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Physics: Science which observes (measures) fundamental physical

phenomena and attempts to explain and predict them in the simplest


and most self-consistent way: experiment + theory, both essential

Classical physics: A wonderful set of very few equations & principles
with which a great many phenomena can be explained quantitatively:
Conservation of energy, linear & angular momentum,
charge
Newtons Laws of Motion: 3
Maxwells Equations for electricity and magnetism:
4e.m. waves, plus Lorentz Force Law
Thermodynamics: 2, maybe 4
The Kinetic Theory of Gasesbeginning to look at
atomic level
Basic forces: gravity and coulombic repulsion/attraction, finally
fourunified to three (later)

But limited to large objects (atom or larger), velocities much less than
the speed of light, other difficulties or inconsistencies

Modern physics: Developed since ca. 1900, applies to subatomic
objects, speeds approaching that of light, new forces, new particles,

REVIEW--SOME PROBLEMS WITH CLASSICAL PHYSICS CA. 1900

How does light propagate? A matter wave? Constant speed in
vacuum?

How do electric and magnetic fields change from one observer (e.g.
fixed) to another (e.g. moving)?

What electromagnetic spectrum is emitted by a hot object?

How do we reconcile wave motion vs. particle motion, esp. for light?

Why do some spectra show lines rather than continua?

How are x-rays produced by atoms?

What is radioactivity?

How does the electron fit in: much smaller and lighter than atom

And others
Combining Maxwells four equations in free spacetraveling e.m. waves
Each cartesian component of E and B = u satisfies



http://www.phys.hawaii.edu/~teb/java/ntnujava/emWave/emWave.html
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
0 0
u u u 1 u
0
x y z c t
1 u u u
with c = , u
x y z
c
c c c c
+ + =
c c c c
c c c
+ + V
c c c
k
E
B
c
NO EVIDENCE
FOR ETHER
AS MEDIUM IN
WHICH LIGHT
PROPAGATES
Sun
v
orbit
~
30
km/s
-v
ether

Ether (fixed)
Earth
REVIEW--SOME PROBLEMS WITH CLASSICAL PHYSICS CA. 1900

How does light propagate? A matter wave? Constant speed in
vacuum?

How do electric and magnetic fields change from one observer (e.g.
fixed) to another (e.g. moving)?

What electromagnetic spectrum is emitted by a hot object?

How do we reconcile wave motion vs. particle motion, esp. for light?

Why do some spectra show lines rather than continua?

How are x-rays produced by atoms?

What is radioactivity?

How does the electron fit in: much smaller and lighter than atom

And others
E B o
F F F q E v B = + = + ( )
v
What happens if test charge and negative charge are at rest?
Watch
v (vee)-velocity
vs v (nu)-frequency!
REVIEW--SOME PROBLEMS WITH CLASSICAL PHYSICS CA. 1900

How does light propagate? A matter wave? Constant speed in
vacuum?

How do electric and magnetic fields change from one observer (e.g.
fixed) to another (e.g. moving)?

What electromagnetic spectrum is emitted by a hot object?

How do we reconcile wave motion vs. particle motion, esp. for light?

Why do some spectra show lines rather than continua?

How are x-rays produced by atoms?

What is radioactivity?

How does the electron fit in: much smaller and lighter than atom

And others
SPECTRA EMITTED
BY HOT OBJECTS =
BLACKBODIES
Demonstration:
Simple tungsten
filament in a lamp
4
B
n( ) no. standing wave modes / unit volume at
8
P(E ) Pr obability of thermally populating mode at E
Maxwell Boltzmann factor (Constant )exp( E / k T )
E( ,T ) average thermal equilibriumenergy per mode at
c
direction ave
4
=
=
=
= =
=
=

t


rage speed away fromhole to the right
I( ,T ) emitted energy per unit area per unit time at
c
n( )E( )
4
=
=


c
ccosu
Boson (Bose-Einstein) statistics:
Blackbody Radiation
Basic Theory
Etc.,
etc
Many e.m. standing waves at thermal
equilibrium inside cavity:

c
c
c
c
c
c
*
=
u
Average speed calculation
/ 2
0 2
0 / 2
0
/ 2
0 2
0 / 2 0
1
2 1
0 0
/ 2
0
[ccos ] sindd
c2 cos sind
Average velocity along x =
sindd
2 sind
c udu(with sin=u)
c[u / 2] c / 2 c

[ cos ] [0 ( 1)] 1
But only 1/2 of the photo a
2
ns r

=
= = = =

}}
}
}}
}
}
,
the other 1/2 with a component to the left. So we get another factor of 1/2,
to yield finally for this problem,
e traveling with any compone
but also for the effusion of
nt to the righ
gaseou
t
s atoms
c
or molecules from a hole, the value
4.
Standing electromagnetic waves in a blackbody cavity:
all frequencies v (and wavelengths = c/v) allowed
Classical pictureRayleigh-Jeans
k
B
= the Boltzmann constant
=1.3807x10
-23
J-K
-1

B
4
2 c
I( ,T ) k T
t

=
c
I( ,T ) n( )E( )
4
=
Via
Maxwell-
Boltzmann
factor integral
#

Ultraviolet
catastrophe
Via
Maxwell-
Boltzmann
factor sum
Standing electromagnetic waves in a blackbody cavity:
all frequencies v (and wavelengths = c/v) allowed
Classical pictureRayleigh-Jeans
k
B
= the Boltzmann constant
=1.3807x10
-23
J-K
-1

Quantized picturePlanck
-Standing wave energies quantized
-Emission and absorption only
in units of hv
B
4
2 c
I( ,T ) k T
t

=
h = 6.62x10
-34

J-s
by fit to data!
B
2
c / k T 5 h
2 c 1
I( ,T )
e 1
h

t

(
=
(


c
I( ,T ) n( )E( )
4
=
Via
Maxwell-
Boltzmann
factor integral
#

0
0
( ) ( )
( )
B
B
h
k T
h
k T
h e d h
e d h
v
v
v v
v


=
}
}
1
1
2 3
( )
;
1
1
1
( ) ( ) ...
B
B
nh
k T
n
nh
k T
n
x
x x
nh e
e
e
x
e e
v
v
v

=

=


=
(
= + +
(


+ +

(Example 3.7)
(Example 3.6)
h
are
And for any hot object:
R(T) = coT
4
(experimental)
= total power radiated
per unit area and unit time
with c = emissivity s 1.0
= 1.0, ideal blackbody;
= 0.15, W filament
= 0.81, graphite
o =5.6705 x 10
-8
W/(m
2
-K
4
)
Dangerous
part for the
ozone hole
over the
Antarctic
(and Arctic)
Suns blackbody radiation and what reaches the ground:
Movies of variation: http://www.atm.ch.cam.ac.uk/tour/part2.html
http://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov/
1980 1991
O
3

O
2

O
2
O
3

Electronic Vibrational+Rotational
http://pvcdrom.pveducation.org/SUNLIGHT/BLAKBODY.HTM
Infrared
Earths average:
255K
Sun: ~Blackbody at 6000 K
mostly in visible
Earth: ~Blackbody at ~255K
mostly in infrared
H
2
O,CO
2
,CH
4
,
But if less than
240, the
temperature
risesglobal
warming
Blackbody radiation and the Cosmic Microwave Background
T ~ 370,000 years after Big Bang.
electrons and protons combed to H atoms,
no more high-energy radiation, negligible
scattering between e.m. radiation and matter,
different equilibrium temperatures
http://www.lbl.gov/Publications/Nobel/ See section 16.5 of Thornton and Rex
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/22/science/sp
ace/planck-satellite-shows-image-of-infant-
universe.html?ref=science&_r=0
NY Times-March 22, 2013
COBE-1989
WMAP-2001
Planck-2009-
present
Monitoring infectious air
travelers with their BB radiation
REVIEW--SOME PROBLEMS WITH CLASSICAL PHYSICS CA. 1900

How does light propagate? A matter wave? Constant speed in
vacuum?

How do electric and magnetic fields change from one observer (e.g.
fixed) to another (e.g. moving)?

What electromagnetic spectrum is emitted by a hot object?

How do we reconcile wave motion vs. particle motion, esp. for light?

Why do some spectra show lines rather than continua?

How are x-rays produced by atoms?

What is radioactivity?

How does the electron fit in: much smaller and lighter than atom

And others
Combining Maxwells four equations in free spacetraveling e.m. waves
Each cartesian component of E and B = u satisfies



http://www.phys.hawaii.edu/~teb/java/ntnujava/emWave/emWave.html
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
0 0
u u u 1 u
0
x y z c t
1 u u u
with c = , u
x y z
c
c c c c
+ + =
c c c c
c c c
+ + V
c c c
k
E
B
c
REVIEW--SOME PROBLEMS WITH CLASSICAL PHYSICS CA. 1900

How does light propagate? A matter wave? Constant speed in
vacuum?

How do electric and magnetic fields change from one observer (e.g.
fixed) to another (e.g. moving)?

What electromagnetic spectrum is emitted by a hot object?

How do we reconcile wave motion vs. particle motion, esp. for light?

Why do some spectra show lines rather than continua?

How are x-rays produced by atoms?

What is radioactivity?

How does the electron fit in: much smaller and lighter than atom

And others
Light behaves in some
ways like a particle of zero
rest mass and:
E
photon
= hv,

and if E = mc
2
(more later)
m
photon
= m
inertial
=

hv/c
2

A
V
Vacuum
Least tightly
bound
Einstein, 1905:
Light can only emit or
absorb energy in quantized
units:
E
photon
=hv
h = Plancks constant!
Electrons
in metal
Energy
Distance
K
max

-
-
M
e
t
a
l

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

hv
| =
work
func.
Demonstration: The Photoelectric Effect
+
+
+
+
+
+
No effect.
May charge
more
Fur
Silk
Charge reduced.
Only with ultraviolet:
hv > | = work function
Zinc:
| = work
function
= 4.30 eV
In sum, one can say there is hardly one among the
great problems in which modern physics is so rich to
which Einstein has not made a remarkable
contribution. That he may sometimes has missed the
target in his speculations, as, for example, in his
hypothesis of light quanta, cannot really be held too
much against him, for it is not possible to introduce
really new ideas even in the most exact sciences
without sometimes taking a risk.
In his 1913 letter
nominating Einstein for
the membership of
Prussian Academy of
Science, Max Planck et al.
wrote:
Demonstration: Double slit pattern using a laser
Film has small particles (>125 atoms diam.) of Ag
+
Br
-
. Photons create
excited electrons: Ag
+
+ e
-
Ag. About 10-15 photons needed for 3 Ag
atoms developable particle.

Dont know where individual bright spots will appear, but
know probability, proportional to light wave energy flow = c
0
c|E|
2
= |Wave|
2
=
|+|
2
, and finally, with many individual photon events, see detailed image.
(For ref., the human eye responds if five to nine photons arrive in less than 0.1 sec)
SOME PROBLEMS WITH CLASSICAL PHYSICS CA. 1900

How does light propagate? A matter wave? Constant speed in
vacuum?

Is light a wave or a particle?

How do electric and magnetic fields change from one observer
(e.g. fixed) to another (e.g. moving)?

What electromagnetic spectrum is emitted by a hot object?

How to reconcile wave motion vs. particle motion?

Why do some spectra show lines rather than continua?

How are x-rays produced by atoms?

What is radioactivity?

How does the electron fit in: much smaller and lighter than atom

And others
dsinu = n
d
u
| |
Measuring emission spectra:
In phase
-
-
-
LINE SPECTRA OF DIFFERENT SOURCES:
Atomic hydrogen
Sodium
Helium
Neon
Mercury
Molecular hydrogen = H
2

WHY LINES?
Sodium- D-line emiss.
Sodium- D-line absorp.
The Sun: blackbody emission plus absorption
Calcium-absorp.
=n

=n
u

All experiment, no theory!
REVIEW--SOME PROBLEMS WITH CLASSICAL PHYSICS CA. 1900

How does light propagate? A matter wave? Constant speed in
vacuum?

How do electric and magnetic fields change from one observer (e.g.
fixed) to another (e.g. moving)?

What electromagnetic spectrum is emitted by a hot object?

How do we reconcile wave motion vs. particle motion, esp. for light?

Why do some spectra show lines rather than continua?

How are x-rays produced by atoms?

What is radioactivity?

How does the electron fit in: much smaller and lighter than atom,
how can x-rays produce electron-positron pairs (more later)

And others
Why lines?

Why similar systematics
to hydrogen.

No theoryyet.
Square root of x-ray frequency
A
t
o
m
i
c

n
u
m
b
e
r

=

Z

REVIEW--SOME PROBLEMS WITH CLASSICAL PHYSICS CA. 1900

How does light propagate? A matter wave? Constant speed in
vacuum?

How do electric and magnetic fields change from one observer (e.g.
fixed) to another (e.g. moving)?

What electromagnetic spectrum is emitted by a hot object?

How do we reconcile wave motion vs. particle motion, esp. for light?

Why do some spectra show lines rather than continua?

How are x-rays produced by atoms?

What is radioactivity?

How does the electron fit in: much smaller and lighter than atom,
how can x-rays produce electron-positron pairs

And others
Nucleus has
Excess energy
More later
Whats
going on in
the
nucleus?
REVIEW--SOME PROBLEMS WITH CLASSICAL PHYSICS CA. 1900

How does light propagate? A matter wave? Constant speed in
vacuum?

How do electric and magnetic fields change from one observer (e.g.
fixed) to another (e.g. moving)?

What electromagnetic spectrum is emitted by a hot object?

How do we reconcile wave motion vs. particle motion, esp. for light?

Why do some spectra show lines rather than continua?

How are x-rays produced by atoms?

What is radioactivity?

How does the electron fit in: much smaller and lighter than atom;
how can x-rays produce electron-positron pairs (more later)

And others
, mass increase as observed
from rest frame, mass-energy equivalence
TIME DILATION
Passage of time as seen by Mary vs. Frank & Fred
WHAT IS ROUNDTRIP TIME FOR LIGHT IN THE TWO FRAMES?
Mary in K:
:Frank and Fred in K
RADIOACTIVE DECAYSOME BASICS
(Thornton and Rex, Section 12.6)
At t = 0, N
0
radioactive nuclei

Rate of decay = -dN(t)/dt = N(t)

dN(t)/N(t) = - dt
| | | |
0
t t
o o
t t
0 0
t / t
0 0 0
1/ 2 0 1/ 2 0
Integrating
dN
dt
N
nN t
N(t ) N (0)e N (0)e , with 1/
Or ,when half of number gone,
1 n(1/ 2) n(2)
N(t ) N (0) t 0.693
2
t

t
t

=
=
=
= = = =
} }
-
-
-
-
-
-
N
0
(t=0)
-
-
-
-
-
-
N(t)
MUON DECAY AND TIME DILATION
The view from the ground
Non-relativistically:
T = 2000 m/(0.98x3.0x10
8
ms
-1
) =
6.8 x 10
-6
s ~ 3.1 t
0

down by e
-3.1
~ 1/22
So expect 1000/22 =
45, not 542 !
MUON DECAY AND TIME DILATION
Comparing views from ground and muon
Top of mountain
1000e
-6.8/11.0
= 538 muons
1000e
-6.8(1/5.02)/2.2
= 539 muons
LENGTH CONTRACTION
Cool movies for sound at:
http://www.gmi.edu/~drussell/Demos/doppler/doppler.html
THE DOPPLER EFFECTSound and Light
Sound:


v
v
0

v(+)
v
0
=c
s
/
0
= no. wavelengths/s
c
s
= v
0

0
=speed of sound

If source at rest:
v = c
s
/

= no. wavelengths/s
= c
s
/
0
(c
s
/(c
s
+v) = v
0
(c
s
/(c
s
+v) = v
0
/(1+v/c
s
) = v
0
/(1+
s
)

~ v
0
(1-
s
) for |<<1
- Light: Same, but also time dilated for observer at rest. v/v
0
will
be smaller by or
2 1/ 2
1/ (1 ) | =
2 1/ 1/ 2 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
0 0
(1 ) /(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) /(1 ) | | v | | v | v = + = + +
Top signs:
Bottom (or blue) signs:

for
1/2
0 0 0 0 0
2
1/2 2 2
(1 ) 1 / 2 (1 / 2)(1 / 2) 1 / 4
[1 ] 1
1 / 2 (1 ) (1 / 2) 1 / 4
v
| | | | |
| v v v v v |
| | | | |

= ~ = = ~ <<
+
v(+)
v(-)
What does observer
at rest see?
v(-)
-
- - -
+
Note:
Greek nu = v = frequency (2nd Ed.)
= f in text (3rd Ed.)
Same
TIME DILATION
NEARLY IDENTICAL
)
22.2 27.0
13.8
But in fact, the
expansion of the
universe seems to
be speeding up:
Nobel Prize-
Perlmutter,
UCB/LBNL, 2011
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
1/2
0
0
1/
0
0 0
2
0
(1 ) (1 )
(1 ) (1 )
(1 )
1
(1 )
v
v

| |
| |
|

v

|
+
= = =
+
+
= =

A
Redshifts and recession velocity
Galaxy 4c41.17
@ 3.8
DOPPLER RADAR
X-band (3 cm wavelength) and S-band (10 cm wavelength)
Reflectivity
Rain
location

Doppler-
shift
beat
signal

Change
in freq.
Wind
velocity
More discussion at:
http://www.usatoday.com/weather/wearadar.htm
http://radar.wrh.noaa.gov/radar/radinfo/radinfo.html,
http://cimms.ou.edu/~schuur/radar.html#Q5

And reflected
radiation sees
twice as much
doppler shift!
Doppler 1 and
Doppler 2--
Two polarizations
of radiation:
Shape/type of
precipitation
c
1

Raindrop,
Snowflake,
Insect

Scattered
wave

c
1

Superposition of traveling waves:
E.g.--Musical
notes
close together in
frequency
Movies at:
http://galileo.ph
ys.virginia.edu/
classes/109N/m
ore_stuff/Apple
ts/sines/Group
Velocity.html
. :
cos cos
1
2cos
1
cos ( )
2
( )
2
Trig identity
b
a b
b
a
a+ =
+

Event:
-
THE LORENTZ TRANFORM:
(From S to S)
THE LORENTZ TRANFORM:
(From S to S)
+
+
+
+

















( )
E B o
F F F q E v B = + = +
v
What happens if test charge and negative charge are at rest?
v
v
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
L
L
Lorentz contraction
Both Frank and Mary see
the same force,
but Frank from magnetic
field, Mary from electric
field
Net positive charge density along wire
FORCE BETWEEN TWO
PARALLEL CURRENT-
CARRYING WIRES?
K
Collision seen
from center of
mass of two
balls:
Frank
concludes
Marys ball
has a
greater
momentum,
or greater
effective
(relativistic)
mass,
and vice
versa

= m
eff

2 2
; ( )
1 /
rel rel
d d u
p mu F mu m
dt dt
u c

| |
= = =
|

\ .
v/c


=

(
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

R
e
l
a
t
i
v
i
s
t
i
c

M
a
s
s
)
/
(
R
e
s
t

M
a
s
s
)

=

m
e
f
f

/
m

Therefore, no object can be accelerated to the speed of light! Tachyons?

Relativistic momentum and force:
; m = rest mass = constant
2 2
1
1 / u c
=

And integrating force x distance = kinetic energy yields rest energy: E=mc
2

The answer is that indeed in our
theoretical predictions distant
objects can appear to
move away faster than the speed of
light. However, it is space itself
which is expanding.
There is no violation of causality,
because no signal can be sent
between such galaxies.
Further, special relativity is not
violated, because it refers to the
relative speeds of objects
passing each other, and cannot be
used to compare the relative
speeds of distant objects.
3.3 Things that go faster than light
A common question that concerns people is whether faraway
galaxies are receding from us faster than the speed of light.
That is to say, if velocity is proportional to distance, then
if we consider galaxies far enough away can we not make the
velocity as large as we like, in violation of special relativity?

The answer is that indeed in our theoretical predictions distant
objects can appear to move away faster than the speed of light.
However, it is space itself which is expanding. There is no
violation of causality, because no signal can be sent between
such galaxies. Further, special relativity is not violated,
because it refers to the relative speeds of objects passing each
other, and cannot be used to compare the relative speeds of
distant objects.
Intro. to Cosmology--Liddle
New York Times, March 16, 2012
)
Vacuum
Least tightly
bound
Einstein, again:
Light can only emit or
absorb energy in quantized
units:
E
photon
=hv
h = Plancks constant!
| =
work
func.
Electrons
in metal
Energy
Distance
K
max

-
-
M
e
t
a
l

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

hv
Light behaves in some
ways like a particle of zero
rest mass and:
E
photon
= hv,
and if E = mc
2

m
photon
= hv/c
2
,
with (relativistic) momentum
P
photon
= E/c = hv/c = h/
A
V
, mass increase as observed
from rest frame, mass-energy equivalence
REVIEW--SOME PROBLEMS WITH CLASSICAL PHYSICS CA. 1900

How does light propagate? A matter wave? Constant speed in
vacuum?

How do electric and magnetic fields change from one observer (e.g.
fixed) to another (e.g. moving)?

What electromagnetic spectrum is emitted by a hot object?

How do we reconcile wave motion vs. particle motion, esp. for light?

Why do some spectra show lines rather than continua?

How are x-rays produced by atoms?

What is radioactivity?

How does the electron fit in: much smaller and lighter than atom;
how can x-rays produce electron-positron pairs

And others
PARTICLES AND ANTI-PARTICLES:
MATTER AND ANTI-MATTER
3.17
The positron:
Postulated from theory
(Pauli, Dirac)late 1920s
Observed in expt.--1933
ProtonAnti-Proton
Neutral B-meson
Anti-Neutral B-meson
2 muons
1% greater
2 anti-muons
D-Zero
Expt.
The neutral B-meson:
made up of two quarks-
Up-bottom or Down-bottom

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