Plant and Animal Science in Ancient India: A Survey
Ayurveda also represents Life Sciences like Botany, Zoology, Veterinary Science and Agriculture along with Medicine. Plant Science was known as Vkyurveda and Animal Science as Mgyurveda. Avyurveda and Gajyurveda represent Veterinary Medicine for horses and elephants respectively. Agriculture was known as Kistra. Plant Science in Ancient India Antiquity and continuity Knowledge of plants and agricultural practices are documented in ancient Indian literature. Discussions on plant science can be seen in Vedic literature, the epics and various compendia. Sources Arthastra of Kauilya contains very interesting passages relating to the harvesting and management of crops and crop diseases and very many aspects of agroforestry. Bhat Samhit of Varhamihira composed in the 6 th century CE has an entire chapter devoted to Vkyurveda. Agni Pura also includes a chapter on the topic. Cakrapidatta, a commentator of the celebrated Ayurvedic text, Caraka Sahit, puts forth the theory that plants have feelings and cognitive abilities. There are also independent works on the subject like Suraplas Vkyurveda and Upavana Vinoda of rngadhara. The legacy of Vkyurveda has also been preserved through folk traditions in oral form. The farming and tribal communities constitutes the largest repository of the working knowledge of plant science in India. 230
Folios from the manuscript of Vkyurveda of Surapla, a text on plant science composed in the 10 th century. (Courtesy: Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad) Surapla applied the doa theory to plants (see module on Ayurveda for Life, Health and Well-being) to provide a number of recipes for plant protection and treatment, depending on the particular doa imbalance affecting the plant. Many of the ingredients he lists have been shown to possess antimicrobial properties. Among them are milk (elephant milk at times!), ghee, honey, licorice, cow urine and dung, various liquid manures, mustard, pastes made of various barks and roots, asafoetida, turmeric, sesame oil, salt and ash; the flesh, fat or marrow from various animals (mammals and fish) was also recommended in specific cases. 231
Scope Ayurvedic literature refers to plants and their classification into forest trees, other trees, shrubby plants and herbs. Shrubby plants are either climbers or shrubs as such and herbs are flowering and non-flowering. Flowering and non-flowering trees are also distinguished. Vkyurveda includes topics like collection, selection and storage of seeds, germination and sowing, various techniques of plant propagation and grafting, nursing and irrigation, testing and classification of soil, selection of soils suitable for various plants, types of plants, manuring, pest and disease management, nomenclature and taxonomy, description and classification of plants to suit varied purposes, favourable and unfavourable meteorological conditions, use of plants as indicators of weather, water, and minerals as well as botanical marvels.
Preparation of extract from neem kernels to treat crops against pests and diseases. (Courtesy: Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai) How comprehensive are the topics Vkyurveda deals with? 232
Preparation of extract from garlic, ginger and chilli to treat crops against pests and diseases. (Courtesy: Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai) Validation The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has documented 4,879 indigenous practices in the field of traditional plant science. A set of 111 indigenous technical practices were selected and subjected to experimental testing and validation in efforts that were conducted by several ICAR institutes and state agricultural departments and Universities across the country. These pertain to various topics such as pest control, crop protection, farm implements, weather forecasting etc., and it was shown that slightly more than 80% of these practices were valid and about 6% were partly valid. Vkyurveda promises many new areas for fresh research initiatives like the study of meteorological conditions (tithi, nakatra) that are suitable for various agricultural operations in the cultivation of crops, increasing plant growth and yield, testing and classification of soil and use of plants as indicators for water, minerals and weather. What kind of practical applications could ICARs conclusions lead to? 233
Animal Science in Ancient India Antiquity and continuity The branch of veterinary medicine was well developed in ancient India and was devoted to the well-being of domesticated animals like cows, horses and elephants. Earliest references can be seen in Vedic literature.
(Left) A veterinary surgeon performing surgery on the eye of a horse. (Right) A veterinary surgeon performing bloodletting on a horse. (Courtesy: Wellcome Library, London) 234
Sources Hayyurveda of lihotra is an ancient textbook of veterinary medicine that classifies horses and describes treatments for horses apart from providing accounts of anatomy. lihotra composed many treatises on horses, which were translated into Arabic, Persian and Tibetan. A treatise on Gajyurveda devoted to elephants was composed by Plakpya, which deals with treatment of diseases afflicting elephants. The Mgapakistra by Hamsadeva composed in the 13 th century CE gives fascinating descriptions of animals and birds. Scope The diversity of animal life has been well captured in the ancient literature of India. The canons of Caraka and Suruta classify animals on the basis of their habitat and predatory behaviour. Animals are classified on the basis of habitat into terrestrial, underground, aquatic, aerial and marshy types. Animals are prey snatchers (prasaha), peckers (vikira) or attackers (pratuda). In different texts, animals have been classified on the basis of varied criteria. Animals are reproduced sexually (yonija) or asexually (ayonija). Sexual reproduction is either through eggs (oviparous) or placenta (viviparous). The texts also speak of life emerging from moisture and heat as well as from dead vegetation. One classification distinguishes animals by number of feet and another by the presence or absence of hoofs. The Matsyapura classifies animals on the basis of their activity into diurnal, nocturnal or both. A number of animals have been described in the context of food and dietetics. The medicinal and nutritional properties of meat from a variety of animal sources have been documented in the classical texts of Ayurveda. The food web and food chain have been described highlighting the principle that one form of life is food for another (jvo jvasya jvanam). 235
People of ancient India lived in close proximity with nature and were keen observers of animal life. It has been mentioned in some texts that the first clues regarding medicinal properties of plants can be discovered from animal behaviour. Thus, ancient Indian literature has one of the earliest documented evidence of the practice of zoo-pharmacognosy, that is, the discovery of medicinal uses of plants by observing how animals eat specific plants when they suffer from a disease, have worms or have been bitten by a snake. The texts of Ayurveda also talk about confirming the toxicity of substances by administering test doses to animals, perhaps the earliest accounts of animal experiments in toxicology. Current status Gajyurveda is still practised by traditional experts in states like Kerala. Veterinary herbal medicines are manufactured and marketed by pharmaceutical firms in India. Biodiversity and folk traditions The richness of the biodiversity and the climatic and geographic variations were highlighted in ancient writings. Different geographical regions were described along with the cycle of six seasons setting the stage for variations in biodiversity. It is mentioned in Ayurvedic texts that there is a variation of biodiversity in terms of flora and fauna as well as human life and habits over a span of 12 yojans or 96 miles. Ancient Indians estimated that there are nearly 8.4 million yonis or species of life on earth. This comes strikingly close to the recent estimate of modern scientists at 8.7 million species. Suruta proclaims that one must hunt for natural resources near rivers, mountains, lakes, forests and even human habitations, for the earth is bountiful everywhere. There are about 4,600 ethnic communities in India who have lived in close proximity with nature and nurtured a folk system of medicine. It is estimated that there are one million 236
specialized carriers of folk medicine, outnumbering the paramedics on the payroll of the government. *** Comprehension What aspects of Plant Science does Vkyurveda deal with? What disciplines does Vkyurveda touch upon besides Plant Science? Match the following Vkyurveda treatment of elephants Mgyurveda agriculture Avyurveda treatment of plants Gajyurveda treatment of horses Kistra veterinary science Project ideas Compile some of the above data to show the intimate understanding of nature we find in ancient Indians. Conduct a survey among farmers in a village or two and list some of their practices that may be called traditional (i.e., chemical free), whether in treating seeds, plants or crops, planting, harvesting or storing, manuring and managing pests. Identify in your region one of those ethnic communities who have lived in close proximity with nature and nurtured a folk system of medicine; study it and 237
prepare a presentation on its knowledge of nature, medicinal plants and other health traditions. Extension activities Write an essay (or prepare a PowerPoint) on the following theme: Organic cereals and vegetables are growing in popularity; why should it be so? And if the trend continues, what consequences could it have on agricultural practices in the country? Start a small garden of medicinal plants in your school or at home, with at least a dozen different plants to begin with. Keep a record for each plant, including its basic botanical characteristics and its medicinal properties. Records from the 19 th century show that in Rajasthan, people sprinkled a mixture of curd and asafoetida (about 12 g per litre) on trees to prevent powdery mildew a term that covers many kinds of fungus attacks. Identify diseased plants in your vicinity and try it out twice a week. Observe results, if any. *** Further Reading 1. Y.L. Nene, (ed.), Glimpses of the Agricultural Heritage of India, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 2007 2. Y.L. Nene, S.L. Choudhary, (eds), Agricultural Heritage of India, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 2002 3. Nalini Sadhale, Y.L. Nene, (eds), Mrgapakshishastra, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 2008 4. Nalini Sadhale, Surapalas Vrikshayurveda, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 1996 238
5. Nalini Sadhale, Vishwavallabha, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 2004 6. R.C. Saxena, S.L. Choudhary, Y.L. Nene, A Textbook on Ancient History of Indian Agriculture, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 2009 7. Subhashini Sridhar, et al., Vrkshayurveda : Ayurveda for Plants, Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai, 2001 Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in May 2012) Manipulating marmas on a goat: A traditional marma expert is seen paralyzing the limbs of a goat and also putting it to sleep by manipulating vital points or marmas. He revives the goat by performing counter manipulations. www.youtube.com/watch?v=PnEJLlAmZ0A Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems (follow the links on Vkyurveda): www.ciks.org/focus.htm Asian Agri-History Foundation: www.agri-history.org
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Extracts from Primary Texts
Description of animals and birds Classifying and profiling species I have codified the classification of the animals separately here (1). First of all is described the time of mating and then pregnancy and time of delivery. Then the playing habits of the offspring are described. Variations in colour, activity and characteristics are also described. The nature and behavior of the females are described as well as the life span and death. Finally, the psychological inclinations of the animals are elucidated. This is the format in which animals and birds are described in this text (2). There many subtypes of lions and other animals based on their characteristics and complexion (3). I have only described the most important species and their varieties(4). Mgapakistra, Prvaphik, 30-34 (tr. Dr. P. Ram Manohar). Notes 1. This passage is an extract from an interesting textbook of animal science called Mgapakistra which literally means science of animals and birds. The book was composed by Hamsadeva who is believed to have lived in the 13 th century CE. 2. Hamsadeva uses a structured format to describe a particular species of animal or bird. He covers the entire life cycle starting with mating behavior and then goes on to describe pregnancy, delivery, behaviour of offspring, variations within the species, the life span and death. He describes the behavior of female species separately as well as the psychological inclinations of the animals and birds. This is a unique text that 240
attempts to determine species and characteristics of various animals and birds in India. 3. Hamsadeva recognizes different types of animals within a species. For example, he identifies six subtypes of lions the killer, the majestic, wide-jawed, red-eyed and yellow. 4. Such a textbook describing animal and bird species is hard to come by. Most of the available texts on animals deal with veterinary medicine and are utilitarian in nature. In medical textbooks, animals are described as sources of meat. However, the Mgapakistra was composed out of compassion for animals. In the first few verses of this text, the change of mind that happened to King Shaudadeva is described. When the King approached the forest with great zeal for hunting, he was suddenly overwhelmed by the diversity and beauty of the animal kingdom that he beheld. He exclaimed, What a wonderful creation of God!... How cruel of me to desire to kill these living beings? It was as desired by the King on his return to the palace, that Hamsadeva composed this text describing the different species that populate the animal kingdom on earth. *** Classifying sources of animal meat Predatory habits and habitats The snatchers are animals that snatch and eat their prey (1). Burrowing animals are those that live in pits under the ground. Wetland animals are those that live in marshy places. The aquatic animals live in water and the floating animals float on water. Terrestrial animals are those that live on land. The peckers are those that peck on the ground to pick their food. The 241
piercers are animals that pierce and tear their prey before eating (2). These are the eight type of animals from which edible meat is obtained (3). Caraka Sahit, Strasthna, 27.53-56 (tr. Dr. P. Ram Manohar). Notes 1. This extract is from the Caraka Sahit the earliest textbook of General Medicine in Ayurveda. Different classes of animals are described in the subsection on meat and its varieties in the chapter that deals with food substances. Unlike the Mgapakistra, the description of animals is purely utilitarian for use of their meat as food. 2. The classification is based on two criteria the predatory habit of the animal or the habitat of the animal. There are three categories based on predatory habits the snatchers, the peckers and the piercers. Five categories based on habitat of the animals are burrowers, wetland, aquatic, floaters and terrestrial animals. 3. The text lists and describes the nutritional properties of the various animals that come under these eight groups. The general properties of the meat of animals coming under a particular group are also described. For example, the snatchers, the burrowers, wetland, aquatic and floaters share certain general nutritional properties. The peckers, terrestrial and piercers share certain nutritional properties in common. The text lists and groups the animals and describes the common and specific nutritional properties of their meat as well as the indications and contra indications for use as food. *** 242
Plants are conscious Response of plants to sensory stimuli Even plants and trees are conscious and respond to sensory stimuli (1). For example, the sunflower plant changes its orientation in accordance with the movement of the sun, indicating their ability to perceive light. The lavali plant bears fruit at the sound of thunder (2). Citrus plants bear fruits profusely under the influence of the smell of tallow of fox and other animals. Mango trees bear fruits profusely when fed with fish oil, indicating their ability to perceive taste. The Aoka tree becomes laden with flowers when pretty damsels stamp with their feet, indicating their ability to feel touch sensation (3). Other ancient texts confirm this inference (4). Caraka Sahit, Strasthna, 1.48, Cakrapnivykhy (tr. Dr. P. Ram Manohar). Notes 1. This extract is from the commentary by Cakrapanidatta on a passage from the Caraka Sahit that distinguishes the living and non-living entities in the world. Caraka defines the ability to respond to sensory stimuli to be the characteristic of conscious forms of life. Cakrapanidatta explains that plants are also conscious because they can respond to sensory stimuli. He then goes on to explain how we can infer that plants respond to specific sensory stimuli of the special senses. 2. Though it is not clear whether plants can hear the sound of thunder, botanists and scientific experts opine that lightning can be beneficial to plants, because it adds special gases to rainfall. After a thunderstorm, gardens appear to be vibrant and lush because they get nitrogen-rich rain. 243
3. The description of the effect of the stamping of feet by pretty damsels on the Aoka plant may seem to be poetic, but scientific studies have shown that human visitation and touch influence plant growth. These observations have been published in research journals. 4. Here Cakrapanidatta is referring to texts like the Manusmti, which also discuss about the conscious nature of plants. The descriptions of Cakrapanidatta remind us of the experiments conducted in modern times by Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose. From the analysis of the variation of the cell membrane potential of plants under different circumstances, he deduced that plants can feel pain, understand affection, etc. *** Diseases of plants Treatment for plants Trees may acquire disorders of Vata, Pitta and Kapha (1) by exposure to bitter, dry, astringent, pungent, hot, salty, sweet, sour and oily substances. Just like human beings, trees also suffer from diseases due to imbalance in Vata, Pitta and Kapha. As such, I shall describe hereunder, their symptoms and remedies (2). If broken by strong wind, affected by age, hurt due to rubbing (against branches of closely planted trees, etc.), if shifted to another location, and if too many birds take shelter on them, if too sparsely spread out, if affected by any corrosive, acrid or saline substance, if troubled with too much medications, if wrongly treated or diagnosed, if starved, and if imbalance in wind, etc. occurs (3). 244
These are the chief causes leading to the suffering of trees. So every effort should be made to find out the cause of suffering and to adopt corrective measures. There are some trees and creepers originally belonging to other countries. They just do not grow here after planting saplings or sowing seeds. That is due to unsuitability of this soil, of (indigenous) seasons or of its natural properties, and due to lack of complete knowledge regarding their nurturing and care or due to gods will (4). Vivavallabha, 8.1-8 (tr. Dr. P. Ram Manohar). Notes 1. This extract is from the text Vivavallabha, a book on plants and horticulture that was composed by Cakrapi Mira around the 16 th century CE. The available manuscript is damaged and not legible in some places. It is still possible to extract the overall meaning of the verses. 2. The theory of the three doas is applied as such not only to humans but also to plants and animals. Detailed descriptions of plant diseases are given elsewhere in the text. 3. After listing the etiological factors that are similar to those that affect humans, the specific causative factors that affect plants and trees are enumerated. 4. It is interesting to note that the text refers to difficulties in nurturing plants that belong to other countries. The possibility of growing such plants introduced from other parts of the world by proper understanding of their nurturing and care is also hinted at.
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Comprehension 1. What criteria does early Indian literature use to classify animals? 2. What are the main causes for diseases in trees according to Cakrapi Mira? 3. What criteria does Caraka use to establish that plants are conscious? 4. Taking several of the above extracts into consideration, what features of Vkyurveda would you use to establish that the constitution of plants and that of humans have some commonalities?
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