spiny=headed worms, the 7nathostomulida, Micrognatho*oa, and possi!ly the
0ycliophora#
E/DF
6hese groups share the presence of comple; @aws, from which they are called the
7nathifera#
)opotroco%oa
1oman snail, Helix pomatia
6he Lophotrocho*oa, evolved within Protostomia, include two of the most successful animal
phyla, the Mollusca and Annelida#
E/,FE/<F
6he former, which is the second=largest animal phylum
!y num!er of descri!ed species, includes animals such as snails, clams, and s?uids, and the latter
comprises the segmented worms, such as earthworms and leeches# 6hese two groups have long
!een considered close relatives !ecause of the common presence of trochophore larvae, !ut the
annelids were considered closer to the arthropods !ecause they are !oth segmented#
E/AF
5ow, this
is generally considered convergent evolution, owing to many morphological and genetic
differences !etween the two phyla#
E/:F
6he Lophotrocho*oa also include the 5emertea or ri!!on worms, the 8ipuncula, and several
phyla that have a ring of ciliated tentacles around the mouth, called a lophophore#
E/.F
6hese were
traditionally grouped together as the lophophorates#
E/BF
!ut it now appears that the lophophorate
group may !e paraphyletic,
E/-F
with some closer to the nemerteans and some to the molluscs and
annelids#
E//FE/CF
6hey include the 9rachiopoda or lamp shells, which are prominent in the fossil
record, the &ntoprocta, the Phoronida, and possi!ly the 9ryo*oa or moss animals#
ECDF
*odel organisms
Main articles: Model organism and Animal testing
9ecause of the great diversity found in animals, it is more economical for scientists to study a
small num!er of chosen species so that connections can !e drawn from their work and
conclusions e;trapolated a!out how animals function in general# 9ecause they are easy to keep
and !reed, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and the nematode aenorhabditis elegans have
long !een the most intensively studied meta*oan model organisms, and were among the first life=
forms to !e genetically se?uenced# 6his was facilitated !y the severely reduced state of their
genomes, !ut as many genes, introns, and linkages lost, these ecdyso*oans can teach us little
a!out the origins of animals in general# 6he e;tent of this type of evolution within the
superphylum will !e revealed !y the crustacean, annelid, and molluscan genome pro@ects
currently in progress# Analysis of the starlet sea anemone genome has emphasised the importance
of sponges, placo*oans, and choanoflagellates, also !eing se?uenced, in e;plaining the arrival of
,.DD ancestral genes uni?ue to the &umeta*oa#
EC,F
An analysis of the homoscleromorph sponge !scarella carmela also suggests that the last
common ancestor of sponges and the eumeta*oan animals was more comple; than previously
assumed#
EC<F
(ther model organisms !elonging to the animal kingdom include the house mouse Mus
musculus" and *e!rafish Danio rerio"#
0arolus Linnaeus, known as the father of modern ta;onomy
/istor! of classification
Aristotle divided the living world !etween animals and plants, and this was followed !y 0arolus
Linnaeus 0arl von LinnN", in the first hierarchical classification#
ECAF
8ince then !iologists have
!egun emphasi*ing evolutionary relationships, and so these groups have !een restricted
somewhat# For instance, microscopic proto*oa were originally considered animals !ecause they
move, !ut are now treated separately#
Gn LinnaeusMs original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes
of 3ermes, Gnsecta, Pisces, Amphi!ia, Aves, and Mammalia# 8ince then the last four have all
!een su!sumed into a single phylum, the 0hordata, whereas the various other forms have !een
separated out# 6he a!ove lists represent our current understanding of the group, though there is
some variation from source to source#
See also
(oo$: Animal
Animal coloration
&thology
Fauna
List of animal names
Lists of animals
List of animals !y num!er of neurons
Lists of organisms !y population
Ooology
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<D# +aplan <DD/"# G$' exam sub:ect test# +aplan Pu!lishing# p# <AA# G895 C-/=,=
:,C.=.<,/=<#
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<<# 3ille, 0laude Alvin> Walker, Warren Franklin> 9arnes, 1o!ert %# ,C/:"# General
/oology# 8aunders 0ollege Pu!# p# :B-# G895 C-/=D=DA=DB<:.,=A#
<A# )amilton, William Kames> 9oyd, Kames %i;on> Mossman, )arland Winfield
,C:."# Human embryology- 7prenatal development of form and function9# Williams Q
Wilkins# p# AAD#
<:# Philips, Koy 9# ,C-."# Development of vertebrate anatomy# Mos!y# p# ,-B#
G895 C-/=D=/D,B=AC<-=<#
<.# "he 'ncyclopedia Americana- a library of universal kno0ledge1 6olume *+#
&ncyclopedia Americana 0orp# ,C,/# p# </,#
<B# 1omoser, William 8#> 8toffolano, K# 7# ,CC/"# "he science of entomology# W09
Mc7raw=)ill# p# ,.B# G895 C-/=D=BC-=<</:/=<#
<-# 1astogi, 3# 9# ,CC-"# Modern %iology# Pitam!ar Pu!lishing# p# A# G895 C-/=/,=
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<C# 9egon, M#, 6ownsend, 0#, )arper, K# ,CCB"# 'cology- Individuals1 populations
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G895 D=BA<=DA/D,=<, G895 D=BA<=D:ACA=/#
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A<# Allen, Larry 7len> Pondella, %aniel K#> )orn, Michael )# <DDB"# 'cology of
marine fishes- alifornia and ad:acent 0aters# 'niversity of 0alifornia Press# p# :</#
G895 C-/=D=.<D=<:B.A=C#
AA# 0lutter!uck, Peter <DDD"# ;nderstanding Science- ;pper Primary# 9lake
&ducation# p# C# G895 C-/=,=/B.DC=,-D=C#
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AC# 0amp!ell, 5iel A# ,CCD"# %iology <nd ed#"# 9en@aminP0ummings Pu!# 0o#
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:D# 1ichard 1# 9ehringer, Ale;ander %# Kohnson, 1o!ert &# +rumlauf, Michael +#
Levine, 5ipam Patel, 5eelima 8inha, ed# <DD/"# 'merging model organisms- a
laboratory manual1 6olume * illustrated ed#"# 0old 8pring )ar!or La!oratory Press# p# ,#
G895 C-/=D=/-CBC=/-<=D#
:,# )all, 9rian +eith> )allgrRmsson, 9enedikt> 8trick!erger, Monroe W# <DD/"#
Strickberger&s evolution- the integration of genes1 organisms and populations# Kones Q
9artlett Learning# p# <-/# G895 C-/=D=-BA-=DDBB=C#
:<# )amilton, 7ina# ,ingdoms of =ife 4 Animals 7'<HA<'D e%ook9# Loren*
&ducational Press# p# C# G895 C-/=,=:<C,=,B,D=-#
:A# Maloof, Adam 0#> 1ose, 0atherine 3#> 9each, 1o!ert> 8amuels, 9radley M#>
0almet, 0laire 0#> &rwin, %ouglas )#> Poirier, 7erald 1#> Lao, 5an> 8imons, Frederik K#
,- August <D,D"# $Possi!le animal=!ody fossils in pre=Marinoan limestones from 8outh
Australia$# <ature Geoscience 0 C": B.A# 9i!code:<D,D5at7e###A##B.AM#
doi:,D#,DA/PngeoCA:#
::# 0osta, Kames 6#> %arwin, 0harles <DDC"# "he annotated !rigin- a facsimile of the
first edition of !n the origin of species# )arvard 'niversity Press# p# AD/# G895 C-/=D=
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:B# Milsom, 0lare> 1ig!y, 8ue <DDC"# .ossils at a Glance# Kohn Wiley and 8ons#
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:/# 8eilacher, Adolf> 9ose, Pradip +#> Pfluger, Friedrich ,CC/"# $Animals More 6han
, 9illion Lears Ago: 6race Fossil &vidence from Gndia$# Science 424 .A/B": /DH/A#
9i!code:,CC/8ci###</<###/D8# doi:,D#,,<BPscience#</<#.A/B#/D# PMG% C-.B:/D#
:C# Mat*, Mikhail 3#> Frank, 6amara M#> Marshall, 5# Kustin> Widder, &dith A#>
Kohnsen, 8Snke <DD/"# $7iant %eep=8ea Protist Produces 9ilaterian=like 6races$#
urrent %iology 32 <A": ,HB# doi:,D#,D,BP@#cu!#<DD/#,D#D</# PMG% ,CD<B.:D# Archived
from the original on ,B %ecem!er <DD/# 1etrieved <DD/=,<=D.#
.D# 1eilly, Michael <D 5ovem!er <DD/"# $8ingle=celled giant upends early
evolution$# M8590# 1etrieved <DD/=,<=D.#
.,# 1yan, KF> Pang, +> 0omparative 8e?uencing Program, 5isc> Mullikin, Kames 0>
Martindale, Mark T> 9a;evanis, Andreas % <D,D"# $6he homeodomain complement of
the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi suggests that 0tenophora and Porifera diverged prior to
the Para)o;o*oa$# 'vodevo 3 ,": C# doi:,D#,,/BP<D:,=C,AC=,=C# PM0 <C.CD::#
PMG% <DC<DA:-#
.<# Lehmann K, 8tadler PF, +rauss 3 <D,<" 5ear intron pairs and the meta*oan tree#
Mol Phylogenet 'vol doi:,D#,D,BP@#ympev#<D,<#,,#D,<
.A# $6he 7enome of the 0tenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi and its Gmplications for 0ell
6ype &volution$# Science 054 B,B:"# ,A %ecem!er <D,A# doi:,D#,,<BPscience#,<:<.C<#
.:# $6he ctenophorre genome and the evolutionary origins of neural systems$# <ature
136 -.DA"# . Kune <D,:# doi:,D#,DA/Pnature#,A:DD#
..# 9hamrah, )# 8#> Kune@a, +avita <DDA"# An Introduction to Porifera# Anmol
Pu!lications P36# L6%# p# ./# G895 C-/=/,=<B,=DB-.=<#
.B# 8umich, Kames L# <DD/"# =aboratory and .ield Investigations in Marine =ife#
Kones Q 9artlett Learning# p# B-# G895 C-/=D=-BA-=.-AD=:#
.-# Kessop, 5ancy Meyer ,C-D"# %iosphere? a study of life# Prentice=)all# p# :</#
./# 8harma, 5# 8# <DD."# ontinuity And 'volution !f Animals# Mittal Pu!lications#
p# ,DB# G895 C-/=/,=/<CA=D,/=B#
.C# McGra0)Hill encyclopedia of science @ technology- M'")<IA1 6olume ** /th
ed#"# Mc7raw=)ill# ,CC-# p# .C# G895 C-/=D=D-=C,,.D:=,# 1etrieved ,C March <D,,#
BD# %unn, 0asey W# et al# April <DD/"# $9road phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life$# <ature 514 -,//": -:.HC#
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B,# Langstroth, Lovell> Langstroth, Li!!y <DDD"# 5ew!erry, 6odd, ed# A =iving %ay-
"he ;nder0ater #orld of Monterey %ay# 'niversity of 0alifornia Press# p# <::#
G895 C-/=D=.<D=<<,:C=C#
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&ncyclopUdia 9ritannica# p# .<A# G895 C-/=D=/.<<C=CB,=B#
BA# +otpal, 1# L# Modern "ext %ook of (oology- Invertebrates# 1astogi Pu!lications#
p# ,/:# G895 C-/=/,=-,AA=CDA=-#
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B.# Peters, +enneth &#> Walters, 0lifford 0#> Moldowan, K# Michael <DD."# "he
%iomarker Guide- %iomarkers and isotopes in petroleum systems and 'arth history 4#
0am!ridge 'niversity Press# p# -,-# G895 C-/=D=.<,=/A-B<=D#
BB# 8afra, Kaco! &# <DDA"# "he <e0 'ncyclopBdia %ritannica1 6olume *? 6olume D#
&ncyclopUdia 9ritannica# p# -B-# G895 C-/=D=/.<<C=CB,=B#
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meta*oan tree of life$# P<AS 6he 5ational Academy of 8ciences" 75 ,.": /DD,H/DD.#
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PMG% C<<AADA#
B/# )yde, +enneth <DD:"# (oology- An Inside 6ie0 of Animals# +endall )unt# p# A:.#
G895 C-/=D=-.-.=DCC-=,#
BC# Alcamo, &dward ,CC/"# %iology oloring #orkbook# 6he Princeton 1eview#
p# <<D# G895 C-/=D=B-C=--//:=:#
-D# )olmes, 6hom <DD/"# "he .irst 6ertebrates# Gnfo!ase Pu!lishing# p# B:#
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G895 C-/=D=/,BD=..,.=C#
-<# 6o!in, Allan K#> %usheck, Kennie <DD."# Asking about life# 0engage Learning#
p# :C-# G895 C-/=D=.A:=:DB.A=D#
-A# 8afra, Kaco! &# <DDA"# "he <e0 'ncyclopBdia %ritannica1 6olume *E#
&ncyclopUdia 9ritannica# p# -C,# G895 C-/=D=/.<<C=CB,=B#
-:# %awkins, 1ichard <DD."# "he Ancestor&s "ale- A Pilgrimage to the Da0n of
'volution# )oughton Mifflin )arcourt# p# A/,# G895 C-/=D=B,/=B,C,B=D#
-.# Prewitt, 5ancy L#> 'nderwood, Larry 8#> 8urver, William <DDA"# %ioInFuiry-
making connections in biology# Kohn Wiley# p# </C# G895 C-/=D=:-,=<D<</=/#
-B# 8chmid=)empel, Paul ,CC/"# Parasites in social insects# Princeton 'niversity
Press# p# -.# G895 C-/=D=BC,=D.C<:=<#
--# 7ilson, Vtienne <DD:"# 'l espGritu de la filosofGa medieval# &diciones 1ialp#
p# A/:# G895 C-/=/:=A<,=A:C<=D#
-/# 1ui*=6rillo, GWaki> 1iutort, Marta> Littlewood, %# 6imothy K#> )erniou, &lisa!eth
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Mem!ers of Platyhelminthes$# Science 420 .:DC": ,C,CH,C<A#
9i!code:,CCC8ci###</A#,C,C1# doi:,D#,,<BPscience#</A#.:DC#,C,C# PMG% ,DD/<:B.#
-C# 6odaro, Antonio# $7astrotricha: (verview$# Gastrotricha- #orld Portal#
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of =ife- Annelids 3)8"# 9ioM&%GA A88(0GA6&8#
/A# &ernisse, %ouglas K#> Al!ert, Kames 8#> Anderson, Frank &# , 8eptem!er ,CC<"#
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meta*oan morphology$# Systematic %iology 53 A": AD.HAAD# doi:,D#<AD-P<CC<.BC#
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1elia!ility and implications$# Proceedings of the <ational Academy of Sciences of the
;nited States of America 78 C": ::.AH::.B# 9i!code:<DDDP5A8###C-#::.AA#
doi:,D#,D-APpnas#C-#C#::.A# PM0 A:A<,# PMG% ,D-/,D:A#
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Molecular Phylogenetics of the Meta/oan lade =ophotrocho/oa# p# ,<:#
//# 8und!erg, Per> 6ur!eville, K# M#> Lindh, 8usanne <DD,"# $Phylogenetic
relationships among higher nemertean 5emertea" ta;a inferred from ,/8 r%5A
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8ipunculid Phascolopsis gouldii supports its association with Annelida rather than
Mollusca$ P%F"# Molecular %iology and 'volution 37 <": ,<-H,A-#
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=ife Sciences Kohn Wiley Q 8ons, Ltd"# doi:,D#,DA/Pnpg#els#DDD,B,A# G895 D=:-D=
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C,# Putnam, 5icholas )# et al# <DD-"# $8ea anemone genome reveals ancestral
eumeta*oan gene repertoire and genomic organi*ation$# Science 038 ./A:": /BHC:#
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C<# 2iu@uan Wang> Lavrov, %ennis 3# <- (cto!er <DDB"# $Mitochondrial 7enome of
the homoscleromorph !scarella carmela Porifera, %emospongiae" 1eveals 'ne;pected
0omple;ity in the 0ommon Ancestor of 8ponges and (ther Animals$# Molecular
%iology and 'volution 45 <": ABAHA-A# doi:,D#,DCAPmol!evPmsl,B-# PMG% ,-DCDBC-#
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classes1 ordines1 genera1 species1 cum characteribus1 differentiis1 synonymis1 locisA in
Latin" ,Dth ed#"# )olmiae Laurentii 8alvii"# Archived from the original on ,D (cto!er
<DD/# 1etrieved << 8eptem!er <DD/#
(i#liograp!
0laus 5ielsen Animal 'volution- Interrelationships of the =iving Phyla# J Ard ed# J
5ew Lork: (;ford 'niversity Press, <D,<# J :D< p# J G895 C-/=D=,CCBDBD<=A
+nut 8chmidt=5ielsen# Animal Physiology- Adaptation and 'nvironment# .th edition"#
0am!ridge 'niversity Press, ,CC-#
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