Numerous skills to be acquired crowd the math-

ematics curriculum, which sometimes makes the

introduction of cultural relevance just one more
topic to cover in the mathematics program. With
these factors in mind, teachers often ask two
important questions related to culture and
mathematics: (1) Where does culture fit into
mathematics instruction? and (2) How do I,
as a teacher with limited experience with
cultural diversity, reflect culture in my mathemat-
ics program? Teachers must understand that cul-
ture is already a part of the curriculum and that
using a cultural lens to teach mathematics does not
require eliminating important mathematical skills.
Various investigations that infuse mathematics
lessons with cultural relevance can make these
connections with culture more explicit for stu-
dents. In using these investigations, teachers can
begin to integrate culture in small ways at first.
Ultimately, teachers will go on to examine deeper
issues, such as ensuring educational equity,
empowering students, reducing prejudice, and pro-
moting cultural pluralism (Davidman and David-
man 1994).
This article examines the use of patterns and
symmetry as one starting point for integrating cul-
ture into mathematics lessons and describes a
mathematics experience that connects these ideas
140 TEACHING CHILDREN MATHEMATICS
Patricia S. Moyer
Patricia Moyer, pmoyer@gmu.edu, teaches mathematics education courses at George Mason
University, Fairfax, VA 22030-4444. She conducts research in teachers and students uses of
representations in mathematics and preservice and in-service teacher development.
The author wishes to thank Arlene Jackson for the quilt idea.
Patterns
Sym
R e f l e c t i o n s
and
M
any contributions of diverse cultures foster a rich understanding of mathematics. Know-
ing how ones culture has contributed to mathematics and how these contributions
enhance our cultural environment supports the acquisition of mathematical power. How-
ever, discussing culture in mathematics classrooms for a one-week celebration of women in mathematics
or a one-month recognition of the contributions of African Americans is not enough. Cultural learning that
recognizes race, ethnicity, gender, and social class should be woven into the fabric of mathematics lessons
throughout the year. Yet many teachers have limited backgrounds in promoting culturally relevant math-
ematics in meaningful ways.
Copyright 2001 The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc. www.nctm.org. All rights reserved.
This material may not be copied or distributed electronically or in any other format without written permission from NCTM.
for students. By using this theme, teachers will
start to see culture as a part of their current mathe-
matics instruction and may begin to integrate cul-
ture in their lessons in rich and meaningful ways.
Patterns and
Symmetry in Culture
Children should take pride in the contributions of
their ancestors as they learn about other cultures.
Teachers and students can investigate patterns and
symmetry found in the architecture, clothing, pot-
tery, and baskets of many cultures. Pueblo people,
such as the Hopi, pursue weaving and pottery mak-
ing to show their skills in creating intricate details
and fine symmetrical designs. The kente and the
adinkra cloths of the Asante people in Ghana are
also reflections of both cultural values and geomet-
ric skill (Zaslavsky 1994). Adinkra cloths have
bold shapes and patterns that were often created
with carved wooden stamps, resulting in a sym-
metrical design; that is, both halves of the design
were the same. Adinkra means saying good-bye,
and the cloth was originally worn as funeral
apparel.
Early American quilts also exhibit such symme-
try of design and frequent use of geometric shapes
and patterns. Children can use commercially made
blocks or construction-paper cutouts to model
these geometric patterns and symmetrical shapes.
Such materials can also be used to recreate the
detailed floor-tiling patterns found in the Pueblo
homes of the Hopi people (see Lumpkin and
Strong [1995]) or to mirror patterns found on the
palace walls of an ancient Persian king many cen-
turies ago (Zaslavsky 1994). Exploring these geo-
metric designs requires an understanding of the
ways that shapes tessellate and of their line, or
reflectional, and rotational symmetry.
Teachers can share and discuss objects, such as
quilts, pottery, or blankets, that show repeating pat-
terns and symmetry. For example, many Native
American peoples have used rotational symmetry
to produce intricate basket designs (see fig. 1). By
141 NOVEMBER 2001
metry:
o f C u l t u r e
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Basket designs showing rotational symmetry
From GeoSafari: Math of Many Cultures. Copyright 1996 Educational Insights. All rights
reserved.
142 TEACHING CHILDREN MATHEMATICS
studying the patterns in these objects, students can
visualize the concepts of line and rotational sym-
metry (see fig. 2). The class should also discuss
how the patterns reflect the people who created
them and the information that the patterns give us
about the culture. After showing repeating patterns
and symmetry in pottery, baskets, or blankets,
teachers can demonstrate examples of repeating
patterns with various commercially made blocks
and identify those patterns that slide, reflect, or
rotate, thus illustrating the concepts of transforma-
tions and symmetry (Cathcart et al., 2000;
Kennedy and Tipps 2000).
Tessellating patterns are found in Islamic cul-
ture in repeating designs that decorate mosques
and palaces (Zaslavsky 1994) and in Navajo cul-
ture in designs that appear on blankets (Addison-
Wesley Publishing Co. 1993). Show students
examples of tessellating patterns that have ele-
ments that repeat, highlighting the fact that no gaps
or spaces appear between the repeating pieces and
that no pieces overlap. If pattern blocks or other
geometric shapes are available, students can inves-
tigate which shapes tessellate and whether or not
they have line or rotational symmetry. Teachers can
also show students how to create tessellations
using various geometric shapes so that the arrange-
ments fit together as a puzzle would with no spaces
between the blocks (Seymour and Britton 1989)
(see fig. 3). The book A Cloak for the Dreamer
(Friedman 1994) is an excellent introduction to the
concepts of tessellations and symmetry. The story
describes a tailor and his sons, who sew pieces of
cloth together to create cloaks. The cloth must be
pieced together as a puzzle would be to ensure that
the cloaks have no holes or gaps; in other words,
the pieces must tessellate. The pictures in the book
give students an opportunity to see a variety of geo-
metric designs constructed from different shapes.
The Pattern Quilt
After students have had time to explore geometric
shapes and patterns found in various cultures,
they can work together to create a pattern quilt.
The students should select geometric shapes to
create a design that tessellates or demonstrates
line or rotational symmetry. Give each student an
8 1/2-by-11-inch sheet of white copy paper to
create his or her own symmetrical or tessellating
design using various blocks. The design should
fit on the paper, but the edges of some shapes
may extend beyond the paper. Once students
have created their designs, teachers can check
them to make sure that each student has repre-
sented a pattern before tracing. A number of
materials, such as pattern blocks, attribute
blocks, or tangrams, work well for these designs.
The students then use pencils to trace around
each of the blocks in their designs to create pen-
cil drawings of the patterns (see fig. 4). This task
requires students to trace around the blocks care-
fully, removing blocks as they go so that the
blocks do not shift or move out of place during
tracing. The students can trace the pattern blocks
lightly with their pencils, then go back over their
designs once all the tracing is completed. The
students should not use markers or pens for the
tracing, because the darker lines will detract from
the appearance of the final class project.
The next step is for students to use crayons to
color their designs. The students can use hard or
soft strokes with the crayons to make the colors
light or dark (see fig. 5). Encourage the students
to use a variety of colors to improve the aesthetic
quality of the final product. They may also wish
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Symmetry and transformational geometry
From Guiding Childrens Learning of Mathematics, 9th ed., by L. M. Kennedy and S. Tipps. Copyright
2000. Reprinted with permission of Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning. All rights reserved.
From Learning Mathematics in Elementary and Middle Schools, by W. George Cathcart, Yvonne M. Poth-
ier, James H. Vance, and Nadine S. Bezuk, copyright 2000. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. All rights reserved.
Lines of Symmetry Symmetric Design
Transformational Geometry
to leave some areas of their designs as uncolored
white spaces. In the final step, the students will
notice that the crayons will smudge slightly,
which will give their designs a softer appearance.
When students finish their designs, they
should crumple up their papers in a ball as if they
were going to throw the papers into the trash.
After the papers are crumpled, have the students
smooth them out carefully. Crumple the papers
again, and smooth them out carefully again.
Repeat this process of crumpling and smoothing
approximately twenty to thirty times. As this pro-
cedure is repeated, take great care that the paper
does not get torn in the smoothing process. Stu-
dents papers will eventually become soft and pli-
able, making their pieces of paper begin to feel
like pieces of cloth. Because the students have
used pencils and crayons for the designs, the col-
ors will blend, creating a visual effect in which
the lines in the designs are somewhat blurred and
the paper has a softer, more worn appearance.
When all the students have crumpled their
designs to the point at which the paper begins to
feel like cloth, they are ready to create a class
quilt. Place the designs on the floor to determine
the best arrangement. Some students may have
used blue as the predominant color in their
designs, and the class may not want to place all
the predominantly blue designs together on the
quilt (see fig. 6). Finally, the quilt can be pieced
together using masking tape. The teacher should
also tape around the outside edges of the quilt to
protect the final product. The finished quilt can
be taped or stapled to a dowel rod and displayed
in the classroom, serving as a constant reminder
of the tessellations and symmetrical designs cre-
ated by the students (see fig. 7).
After students have identified the geometric
characteristics in their designs, teachers can point
out that geometry is often reflected in the fabric
designs of many cultures. Many people save left-
over pieces of cloth or cloth from worn-out gar-
ments to make into coats, cloaks, or patchwork
quilts. A cloth quilt or pictures of quilts can be
shown as helpful examples for the students. Tell
students that quilts, as well as many other fabrics,
often express meaning through their woven
designs. Sometimes quilts with certain designs are
given to a bride and groom as a wedding present
and are handed down through the generations.
Conclusion
Throughout the school year, students can collect
and record various representations of patterns and
symmetry in their everyday experiences and dis-
cuss the connections of these representations with
143 NOVEMBER 2001
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3
Tessellations of regular polygons
From Introduction to Tessellations by Seymour and Britton. Copyright 1989 by Dale
Seymour Publications. Used by permission. All rights reserved.
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Tracing the block design
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144 TEACHING CHILDREN MATHEMATICS
culture. Teachers can initiate discussions about
what it means to be part of a cultural group. Com-
mon cultural groups might include identity by race,
ethnicity, gender, and social class, but children
also belong to many other cultural groups. Teach-
ers can help students recognize that being part of
a religious group, a family, or a community orga-
nization also reflects students cultural identities.
The students can list various cultural groups to
which they belong and reflect on how their mem-
bership in these groups helps to define their own
unique and personal identities.
Teachers should recognize that patterns and
symmetry are commonly reflected in culture and
can easily be linked with the mathematics that
they teach. Making culture explicit for students
may help break down barriers, dispel cultural
myths, and encourage curiosity about the contri-
butions of various cultures to the mathematics
that students learn today. Although making these
connections requires some additional effort by
teachers, doing so is vitally important for stu-
dents in our multiracial and multiethnic society.
By engaging in meaningful investigations of
mathematics and culture, students see reflections
of themselves and learn to appreciate the contri-
butions of others. The collective goals mentioned
at the beginning of this articleensuring educa-
tional equity, empowering students, reducing
prejudice, and promoting cultural pluralism
(Davidman and Davidman 1994)are an impor-
tant part of integrating and expanding multicul-
tural knowledge for teachers and students.
References
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Multiculturalism in Mathemat-
ics, Science, and Technology: Readings and Activities.
Menlo Park, Calif.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1993.
Cathcart, W. George, Yvonne M. Pothier, James H. Vance, and
Nadine S. Bezuk. Learning Mathematics in Elementary
and Middle Schools. Upper Saddle River, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, 2000.
Davidman, Leonard, with Patricia T. Davidman. Teaching with
a Multicultural Perspective: A Practical Guide. White
Plains, N.Y.: Longman Publishing Group, 1994.
Educational Insights. GeoSafari: Math of Many Cultures.
Sacramento, Calif.: Educational Insights, 1996.
Friedman, Aileen. A Cloak for the Dreamer. New York:
Scholastic, 1994.
Kennedy, Leonard M., and Steve Tipps. Guiding Childrens
Learning of Mathematics. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth
Publishing Co., 2000.
Lumpkin, Beatrice, and Dorothy Strong. Multicultural Science
and Math Connections: Middle School Projects and Activ-
ities. Portland, Maine: J. Weston Walch, Publisher, 1995.
Seymour, Dale, and Jill Britton. Introduction to Tessellations.
Palo Alto, Calif.: Dale Seymour Publications, 1989.
Zaslavsky, Claudia. Multicultural Math: Hands-on Math
Activities from around the World. New York: Scholastic,
1994. L
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Coloring the design
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Arranging the quilt pieces
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Displaying the finished quilt
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