Pergamon Chemical Engineering Science, Vol. 50, No. 14, pp.
2211 2224, 1995
Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain 0009-2509/95 $9.50 + 0.00 0009-2509(95)00088-7 HEAT TRANSFER AND ASSOCIATED ENERGY DISSIPATION FOR OSCILLATORY FLOW IN BAFFLED TUBES M. R. MACKLEY and P. STONESTREET Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cambridge, Pembroke Street, Cambridge CB2 3RA, U.K. (Received 15 Augus t 1994; accepted in revised f o r m 13 February 1995) Abstract--We report experimental data on the heat transfer performance of a periodically baffled tube subject to both steady (net) flow and oscillatory flow. The data show that, in particular, at a low net flow Reynolds number, significant heat transfer enhancement can be achieved with the superposition of fluid oscillations. A general correlation is derived for the measured Nusselt number as a function of both net flow and oscillatory Reynolds number. Dynamic pressure drop data for oscillatory flow are also reported, and estimates of energy efficiency for obtaining heat transfer enhancement made from these measurements are compared with smooth wall turbulent flow equations. For large amplitudes of oscillation (equivalent to half the tube diameter) the overall power dissipation follows the quasi-steady theory. At smaller amplitudes of oscillation the power dissipation was larger than predicted by the quasi-steady theory, indicating an increased eddy interaction. INTRODUCTION Heat transfer by forced convection in tubular systems is dependent on the flow conditions in the tube and the heat transfer characteristics for turbulent and laminar flow in smooth walled tubes are well estab- lished and predicted by the Dittus Boelter and Sieder Tate correlations respectively [see for example Kay and Nedderman (1980), Holman (1976)]. When the flow is fully turbulent, rates of heat transfer are rela- tively high due to the presence of radial mixing. At intermediate and especially, lower tube velocities where the flow is laminar, radial flow is not present and rates of heat transfer are correspondingly re- duced. A method for improving tube heat transfer is to use static mixer inserts which can modify the flow, and promote radial mixing (an improvement in conduc- tive heat transfer probably occurs as well). Designs vary, ranging from a simple helical coil insert, to a more complex design such as proprietary "wire matrix" inserts (Oliver and Soji, 1993). While this approach is often successful, the flow conditions ob- tained with a particular static mixer is ultimately a function of the bulk (net) flow velocity, and control of heat transfer is dictated by this parameter. An alternative method for efficient mixing in tubes is to apply an oscillatory flow to tubes which are periodically baffled. The oscillatory flow promotes chaotic mixing in the tube, of which radial velocity components are significant (Brunold e t al . , 1989; Howes e t al., 1991). An advantage of this system is that mixing effects are decoupled from the mean flow velocity, since it is determined by the superposition of the fluid oscillations which can be precisely controlled by varying frequency or amplitude of oscillation. The use of oscillatory flow for heat transfer en- hancement has already been investigated by Baird e t al . (1966), and by Kiel and Baird (1971), who exam- ined the effect on the overall heat transfer coefficient of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger by flow oscillations on the tube-side. The tubes were unbaffled and a small enhancement effect was observed, and correlated to oscillation frequency. Examples of similar experi- ments can be found in the literature, see for example, West and Taylor (1952), Mizushina e t al . (1972), and Gupta e t al . (1982). More recently, heat transfer en- hancement was investigated by Mackley e t al . (1990). Fluid oscillations were superimposed on a steady net flow on the tube side of a shell-and-tube heat ex- changer, in which periodically spaced orifice-type baffles were inserted. A sevenfold increase in tube-side Nusselt number was achieved (relative to steady, un- baffled flow) in a tube subjected to a low Reynolds number, R e , bulk flow ( R e < 200). The aim of this present study is to extend the preliminary findings of Mackley e t al . (1990). This paper reports the results of experiments to determine the heat transfer enhancement that could be achieved under both steady and oscillatory flow conditions for a single phase fluid in a conventional shell-and-tube heat exchanger containing periodic baffles. A full range of frequencies and amplitudes are explored and a heat transfer correlation derived. The power dissipa- tion required to achieve the oscillatory mixing is evaluated and related to the heat transfer enhance- ment. The power dissipation of oscillatory flow is compared to quasi-steady theory (Jealous and Johnson, 1955). Power dissipation is also determined in relation to the heat transfer enhancement, and compared to the effect of turbulent flow mixing in smooth walled tubes. 2211 2212 BACKGROUND AND THEORY Oscillatory flows can be characterised by three parameters. The first is the oscillatory Reynolds num- ber or peak Reynolds number given as Reo = XocoDv i (1) where Xo is the centre-to-peak amplitude, co the fre- quency of oscillation, D is the tube diameter, and v the kinematic viscosity. If there is an additional (external) net flow in the tube, a net flow Reynolds number is defined as: R e , = U D v - 1 (2) where U is the mean net flow velocity. In steady flow the Reynolds number is the indicator of the relative importance of inertial and viscous forces. However, when there is unsteady flow, the relative importance of these two forces is not constant, and an additional parameter is used to describe the flow, called the Strouhal number D Sr = (3) 4~rxo " I n this form the Strouhal number represents an amplitude ratio, as used by Sobey (1980), rather than the alternative Xoco/U for smooth tubes [see Schlicht- ing (1979)]. We choose an orifice type baffle geometry that has been shown in previous work to be effective for fluid mixing and heat transfer (Brunoid e t al., 1989; Mackley e t al., 1989). The baffle spacing employed is 1.5 tube diameters, and the constriction ratio of each baffle is S = 0.6, where S = (Do~D) 2, D is the tube internal diameter, and Do is the orifice diameter. HEAT TRANSFER EX PERI MENTS The heat transfer efficiency can be determined by evaluating the heat transfer coefficient h, expressed as a dimensionless number, the Nusselt number, Nu: ht D Nu , - (4) k where D is the tube i.d., k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid, and h, is the (tube side) heat transfer coefficient. This is determined from the measured heat transfer coefficient, for the shell-and-tube heat ex- changer, given by the following equation: 1 1 D O l n ( Of f D) Uo - h, 1- ~ + 2 k ~ (5) Uo is the overall heat transfer coefficient (ignoring "fouling factors"), k~ is the thermal conductivity for the tube wall material (stainless steel), D~ is the outside tube diameter, and h~ is the shell side heat transfer coefficient. Uo is related to heat flux as follows: Q = A U o A T l m : Qoi l = m' Cl , ATo i l (6) where ATu. is the log mean temperature difference (LMTD) of the heat exchanger, A To, the temperature difference of tube side oil over the tube length, m' the M. R. MACKLEY and P. STONESTREET time averaged mass flow rate of the tube-side oil, Cp the specific heat capacity of the oil, and A the total area for heat transfer based on the tube i.d. For the entire length of the tube, the LMTD is given by AT2 - ATx (Tout - T1) - (Tin - T2) ATI m- I n [ A T 2 / A T 1 ] l n[ ( Tout - T O / ( T i . - T2)] where Tout and Ti. are the oil temperatures leaving and entering the heat exchanger, respectively, and T~ and T2 are the water temperatures entering and leav- ing the shell side, respectively. Note: it is assumed that all the temperatures are time averaged bulk temper- atures. Substituting into eq. (6), this gives the follow- ing equation for Uo: Uo __ m ' C p A T o i l l n[ ( To~t - Tx ) / ( Ti . - 7"2)] (7) A (ATo, + ATwater) Uo is then determined experimentally and the tube side Nusselt number is calculated using eq. (5) as fol- lows: 1 k _ o . [ _ 1 O O l n ( O , / O ! ] N u t - D LUo O~ , 2ks, l ' (8) To calculate the wall resistance for 1 mm stainless steel, it was assumed that k~s = 16. The shell-side heat transfer coefficient, h,, is assumed constant and is estimated by plotting 1/Uo vs 1~Re m, where m is deter- mined iteratively, h~ was estimated at 1800Wm -2 C- 1 at the intercept 1~Re '7 = 0 which corresponds to infinitely small tube side resistance. This was in close agreement with a value obtained by Mackley et al. (1990) for earlier experiments. Comparison of the experimentally determined Nusselt number, Nu t will be made with existing cor- relations for smooth walled tubes. Re,, < 2100 Nu , = 1.86 [ R e P r ( D / Z ) ] ~/3(#/#w)'a4 (Kay and Nedderman, 1985) 2100 < R e < 10,000 N u , = 0.116IRe - 1 2 5 ] ( Pr ) :/3 x [1 + ( O/ Z) Z/ 3]( l a/ l aw) ~" (Levenspiel, 1984) R e > 10,000 Nu t = O. 023( Re) ' a( Pr ) l / 3( #/ #w) ' 14 (Holman, 1976). EQ UI PMENT A l aborat ory scale shell-and-tube heat exchanger was used for both the heat transfer experiments and the power dissipation experiments. A schematic dia- gram of the experimental apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. The heat exchanger was installed in a horizontal ori- entation to be used in single pass, counter-current mode. The tube used was a 12 mm i.d. stainless steel pipe with a wall thickness of I mm. The active length o il return water in Heat transfer and associated energy dissipation [ i i i i i i i i i i i l 12mm i. d . b a ffle d tu b e 2213 Isometric of baffles tube insert 18 rnm i ~ 1 1 ~ 7 r n m 11.5 rnm O scilla tin g P istons t f Oscillation d ire ctio n W ater o u t " " [ flowmeter , TI D r iv e h u b D isplacem ent transducer KEY Ti~ermoco,Jple q- - D Pressure b'ansducer non re tu rn valve ~ - - e le c tro n ic lin k T ube in te rn a l d ia m e te r: 1 2 .0 rnrn CHURCHILL o il heater/pum p Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the apparatus used for heat transfer and pressure drop experiments. was 1 m. The shell diameter was 80 mm. Tap water at mains pressure was used in the shell as the cooling medium. A constant flow rate of approximately 101min-~ was maintained on the shell side. A mineral oil, Shell Tellus R10, was used as the active fluid in the tube. The oil is a Newtonian fluid and has the properties of p = 840 kgm -3, k = 0.137 Wm- ~ C -1, and / ~=0. 005Pas at 50C. A Con- air-Churchill oil heater-circulator was used for the oil heating and bulk flow transport in the heat ex- changer tube. Fluid oscillations within the tube were provided by an electric motor driving two horizon- tally opposed pistons, operated by a connecting rod and yoke arrangement. Hydraulic hosing of equal lengths connected each piston to either end of the heat exchanger tube. As the motor turned, the crank and yoke caused one side to apply a positive pressure to the fluid while the other moved exactly 180 out of phase with the first piston to apply a negative pres- sure. The speed (frequency) was adjusted electroni- cally, and the amplitude was set by adjusting the connecting rod pivot point on the motor hub. The resultant time-dependant displacement was measured by a calibrated displacement transducer attached to the piston yoke. Four K-type, 2 mm diameter thermocouples were used to measure temperature. The specification of each thermocouple-instrumentation was 0.IC res- olution, 0.2% accuracy in the range 0-100C, and a response time of approximately 0.4 s to approach 65% of a 100C step change. The calibration of each thermocouple was checked before installation for lin- earity, and once per week for drift. Each ther- mocouple was inserted together with a short section of dense wire mesh in the tube to ensure that an average bulk temperature was measured. The temper- atures measured were the oil inlet-outlet to the tube, and the water inlet-outlet to the shell. The volumetric flow rate was determined using a "Litremeter" helical gear, positive displacement flow meter, which is able to measure the absolute value of flow rate, indepen- dent of viscosity effects. The resolution of the flow meter was 0.01 I mi n- 1, with an accuracy of0.1% and a repeatability of 0.01% for the range 0-10 l mi n-~. The analogue signals corresponding to temperature and flow rate were connected to an analogue-to- digital converter (ADC), which, in turn, was con- nected to an IBM-compatible 486 computer. The digital resolution was 0.1% of the full scale of any measured value. This recorded the data from each channel on to a disk ASCII file. All heat transfer results were calculated by a Pascal program and the output data files were subsequently manipulated by graphics software. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Before a set of experiments, the oil heater and pump were activated, and the oil was allowed to re-circulate until the desired temperature of 70C was attained. A constant net flow rate through the heat exchanger was set using the flow meter and adjusting inlet and outlet valves to maintain a severe flow constriction at each valve. These constrictions, coupled with a non- return valve at both the inlet and the outlet, ensured (as far as possible) that the propagation of the oscilla- tion occurred only in the heat exchanger. This was confirmed by a steady-reading observed on the up- stream flow meter. Note: it is possible that, while the 2214 time averaged net flow was constant, a slight pulsing of the net flow occurred because of the effect of the main tube oscillations on the non-return valves (unde- tectable by the flow meter). However, this would probably not affect the temperature measurements, which were made in a section of insulated pipe where no heat transfer occurred. For all the experiments, a constant shell-side water flow rate was maintained, and it was assumed that the shell side heat transfer coefficient was constant for every run. For each change of flow conditions (oscilla- tory or steady net flow), the average Nusselt number for the tube was calculated from the recorded data corresponding to steady-state operation, i.e. where the thermocouple and flow meter values had become steady. Furthermore, values of p, la, Cp, Re, , Reo, and Pr were calculated on the basis of the length averaged tube side temperature at the particular steady net flow rate of the oil within the active length of the heat exchanger tube. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The first set of experiments were performed to de- termine the heat transfer characteristics of the stan- dard case of smooth tube, and to determine the effect of the baffles relative to the smooth tube where the flow of oil in the tube was steady (non-oscillatory). Figure 2 shows the relationship of the (tube-side) Nus- selt number, Nu, , to Re . for the non-oscillatory mode of operation. It can be seen that in both cases Nu, increased as the steady flow, Re . , increased but the effect was much greater for the baffled tube. The M. R. MACKLEY and P. STONESTREET maximum Nusselt number obtained was Nu, = 95 at Re. ~ 800, which is a fivefold improvement over the standard case at the same value of Re. . With steady flow only, the addition of baffles to a smooth tube results in a significant improvement in heat transfer. These results are in general agreement with those given by Mackley et al. (1990). The similar effect has been also observed with the use of proprietary tube inserts, such as wire matrix inserts investigated by Oliver and Soji (1993). The second set of experiments was performed to investigate the effect of oscillatory flow on the heat transfer characteristics of the baffled tube relative to a smooth tube. In all the experiments, a small, fixed steady-flow component was maintained, correspond- ing to Re, = 130. For the first oscillatory flow experi- ment, the amplitude was fixed at 6 mm ( St = 0.16) and the frequency varied from 2-10 Hz to give a range of Reo. Figure 3 shows the results of these experiments and demonstrates that significant heat transfer en- hancement occurs when fluid oscillation is combined with the presence of baffles. At Reo = 760 it can be seen that the Nusselt number for baffled-oscillatory flow is of order 95, whereas for the smooth tube it is of order 20. Compared to earlier experiments (Mackley et al., 1990), the Nu values for the baffled-oscillatory flow are of order 20% greater for the same oscillatory Reynolds number (Reo), although the same general behaviour is observed. Further experiments were performed by selecting different oscillation frequencies at various fixed ampli- tudes. Figure4 shows the results as a plot of the 100 =- Z o o~ Z 80 60 40 20 O O o o oo o o O , o 0 0 0 0 0 ~ , o o . . , ~ 8 d ~ oo~O o o o o o O t 1 ~ ~ " , , , I h , , I , I I I 200 400 600 800 1000 Net flow Reynolds number, Re n (tube) o smooth tube o baffled tube 0 i 0 1200 1400 Fig. 2. Comparison of the heat transfer obtained for a smooth tube and a baffled tube for steady (non-oscillatory) flow. =- Z .g E e- o~ Z 100 80 60 40 20 Heat transfer and associated energy dissipation I I I o o o B o [] Baffled tube smooth tube J ~ , I t ~ J I , , t [ J , , I J , 0 2 0 0 4 0 0 6 0 0 8 0 0 1000 Oscillatory Reynolds number, Re Fig. 3. Comparison of the heat transfer obtained in a smooth tube and a baffled tube where an oscillatory flow is superimposed on a low Re bulk flow: Ren = 130, Sr = 0.16. 2215 100 Z o e~ Z 10 O X O + X o . ? O X A 6 R e n = 1 3 0 O St r = 0. 27 ( Xo= 3. 5 r a m) X St r = 0. 21 ( x0- - 4. 5 mm) + St r - - 0. 18 ( Xo= 5. 2 r a m) A Str=0.16 (Xo--6.0 ram) Str=0.14 (x0=6.5 ram) 0. 1 1 O)X o Fig. 4. Tube side heat transfer as a function of maximum oscillatory velocity for oscillatory baffled flow with a low Re bulk flow, where Re, = 130. Nussel t number , Nut, vs t he maxi mum osci l l at ory velocity, xoto, obt ai ned for five different ampl i t udes. On t he di agr am, t he St r ouhal number is i ndi cat ed as well as t he ampl i t ude. I t can be seen t hat var yi ng t he ampl i t ude has onl y a smal l effect; al t hough t here is some scatter, t he dat a poi nt s all lie fairly close t o- gether. The maxi mum Nussel t number obt ai ned is of or der Nut = 100 at xoco = 0.41, whi ch is vi rt ual l y a 10-fold i ncrease over t he non- osci l l at or y resul t (at t he same Ren). Var yi ng t he frequency has a st r ong 2216 M. R. MACKLEY and P. STONESTREET effect on the heat transfer. For example, where Xo = 4.5 mm at a frequency of oscillation of 2 Hz (COXo = 0.056), the Nusselt number obt ai ned was of order 17, whereas at f = 11 Hz (ogx o = 0.31), the value is approximately 93. It is obvi ous that the heat trans- fer is dependent on oscillatory velocity ffox,), and that a desired Nu, can be obt ai ned by choosing a high enough frequency for any given ampl i t ude (obviously within practical limits). I n order to determine the effect of the bul k flow rate on the oscillatory flow heat transfer, experiments were performed in which the flow rate was varied for each of a number of different oscillation frequencies at a fixed ampl i t ude of 6.4 mm. Re, was varied in the range 100-1200 which was the practical upper limit of the oil circulator. The results are shown in Fig. 5, in which dat a are plotted as Nusselt number vs Re, for a number of different oscillatory condi t i ons in the baffled tube. The points for Reo values depicted cor- respond to f = 0, 4, 6, 8, and 10 Hz for Reo = O, 300, 450, 680 and 800, respectively. It can be seen that for a given Reo, the heat transfer rate increases with increasing Re,, and that for a given Re,, the heat transfer is greater for a higher Reo. It can be seen that at large values of Re., the oscillatory curves tend asymptotically towards the steady-flow curve, be- cause the net flow component becomes much larger relative to the oscillatory flow component for higher net flow rates I n addition, at low values of net flow, high rates of heat transfer are still obt ai nabl e (Nu > 100) provided the oscillatory flow component is present. For Reo = 800 the first dat a poi nt corres- ponds to where Re, = 130, and it can be seen that the Nusselt number is of order 120. For the steady flow, smoot h t ube case Nu ~ 4 for the same value of Re,, and thus oscillatory baffled flow resulted in a 30-fold increase in heat transfer. This is a significant enhance- ment. I n the extreme case it is expected that if the Reo curves were extrapolated back to where Re, = 0, good heat transfer woul d still take place, as the mixing effect of oscillatory flow is still present. This would correspond to a batch heat transfer situation. Figure 5 also shows a correlation which was fitted to the experimental data. The correlation is as follows: Nu, = 0.0035 Re~'3 prl/3 + 0.3 [(Re, Re22 1 ( 9 ) This fits the dat a well, although it is acknowledged that it is a purely phenomenol ogi cal model. The first term of the correlation corresponds to the steady-flow cont ri but i on to heat transfer, and is deliberately chosen to be similar to the well-known Di t t us Boelter t urbul ent flow equat i on, but the exponent of Re, is greater to account for the presence of baffles in the tube. Note: the Pr number was calculated for each experiment, but the dependence of Nu on Pr was not specifically determined. An expression for the wall viscosity effect has not been included because the significance of this term could not be determined within the scope of the experiments. The second term accounts for the additional oscillatory behaviour, by assumi ng that when Reo >> Re,, the effect of oscillation is superimposed on the steady behavi our by addi ng the oscillatory term to the steady term. I n the case for =- Z , J ~ Z 100 10 r r i _ ~ - _ _ _ _ ~ , I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + - . - R%=S00 " -*-+-+- ~ -~- - ~ " ' * + 7 + - - +- ' - - - +- i t - +- ~ . - - C- ~ / ~ ' O" + @ # _ - ~ - - ' ~ - - / . / . ~ 1~ . - - ~ / . / Re =680~ ~ + + ' - ~ - + - + - ' + ~ 9 . . . . . . - _ Cg- +- ~ " . ~ " Re =450 , 4- o * _ - ~ - . - - Reo=300 ~- - / + ~ ~ - - ~ , / + ~ +" . " 4: / + ~, # . / Steady baffled flow / 4- +/ + Experimental data - - - - correlation (Eq. 9) . . . . . . . i z a . . . . . . . . . . . . t ~ t Z . L . 100 11300 Net flow Reynolds number, Re n Fig. 5. Experimental and predicted tube side heat transfer as a function of both Reo and bulk flow Re, for a bamed tube. Heat transfer and associated energy dissipation steady flow ( Reo =0) , the equation is simply N u t = 0.0035 p r l / 3 Re ~. "3, and this is plotted on the bot t om curve giving good agreement with the experi- mental points. Similarly, when Re . >>Re o, the oscilla- tory term is small in relation to the steady term, and the curve collapses onto the steady flow behaviour. While obviously the correlation was only fitted for measured N u values within the experimental range of R e . and Re o, it displays the correct behaviour that could be extended somewhat outside the experimental range of R e . and Reo. Figure 6 shows a plot of eq. (9) plotted against standard heat transfer correlations for the flow of the oil in a smooth tube heat exchanger of the same dimensions, which gives an overview of the heat trans- fer regimes corresponding to different types of flow behaviour. As can be seen from Fig. 6, oscillatory flow can provide similar heat transfer rates to those pos- sible with smooth wall turbulent flow, but in the range R e , = 100-1200. The results in Fig. 6 show one of the significant process advantages of using oscillatory flow in a baffled tube. Whereas turbulent flow is usually required in smooth tube devices to obtain acceptable heat transfer, Fig. 6 shows that the re- quired level of heat transfer can be selected by choos- ing an appropriate value of oscillation amplitude and frequency. This allows the freedom to choose the appropriate net flow to give the required residence time or throughput within a given tube. I n particular, high heat transfer (i.e. N u > 100) and long residence times (z ~ rain h) can be achieved in tubes of modest length (Z ~ meters). 2217 POWER DISSIPATION M ode l l i n9 The oscillator acts on the fluid to give the following variations of displacement, x, velocity, u, and acceler- ation, a: x = - Xo cos (cot) (10a) u = xo~o sin (tot) (10b) a = xoo~ 2 cos (rot). (10c) The time periodic flow will result in a correspond- ing unsteady pressure gradient. For oscillatory flows in smooth tubes, the relationship between velocity and pressure gradient is evaluated using unsteady boundary-layer theory, see for example Edwards and Wilkinson (1971) or Schlichting (1979). For oscilla- tory flow in a baffled tube, however, we assume that the frictional component in the flow results mainly from the cumulative effect of flow through each ori- rice, rather than from events at the wall. At any instant in time the pressure along the tube (relative to the dat um pressure) is assumed to be a linear function of length. This is illustrated in Fig. 7. For a fluid direc- tion from left to right, the left side is under high pressure, while the right is under negative pressure (the pistons operate 180 out of phase). Under these conditions the pressure at point 1 shows a positive peak relative to the datum, and at point 2 a negative peak (at the same time instant). Thus, for normalised distance along the tube: p = p= sin ~b(l - 2f) + p' ( i t ) 1ol)o Z 100 o e~ E Z Z "~ IO .8 [..., ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 1 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 1 Oscillations + ba f f l e s , ~ Re--3(X)-800 - + . + V + ~ . + ~ f ~ + + . + + - + + * + + + ++ ++ ~ r i f i c e ba f f l e s onl y
t - e e e + Laminar regime ( Si ~ l e r Ta t e ) x O Transitional , , , , , , , x x x x x Turbulent (Dittus Boelter) l i i i i L J t i [ i i = J L i L i i i i i J J L i 100 1000 10000 100000 Bulk flow Reynolds number, Re n Fig. 6. Comparison of oscillatory flow heat transfer correlation to standard heat transfer correlation for smooth tubes. 2218 I O Pl Pi = psin~ 4 ~- x g=x/Z M. R. MACKLEV and P. STONESTREET dt~ p+dp Pressure gradient--dp/dg
P2 p2 = -PmSin~ Pm P -Pm ~/ p=pm(1-2g), sin~=l ~ ~ _ ~ p=PmSin~(1-2g) ~ p=pm(1-2e), sin~--1 Pm -Pm Fig. 7. lllustration of pressure-time behaviour along the length of a baffled tube subjected to oscillatory flow. where p' is the mean pressure, f is the normalised length (0 < d < 1), and sin ~b =f(t ), where the form of is still to be specified. Thus, for d = 0, p =Pm sin q~, and ~ = 1, p = - p, sin q~, and we define a time-de- pendent pressure difference between positions 1 and 2: Ap(t) = 2pro sin 4- More generally, Ap(t) = Apo sin ~b (12) where Apo is the overall pressure difference between positions 1 and 2. The power at any instant is a function of the pres- sure gradient and the instantaneous superficial velo- city which is assumed constant over the length of the tube: P ( t ) = a c u ( t ) A p o sin ~b (13) where ac is the cross-sectional tube area. The instan- taneous power given by eq. (13) is more usefully ex- pressed by the time-averaged power: ac u ( t ) A p o sin q~dt o P.ve = (14) T where T is the period of oscillation (T = 2 n / t o ) . The power density is obtained by dividing eq. (14) by the system volume, and substituting eq. (10b) for the fluid superficial velocity: acxoto I ~T sin (tot)Apo sin 4) dt (W m- 3). e v = V T .Jo 05) To obtain an expression for ~b, it is convenient to define a phase shift between pressure and velocity, defined as 6: Ap(t) = Apo sin ~b = Apo sin (tot + 3) (16) where Apo is the maximum pressure fluctuation (centre-to-peak). Applying a trigonometric expansion to eq. (16), we obtain: Apo sin (tot + 6) = Apo sin (3)cos (tot) + Apo cos (6)sin (tot). (17) Substituting eq.(17) into eq. (15), we obtain the following: A p o x o t o cos(6) f ~ sin2 (tot) dt e v- Z where Z is the tube length (m). After integration, this reduces to: 1 Apo c o s ( 6 ) x o t o e,~ = 2 Z (18) Heat transfer and associated energy dissipation From which the power density may be determined. For a particular experiment the phase angle, t$, is obtained by measuring the time difference between the peak of the pressure trace and the velocity trace on a plot of Ap, u, x vs time, and determining the fraction of a complete cycle (in radians) which this time differ- ence represents. Quasi-steady theory f or power density For oscillatory flows it has been a common practice to assume "quasi-steady" behaviour (Jealous and Johnson, 1955). This model assumes that the frictional pressure drop in a time-periodic flow at a certain instantaneous velocity is assumed to be identical to the pressure drop that would be obtained at a steady velocity of the same magnitude of the instantaneous velocity. The maximum frictional pressure drop is obtained according to the standard pressure drop relation across an orifice (at high Reynolds numbers), i.e.: np(tOXo)2(1/S 2 -- 1) Apl 0 = 2Co2 (19) where n is the number of baffles and Co orifice coeffi- cient (usually assumed to be 0.6). The power density for quasi-steady flow is given by: 2np(toxo)3(l/S 2 - 1) (20) ev = 37rC 2 Z Graphical determination of power dissipation For the area traced out on a pressure-displacement diagram, we can define energy dissipation per cycle, Ec where: = ac~Ap( t ) dx. (21) Ec By measuring the area from actual Ap vs x plots, one is able to calculate the power density a , acf a , f e ~ - - - ( 2 2 ) V Z where a= is the measured area andf i s the frequency of oscillation (Hz). The value of ev so obtained can be compared to the value obtained by eq. (18). The two values should be in close agreement. EXPERIMENTAL ME T H O D S Power density (W m-3) was determined for oscilla- tory flow by measuring the time-dependent pressure fluctuations in the same heat exchanger used in the heat transfer experiments. The pressure fluctuations were measured with two Druck model 810 pressure transducers. These transducers contain a solid state silicon strain gauge and thin diaphragm in direct contact with the fluid. With the associated instrumen- tation these devices are accurate to within 0.1% of the full scale capacity (3 bar), and the expected 15 Hz maximum frequency of the pressure fluctuations are well within the 2000 Hz bandwidth. The outputs from 2219 the pressure transducer instrumentation and the dis- placement transducer were connected to an ADC and a 486 computer was used to record the pressure-time and displacement-time data to a disk file. The corres- ponding power density calculations were performed using a spreadsheet program. Before each experiment was made, the system pres- sure was equilibrated by opening the bleed valve to the system and the transducer conditioners individ- ually zeroed. The oil was then allowed to circulate through the tube to force air to escape through the bleed valve. The bleed valve was then closed. For oscillatory measurements, it was found necessary to pressurise the tube to a constant mean pressure of 50 kPa to avoid cavitation. In order to obtain the pressure-time behaviour uniquely for oscillatory flow in the active length (i.e. where heat transfer took place), and also to avoid effects from various components in the external flow circuit, all oscillatory flow experiments were con- ducted for a closed system (no net flow). The pressure drop at different (steady) net flow rates (i.e. where no oscillatory flow was imposed) was determined in a separate experiment. The protocol was to select a particular amplitude within a range 1-7 mm and then carry out a frequency sweep from 3 Hz to as high a value as was practical. Usually, it was possible to reach up to 15 Hz at small amplitudes (1-2 mm), but at the larger amplitudes it was not possible to go beyond 10 Hz, as the pressure fluctuations exceeded the range of the pressure transducers. In total, fre- quency sweeps for 6 amplitudes were performed, at approximately 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 mm. This corres- ponded to a Strouhal number range of 0.15-0.9. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figure 8 shows typical directly measured data of the pressure and displacement both plotted against time. The data shown are for a 4 mm amplitude at 10 Hz oscillation frequency. The pressure traces p~ and P2 are the direct output from the transducers and are shifted upwards on the diagram due to the system pressure of 50 kPa gauge. Because of the "push-pull" action of the oscillator, the pressure traces from the transducers are inverted with respect to each other. The output from the transducer closest to the com- pressing piston shows an increase in pressure, whereas the downstream transducer (closest to the expanding piston) registers a decrease in pressure relative to the datum. The thick solid line on the diagram is the net pressure fluctuation, Ap, obtained by the difference of the two pressure transducers. Data were found to be highly reproducible, provided all air bubbles were excluded from both the oil and the pressure trans- ducer ports. From Ap vs t and x vs t data, it is possible to calculate the power density by eq. (18). It is necessary to measure the phase angle, 6, and this can be ob- tained directly from Fig. 8, where 6 is the phase lead of pressure with respect to velocity, or where x = 0. For 2220 M.R. MACKLEY and P. STONESTREET 100 50 -50 I &P= P 1 - P2 oe F ; I I I ~ i! I, ". " mi e I % f : %. : . a o P2 (gauge) -0- P1 (gauge) . . . . . . . x (ram) -2 -4 -6 - 1 0 0 - 8 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 Time (s) Fig. 8. Pressure-time, displacement-time and velocity-time data for an oscillatory flow pressure drop experiment. > the dat a presented in Fig. 8, the time difference be- tween the pressure peak and x = 0 is 0.007 s, and thus = 0.007 x (2~f) = 0.53 radians. The peak pressure is approximately 75 kPa, Omo = 0. 24ms -1, and the power density can then be calculated [eq. (18)] as 7807 W m -3. These calculations are performed for each experiment. Figure 9 shows typical pressure vs displacement curves for oscillatory flow. For the purposes of illus- tration only three plots are shown, corresponding to frequencies of 6, 10 and 12 Hz at a fixed amplitude of 3.2 mm, although obviously such figures were ob- tained for every experiment. I t can be seen that the shape of the plots approximate a tilted ellipse. An interesting phenomenon is observed for the data at 6 Hz. The measured plot of Ap vs x collapses to cusps at each extreme of x. This suggests that no net energy dissipation occurs over the outer parts of the oscilla- tion stroke. This may be due to the unwinding of a vortex around the baffle edge as the flow changes direction, resulting in some recovery of energy. This effect is not observed at higher frequencies, at which the flow is presumably more chaotic. From the area of each pressure-displacement plot, the power can be determined. Taking the 10 Hz plot as an example, the area corresponds to the work done per cycle, and the power density is calculated accord- ing to eq. (22) to be approximately 7750 W m- 3. This agrees well with the calculated value of 7807 W m- 3 calculated from eq. (18). A number of such calcu- lations were performed, all with good agreement be- tween the two methods, and consequently the power density for the rest of the experiments was calculated according to eq. (23), which is a simpler method than measuring the area for each Lissajou diagram for each experiment. Dat a for all the power density experiments, corres- ponding to frequency sweeps at six different ampli- tudes are shown in Fig. 10 (note: this is for Re , = 0). Also shown is the power density that would be ob- tained from the quasi-steady state time-averaged power model [eq. (20)]. It can be seen that the results for the highest amplitude (6.4 mm) are only slightly greater than the quasi-steady model prediction; how- ever as the amplitude is reduced the frictional pressure drops generally exceed prediction. This trend was also observed by Hafez and Baird (1978) in their measure- ments of the power consumption in a reciprocating plate column. I n that case the operating frequencies did not exceed 3.5 Hz and the lowest amplitude was 3.5 mm, so the effect was less pronounced than in the present work. It is interesting to relate the observed power density behaviour to the Sr number, where the flow is non- quasi-steady, the amplitude is small and therefore the Sr large (0.5-0.9). At larger amplitudes the quasi- steady behaviour is approached, and the Sr numbers are correspondingly small. This agrees with the work of Sobey (1983) who investigated flow separation with oscillatory flow in furrowed channels. Although the Sr employed by Sobey is defined slightly differently, it was nevertheless found that at sufficiently low Sr numbers the flow was quasi-steady, while at larger Strouhal val,ms, the flow was described as an "un- Heat transfer and associated energy dissipation 2221 70 50 ~r , ' j ~ - ' ~ ~ ~ ' ~ .lO -70 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 Displacement, x (ram) Fig. 9. Pressure-displacement plots for three different oscillatory flow pressure drop experiments, where xo = 3.2 mm. 10000 1000 ~ ~oo 10 Quasi-steady , , , , i [ , , , , , 0.1 COx o Fig. 10. Power density as a function of maximum oscillatory velocity for experimental data and predicted by the quasi-steady-model. steady separated flow". I t is possible that similar re- gimes exist for oscillatory flow i n baffled tubes. Where Sr = 0.16, the power density indicates the flow follows more or less the quasi-steady prediction, whereas for Sr > 0.2, the quasi-steady prediction is not valid. I n order to relate the heat transfer obt ai ned in the previous experiments to the energy requirements i n oscillatory flow, the tube-side Nusselt number can be plotted against a normalised power density. This was done as follows: At a part i cul ar value of toxo, the 2222 corresponding Nu value is obtained from Fig. 4, and the oscillatory flow power density from Fig. 10. Be- cause the data in Fig. 4 had a steady-flow component, Ren = 130, we have to add the steady-flow power density component to each value of power density from Fig. 10. The steady-flow power density for the net flow rate corresponding to Ren = 130 was meas- ured as 35 W m-3, but when coupled with the oscilla- tory flow, a correction has to be made for non-linear interactions in the tube. This can be approximated by calculating an enhancement factor for the steady-flow power density given by (Baird, 1994): { 1 + [4 ReofiRe. x)] 3 } 1/3. (23) Using this formula, the enhanced net flow power density was calculated and added to the oscillatory flow power dissipation for each value of cox. It is also useful to rank the heat transfer and power density performance for oscillatory flow alongside the performance for a conventional laminar or turbulent flow. To determine the power density relationship for laminar and turbulent flow regimes in smooth pipes, the power density is calculated for a specific Re. using the friction factor equations (Levenspiel, 1984) For laminar flow: Re2,, i a3 ev = 32 For turbulent flow: (Re./~)3 e~ = 2/ s Dap2 (130 ~ Ren ~ 2100). (2100 ~ Re. <~ 20000). M. R. MACKLEY and P. STONESTREET )e I is the fanning friction factor obtained from a fric- tion factor chart for a smooth walled tube. Using these equations, and the standard heat transfer cor- relations for Nusselt number, we plot Nu vs power density for a given net flow Reynolds number, Re.. All the experimental and calculated ev values were nor- malised by dividing by ev = 6.5 W m-3, which corre- sponded to the power required to maintain a flow rate of Re, = 130 in a smooth tube. This value of Re. was used for the oscillatory flow experiments (see Fig. 4), and thus it was considered appropriate to use the steady-power value at Re. = 130 as the reference value in all cases. Note: We were only interested in the power density values for the flow regimes in the active length of the baffled heat exchanger tube. Any addi- tional frictional losses in the external flow circuit are characteristic of the specific design of an external flow circuit. Also, we did not attempt to evaluate the elec- trical or mechanical efficiency of the oscillator unit, which is a feature inherent to the mechanical design of the unit. Figure 11 shows the Nu vs normalised e,v data for oscillatory flow at two different amplitudes for Ren = 130, and data for turbulent and laminar flow regimes obtained as described previously. Additional data is shown for steady baffled flow. It can be seen from Fig. 11 that oscillatory baffled flow, where (24) xo = 6,4 mm, gives the best heat transfer response (the highest Nu) for a given power number for all the flow regimes shown. Oscillatory flow at this amplitude has been observed to approach quasi-steady behaviour (25) (see Fig. 10). In contrast, where Xo = 3.5 mm, the Nu achievable for a given power input was less than for Z Z O3 100 10 ' ' ' ' ' ' " 1 / x al l ~ P aW 0 c' , , , , , i , i i I f , , i f , , , ] J i , r r l ~ E[ r ~ T w / f i x" ~ Xo= 6.4 mm -x steady flow s mo o t h t ube - Turbulent flow . . . . La mi na r f l OW i i J , , ~ l l i , i I J , l , I i _~ i i 1, 1, 1 i i J t t J , , I , i i i l l 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 Relative power density(~v/g ' Re=130 ) Fig. 11. Comparison of the oscillatory bamed flow heat transfer as a function of power density with predicted behaviour for smooth tube steady-flow heat transfer. Heat transfer and associated energy dissipation either oscillatory flow at Xo = 6.4 mm, or for turbulent flow in a smooth tube. For this amplitude the flow was observed to be non-quasi-steady. For the steady flow with baffles the data seem to fall in a transition region, eventually coinciding with the quasi-steady oscillatory flow curve (xo = 6.4 mm) at high power values. This indicates that for non- oscillatory flows in tubes, there is a clear advantage for the use of baffles in favour to a smooth tube, as the heat transfer performance obtained would be higher at a given power input than for either laminar or turbulent flow in a smooth pipe. In general terms, it may be observed from Fig. 11 that oscillatory flow in a baffled tube gives a superior heat transfer performance than a turbulent flow for a given power input. Furthermore, for power values below 800, oscillatory flow can produce a Nusselt number performance that is not accessible to conven- tional steady pipe flow. CONCLUSI ONS It has been shown that oscillatory flow leads to a substantial enhancement in tube-side heat transfer in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. While the presence of baffles in a tube results in heat transfer enhance- ment, the greatest enhancement is obtained where both baffles and oscillations are present. For a broad range of oscillatory conditions tested, it was found that the heat transfer rate was strongly dependent on the product of frequency and amplitude of oscillation and, by choosing a particular frequency and ampli- tude, precise control of heat transfer enhancement can be obtained. The greatest advantage of oscillatory flow appears to be found at low net flow Reynolds numbers (low tube flow rates). It was seen that a 30-fold improve- ment in Nusselt number could be obtained under certain conditions. A correlation was fitted to the experimental oscillatory flow data, and this could be used with confidence to predict the Nu within the range 100 < Re, < 1200, and 0 < Reo < 800. The cor- relation for heat transfer presented in this paper should enable design calculations to be carried out for heat exchange. This, coupled with residence time data (Dickens et al., 1989) and data on the particle suspen- sion characteristics of the type of flow (Mackley et al., 1993) should now provide sufficient information to enable pragmatic reactor design for single and some mixed phase reactions. The heat transfer and power density data presented here illustrates the similarities and differences of oscil- latory flow in baffled tubes to other types of flow. At high net flow, as seen from the heat transfer data given in Fig. 6, the presence of oscillations has a diminishing effect, and the system approaches the non-oscillatory flow behaviour. However, at low net flow rates the presence of flow oscillations significantly alters the (convective) heat transfer behaviour, which suggests a profound effect on the fluid mechanics. It is apparent from the power density data given in Fig. 10, that at small amplitudes of oscillation and 2223 higher frequencies the power density is greater than predicted by the quasi-steady model. We believe the device is operating in a non-quasi-steady regime, where particularly interesting effects have been re- ported in other papers. It has been observed from flow visualisation studies (Brunold et al., 1989; Mackley and Ni, 1994) that complex flow structures and signifi- cant Eddy interaction exist. Effective control over residence time behaviour can also be obtained in this regime (Dickens, 1989), and efficient heat transfer has been demonstrated. I n our opinion this non-quasi- steady operating regime offers a different type of fluid mechanics to either quasi steady or turbulent flow, and we believe that significant process advantage can be found by operating in this regime. Acknowledoements--The authors are indebted to Prof. M. H. I. Baird for valuable discussions regarding the power dissipation work. Financial support from Shell KSLA (Am- sterdam) and the Science and Engineering Research Council (now EPSRC) is gratefully acknowledged. NOTATI ON a acceleration, m s- 2 as measured area of pressure-displacement plot ac cross-sectional area of tube, m 2 Cp specific heat capacity, J kg- ~ C- 1 Co orifice coefficient D tube diameter, m Do orifice diameter, m D~ tube outside diameter, m Ec work done per cycle, J f frequency, Hz L spacing between baffles, m f dimensionless distance m' mass flow rate, kg s-1 n number of baffles P Power, W Pr Prandlt number ( = Cpll/k) Reo oscillatory Reynolds number Ren steady-flow Reynolds number Sr Strouhai number S fractional open area of baffle t time, s T Period of oscillation, s u velocity, m s- t U bulk average velocity, m s- x displacement, m xo amplitude of oscillation (centre-to-peak, m) Z tube length, m Greek c5 Ap Apo Apy Aplo P (0 letters phase angle between pressure and velocity power density, W m- 3 pressure drop, Pa maximum pressure drop, Pa pressure drop due to friction, Pa maximum pressure drop due to friction, Pa kinematic viscosity, m 2 s- 1 density, kg m- 3 viscosity, Pa s angular frequency, radian s- 1 2224 M. 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