CHAPTER 12 SIGNAL GENERATORS AND

WAVEFORM-SHAPING CIRCUITS
Chapter Outline
12.1 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators
12.2 Op Amp-RC Oscillators
12.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
12.4 Bistable Multivibrators
12.5 Generation of Square and Triangular Waveforms using Astable Multivibrators
12.6 Generation of a Standardized Pulse-The Monostable Multivibrators
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-1
12.7 Integrated-Circuit Timers
12.8 Nonlinear Waveform-Shaping Circuits
12.9 Precision Rectifier Circuits
12.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
Types of Oscillators
Linear oscillator:
Employs a positive feedback loop consisting of an amplifier and a frequency-selective network.
Some form of nonlinearity has to be employed to provide control of the amplitude of the output.
Nonlinear oscillator:
Generates square, triangular, pulse waveforms.
Employs multivibrators: bistable, astable and monostable.
The Oscillator Feedback Loop and Oscillation Criterion
Positive feedback loop analysis:
) ( A
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-2
Barkhausen criterion:
The phase of loop gain should be zero at e
0
.
The magnitude of the loop gain should be unity at e
0
.
The characteristic equation has roots at s = je
0
.
Stability of oscillation frequency:
e
0
is determined solely by the phase characteristics.
A steep function | (e) results in a more stable frequency.
) ( ) ( ) ( : gain loop
) ( ) ( 1
) (
) ( s s A s L
s s A
s A
x
x
s A
i
o
f
|
|

=
1 ) ( ) ( ) (
0 0 0
= e | e e j j A j L
Nonlinear Amplitude Control
Oscillation: loop gain A| = 1
Growing output: loop gain A| > 1
Decaying output: loop gain A| < 1
Oscillation mechanism:
Initiating oscillation: loop gain slightly larger than unity (poles in RHP).
Gain control: nonlinear network reduces loop gain to unity (poles on je-axis).
Limiter Circuits for Amplitude Control
For small amplitude (D
1
off, D
2
off)
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-3
incremental gain (slope) = R
f
/R
1
For large negative swing (D
1
on, D
2
off)
incremental gain (slope) = (R
f
||R
4
) /R
1
For large positive swing (D
1
off, D
2
on)
incremental gain (slope) = (R
f
||R
3
) /R
1
O A
v
R R
R
V
R R
R
v
3 2
2
3 2
3
+
+
+
=
O B
v
R R
R
V
R R
R
v
5 4
5
5 4
4
+
+
+
=
D
V
R
R R
V
R
R
L
2
3 2
2
3
+
=

D
V
R
R R
V
R
R
L
5
5 4
5
4
+
+ =
+
12.2 OP AMP-RC OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS
Wien-Bridge Oscillator
For L = 1 e
0
=1/RC and R
2
/R
1
= 2.
To initiate oscillation R
2
/R
1
= 2 + o.
Limiter is used for amplitude control.
) / 1 ( 3
/ 1
) (
1 2
RC RC j
R R
j L
e e
e
+
+
=
sRC sRC
R R
s L
Z Z
Z
R
R
s L
s p
p
/ 1 3
/ 1
) ( 1 ) (
1 2
1
2
+ +
+
=
+
(

+ =
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-4
Phase-Shift Oscillator
The circuit oscillates at the frequency for which the phase shift of the RC network is 180.
Only at this frequency will the total phase shift around the loop be 0 or 360.
The minimum number of RC sections is three.
K should be equal to the inverse of the magnitude of the RC network at oscillation frequency.
Slightly higher K is used to ensure that the oscillation starts.
Limiter is used for amplitude control.
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-5
Quadrature Oscillator
Based on the two-integrator loop without damping.
R
1
, R
2
, R
3
, R
4
, D
1
and D
2
are used as limiter.
Loop gain:
}
= = =
t
o
o O
O
sRC V
V
dt
R
v
C
v v
0 1
2 1
2
1
2
2
2
}
= =
t
x
o X
O
sRC V
V
dt
R
v
C
v
0
1
1
1 1
2 2 2
2
1
) (
C R s V
V
s L
x
o
=
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-6
Poles are initially located in RHP (decreasing R
f
) to
ensure that oscillation starts.
Too much positive feedback results in higher output
distortion.
v
O2
is purer than v
O1
because of the filtering action
provided by the second integrator on the peak-limited
output of the first integrator.
C R s V
x
Active-Filter Tuned Oscillator
The circuit consists of a high-Q bandpass
filter connected in a positive-feedback loop
with a hard limiter.
Any filter circuit with positive gain can be
used to implement the bandpass filter.
Can generate high-quality output sine waves.
Have independent control of frequency,
amplitude and distortion of the output
sinusoid
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-7
sinusoid.
Final Remark
Op amp-RF oscillators ~ 10 to 100kHz.
Lower limit: passive components.
Upper limit: frequency response and slew
rate of op amp.
12.3 LC AND CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
LC Tuned Oscillators
Colpitts oscillator: capacitive divider.
Hartley oscillator: inductive divider.
Utilize a parallel LC circuit between base and collector.
R models the overall losses.
Analysis of Colpitts Oscillators
C L L ) ( / 1
2 1 0
+ = e
( )
1
2 1 0
/ 1 / 1 / 1

+ = C C L e
0 ) 1 )( / 1 (
2
2
1 2
= + + + +
t t t
V LC s R sC V g V sC
m
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-8
LC-tuned oscillators utilize the nonlinear transistor I-V characteristics for amplitude control (self-limiting).
Collector (drain) current waveforms are distorted due to the nonlinear characteristics.
Output voltage is a sinusoid with high purity because of the filtering action of the LC tuned circuit.
1 2
/ C C R g
m
=
0 ) / 1 ( ) ( /
2 1 2
2
2 1
3
= + + + + + R g C C s R LC s C LC s
m
| | 0 ) ( )
1
(
2 1
3
2 1
2
2
= + + + C LC C C j
R
LC
R
g
m
e e
e
( )
1
2 1 0
/ 1 / 1 / 1

+ = C C L e
Complete Circuit for a Colpitts Oscillator
R
E
DC Analysis
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-9
AC Analysis
Crystal Oscillators
Crystal impedance:
] / ) [(
/ 1 1
) (
2
2
s p s p
s
p
C LC C C s
LC s
sC
s Z
+ +
+
=
(

+
+ =
s
p
sC sL
sC s Z
/ 1
1
/ 1 ) (
s s
LC / 1 = e
1
) / 1 / 1 ( / 1

+ =
p s p
C C L e
|
|

|

2 2
1
) (
s
j j Z
e e
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-10
Crystal reactance is inductive over very narrow frequency ( e
s
to e
p
).
The frequency band is well defined for a given crystal.
Use the crystal to replace the inductor of the Colpitts oscillators.
Oscillation frequency is dominated by C
s
(much smaller than other Cs).
Crystals are available with resonance frequencies KHz ~ hundred MHz.
The oscillation frequency is fixed (tuning is not possible).
|
|
.

\

=
2 2
) (
p
s
p
C
j j Z
e e e
e
s s
LC e e = ~ / 1
0
12.4 BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
Bistable Characteristics
Positive feedback is used for bistable multivibrator.
Stable states:
(1) v
O
= L
+
and v
+
= L
+
R
1
/(R
1
+R
2
).
(2) v
O
= L

and v
+
= L

R
1
/(R
1
+R
2
).
Metastable state: v
O
= 0 and v
+
= 0.
Transfer Characteristics of the Inverting Bistable Circuit
Initially v
O
= L
+
and v
+
= L
+
R
1
/(R
1
+R
2
) v
O
change stage to L

when v
I
increases to a value of L
+
R
1
/(R
1
+R
2
).
Initially v
O
= L

and v
+
= L

R
1
/(R
1
+R
2
) v
O
change stage to L
+
when v
I
decreases to a value of L

R
1
/(R
1
+R
2
).
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-11
The circuit exhibits hysteresis with a width of (V
TH
V
TL
).
Input v
I
is referred to as a trigger signal which merely initiates or triggers regeneration.
Transfer Characteristics of the Noninverting Bistable Circuit
Initially v
O
= L
+
and v
+
= v
I
R
2
/(R
1
+R
2
) + L
+
R
1
/(R
1
+R
2
) > 0
v
O
change stage to L

when v
I
decreases to a value (V
TL
) that causes v
+
= 0
V
TL
= L
+
(R
1
/R
2
)
Initially v
O
= L

and v
+
= v
I
R
2
/(R
1
+R
2
) + L

R
1
/(R
1
+R
2
) < 0
v
O
change stage to L
+
when v
I
increases to a value (V
TH
) that causes v
+
= 0
V
TL
= L

(R
1
/R
2
)
Application of the Bistable Circuit as a Comparator
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-12
Limiter Circuits for Precise Output Levels
) (
1
1
D Z
D Z
V V L
V V L
+ =
+ =

+
2 1 D D Z
V V V L + + =
+
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-13
) (
4 3 D D Z
V V V L + + =

12.5 GENERATION OF SQUARE AND TRIANGULAR WAVEFORMS

USING ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
Operation of the Astable Multivibrator
F L d R /(R +R ) 0
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-14
For v
O
= L
+
and v
+
= v
O
R
1
/(R
1
+R
2
) > 0
v

is charged toward L
+
through RC
v
O
change stage to L

when v

= v
+
For v
O
= L

and v
+
= v
O
R
1
/(R
1
+R
2
) < 0
v

is discharged toward L

through RC
v
O
change stage to L
+
when v

= v
+
|
|
t | |
t

= = =
+
+ +

+ +
1
) / ( 1
ln ) ( ) (
1
/ /
L L
T e L L L e L L L v
t RC t
|
|
t

+
~
1
1
ln 2 T
|
|
t | |
t

= = =
+
+

+
1
) / ( 1
ln ) ( ) (
1
/ /
L L
T e L L L e L L L v
t RC t
Generation of Triangular Waveforms
Triangular can be obtained by replacing the low-pass RC circuit with an integrator.
The bistable circuit required is of the noninverting type.
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-15
+
+

= =

L
V V
RC T
RC
L
T
V V
TL TH TL TH
1
1

L
V V
RC T
RC
L
T
V V
TL TH TL TH
2
2
12.6 GENERATION OF A STANDARDIZED PULSE
THE MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
Op-Amp Monostable Multivibrators
Circuit components:
Trigger: C
2
, R
4
and D
2
Clamping diode: D
1
R
4
>> R
1
i
D4
~ 0
The circuit has one stable state:
v
O
= L
+
v
B
= V
D1
~ 0
D
1
and D
2
on
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-16
Operation of monostable multivibrator
Negative step as the trigger input
D
2
conducts heavily
v
C
is pulled below v
B
v
O
changes state to L

and v
C
becomes negative
D
1
and D
2
off and C
1
is discharged toward L

v
O
changes state to L

as v
B
= v
C
Stays in the stable state
Positive trigger step turns off D
2
(invalid trigger)
|
|
.
|

\
|

~
|
|
.
|

\
|


~

| | 1
1
ln ln
3 1
1
3 1
R C
L L
L V
R C T
D
1 3
/
1
) ( ) (
C R t
D B
e V L L t v

+
=

+
= = L e V L L T v
C R T
D B
|
1 3
/
1
) ( ) (
12.7 INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT TIMERS
Monostable Multivibrator using 555 Timer Circuit
S
R
0
0
1
0
0
0
0 0
1 0
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-17
Stable state: S = R = 0 and Q = 0
Q
1
on and v
C
= 0
Trigger (v
trigger
< V
TL
): S = 1 and Q = 1
Q
1
off and v
C
is charged toward V
CC
Trigger pulse removal (v
trigger
> V
TL
): S = R = 0 and Q = 1
Q
1
off and v
C
is charged toward V
CC
End of recovery period (v
C
= V
TH
): R = 1 and Q = 0
Q
1
on and v
C
is discharged toward GND
Stable state: v
C
drops to 0 and S = R = 0 and Q = 0
) 1 ( ) (
/ RC t
CC C
e V t v

=
RC RC T 1 . 1 3 ln ~ =
Astable Multivibrator using 555 Timer Circuit
) ( /
) ( ) (
B A
R R C t
TL CC CC C
e V V V t v
+
=
B B L
CR CR T 69 . 0 3 ln ~ =
) ( 69 . 0 2 ln ) (
B A B A H
R R C R R C T + ~ + =
B L H
CR T T T 69 . 0 = + =
B
CR t
TH C
e V v
/
=
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-18
Operation of astable multivibrator
Initially v
C
= 0: S/R = 1/0 and Q = 1 Q
1
off and v
C
is charged toward V
CC
thru R
A
and R
B
v
C
reaches V
TH
: S/R = 0/1 and Q = 0 Q
1
on and v
C
is discharged toward GND thru R
B
v
C
reaches V
TL
: S/R = 1/0 and Q = 1 Q
1
off and v
C
is charged toward V
CC
thru R
A
and R
B
B A
B A
L H
H
R R
R R
T T
T
2
cycle Duty
+
+
=
+

12.8 NONLINEAR WAVEFORM-SHAPING CIRCUITS

Nonlinear Amplification Method
Use amplifiers with nonlinear transfer characteristics
to convert triangular wave to sine wave.
Differential pair with an emitter degeneration
resistance can be used as sine-wave shaper.
Breakpoint Method
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-19
Breakpoint Method
R
4
, R
5
>> R
1
, R
2
and R
3
to avoid loading effect.
V
1
< v
IN
< V
1
:
v
O
= v
IN
V
2
< v
IN
< V
1
or V
1
< v
IN
< V
2
v
O
= V
1
+ (v
IN
V
1
) R
5
/ (R
4
+ R
5
)
v
IN
< V
2
or V
2
< v
IN
v
O
= V
2
12.9 PRECISION RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
Precision Half-Wave Rectifier (Superdiode)
Operation of super diode:
v
O
= v
I
for v
I
> 0
v
O
= 0 for v
I
< 0
The offset voltage (~0.5V) can be eliminated.
Nonideal characteristics are masked by the loop gain.
Disadvantages:
Reverse bias may damage the input terminals.
Op saturation (open loop) degrades the speed.
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-20
Improved Precision Half-Wave Rectifier
Rectifier operation:
v
I
> 0 : D
1
off, D
2
on v
O
= 0
v
I
< 0 : D
1
on, D
2
off v
O
= (R
2
/ R
1
) v
I
The feedback loop remains closed at all times.
The op amp remains in its linear operation region.
Can prevent the delay due to saturated op amp.
AC Voltage Measurement
The circuit consists of a half-wave rectifier and
a first-order low-pass filter.
Dc component of v
1
is (V
p
/t)(R
2
/R
1
).
The LPF corner frequency should be much smaller than
the input sine wave to reduce error by the harmonics.
Precision Full-Wave Rectifier
Full-wave rectifier is implemented by combining two rectifiers with a common load.
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-21
Diode A is replaced by a superdiode.
Diode B is replaced by the inverting precision half-wave rectifier.
Precision Peak Rectifiers
Buffered Precision Peak Detector
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 12-22
Precision Clamping Circuit