Karl Marx

Wage Labour and

Capital
Written: December 1847;
Source: Wage Labour and Capital, the original 1891 pamphlet;;
Firt !ublihed: "eue #heiniche $eitung, %pril &'8 and 11, 1849;
(rancription)*ar+up: $odiac and ,rian ,aggin;
!roo-ed and corrected b. %le+ ,lain, /001, *ar+ 2arri, /01033
/
Introduction to
Karl Marxs
Wage Labour and Capital (Engels)
(hi pamphlet -irt appeared in the -orm o- a erie o- leading article in the Neue Rheinische
Zeitung, beginning on %pril 4th, 18493 (he te4t i made up o- -rom lecture deli5ered b. *ar4
be-ore the 6erman Wor+ingmen7 Club o- ,ruel in 18473 (he erie 8a ne5er completed3 (he
promie 9to be continued,: at the end o- the editorial in "umber /19 o- the ne8paper, remained
un-ul-illed in cone;uence o- the precipitou e5ent o- that time: the in5aion o- 2ungar. b. the
#uian <(arit troop in5aded 2ungar. in 1849 to +eep the %utrian 2apburg d.nat. in
po8er=, and the upriing in Dreden, >erlohn, ?lber-eld, the !alatinate, and in ,aden
<Spontaneou upriing in 6erman. in *a.'@ul. 1849, upporting the >mperial Contitution
8hich 8ere cruhed in mid'@ul.=, 8hich led to the uppreion o- the paper on *a. 19th, 18493
%nd among the paper le-t b. *ar4 no manucript o- an. continuation o- thee article ha been
-ound3
9Wage'Labour and Capital: ha appeared a an independent publication in e5eral edition, the
lat o- 8hich 8a iued b. the S8i Co'operati5e !rinting %ociation, in 2ottingen'$urich, in
18843 2itherto, the e5eral edition ha5e contained the e4act 8ording o- the original article3 ,ut
ince at leat 10,000 copie o- the preent edition are to be circulated a a propaganda tract, the
;uetion necearil. -orced itel- upon me, 8ould *ar4 himel-, under thee circumtance, ha5e
appro5ed o- an unaltered literal reproduction o- the originalA
*ar4, in the 740, had not .et completed hi criticim o- political econom.3 (hi 8a not done
until to8ard the end o- the -i-tie3 Cone;uentl., uch o- hi 8riting a 8ere publihed be-ore the
-irt intallment o- hi Criti;ue o- !olitical ?conom. 8a -inihed, de5iate in ome point -rom
thoe 8ritten a-ter 18&9, and contain e4preion and 8hole entence 8hich, 5ie8ed -rom the
tandpoint o- hi later 8riting, appear ine4act, and e5en incorrect3 "o8, it goe 8ithout a.ing
that in ordinar. edition, intended -or the public in general, thi earlier tandpoint, a a part o- the
intellectual de5elopment o- the author, ha it place; that the author a 8ell a the public, ha an
indiputable right to an unaltered reprint o- thee older 8riting3 >n uch a cae, > 8ould not ha5e
dreamed o- changing a ingle 8ord in it3 ,ut it i other8ie 8hen the edition i detined almot
e4clui5el. -or the purpoe o- propaganda3 >n uch a cae, *ar4 himel- 8ould un;uetionabl.
ha5e brought the old 8or+, dating -rom 1849, into harmon. 8ith hi ne8 point o- 5ie8, and > -eel
ure that > am acting in hi pirit 8hen > inert in thi edition the -e8 change and addition 8hich
are necear. in order to attain thi obBect in all eential point3
(here-ore, > a. to the reader at once: thi pamphlet i not a *ar4 8rote it in 1849, but
appro4imatel. a *ar4 8ould ha5e 8ritten it in 18913 *oreo5er, o man. copie o- the original
te4t are in circulation, that thee 8ill u--ice until > can publih it again unaltered in a complete
edition o- *ar47 8or+, to appear at ome -uture time3
*. alteration centre about one point3 %ccording to the original reading, the 8or+er ell hi
labour -or 8age, 8hich he recei5e -rom the capitalit; according to the preent te4t, he ell hi
labour-power3 %nd -or thi change, > mut render an e4planation: to the 8or+er, in order that
the. ma. undertand that 8e are not ;uibbling or 8ord'Buggling, but are dealing here 8ith one o-
C
the mot important point in the 8hole range o- political econom.; to the bourgeoi, in order that
the. ma. con5ince themel5e ho8 greatl. the uneducated 8or+er, 8ho can be eail. made to
grap the mot di--icult economic anal.e, e4cel our uperciliou 9cultured: -ol+, -or 8hom uch
tic+lih problem remain inoluble their 8hole li-e long3
Claical political econom.
1
borro8ed -rom the indutrial practice the current notion o- the
manu-acturer, that he bu. and pa. -or the labour o- hi emplo.ee3 (hi conception had been
;uite er5iceable -or the buine purpoe o- the manu-acturer, hi boo++eeping and price
calculation3 ,ut nai5el. carried o5er into political econom., it there produced trul. 8onder-ul
error and con-uion3
!olitical econom. -ind it an etablihed -act that the price o- all commoditie, among them the
price o- the commodit. 8hich it call 9labour,: continuall. change; that the. rie and -all in
cone;uence o- the mot di5ere circumtance, 8hich o-ten ha5e no connection 8hatoe5er 8ith
the production o- the commoditie themel5e, o that price appear to be determined, a a rule,
b. pure chance3 % oon, there-ore, a political econom. tepped -orth a a cience, it 8a one o-
it -irt ta+ to earch -or the la8 that hid itel- behind thi chance, 8hich apparentl. determined
the price o- commoditie, and 8hich in realit. controlled thi 5er. chance3 %mong the price o-
commoditie, -luctuating and ocillating, no8 up8ard, no8 do8n8ard, the -i4ed central point
8a earched -or around 8hich thee -luctuation and ocillation 8ere ta+ing place3 >n hort,
tarting -rom the price o- commoditie, political econom. ought -or the 5alue o- commoditie a
the regulating la8, b. mean o- 8hich all price -luctuation could be e4plained, and to 8hich the.
could all be reduced in the lat reort3
%nd o, claical political econom. -ound that the 5alue o- a commodit. 8a determined b. the
labour incorporated in it and re;uiite to it production3 With thi e4planation, it 8a ati-ied3
%nd 8e, too, ma., -or the preent, top at thi point3 ,ut, to a5oid miconception, > 8ill remind
the reader that toda. thi e4planation ha become 8holl. inade;uate3 *ar4 8a the -irt to
in5etigate thoroughl. into the 5alue'-orming ;ualit. o- labour and to dico5er that not all labour
8hich i apparentl., or e5en reall., necear. to the production o- a commodit., impart under all
circumtance to thi commodit. a magnitude o- 5alue correponding to the ;uantit. o- labour
ued up3 >-, there-ore, 8e a. toda. in hort, 8ith economit li+e #icardo, that the 5alue o- a
commodit. i determined b. the labour necear. to it production, 8e al8a. impl. the
reer5ation and retriction made b. *ar43 (hu much -or our preent purpoe; -urther
in-ormation can be -ound in *ar47 Critique of Political Economy, 8hich appeared in 18&9, and
in the -irt 5olume o- Capital3
,ut, a oon a the economit applied thi determination o- 5alue b. labour to the commodit.
9labour:, the. -ell -rom one contradiction into another3 2o8 i the 5alue o- 9labour: determinedA
,. the necear. labour embodied in it3 ,ut ho8 much labour i embodied in the labour o- a
labourer o- a da. a 8ee+, a month, a .ear3 >- labour i the meaure o- all 5alue, 8e can e4pre
the 95alue o- labour: onl. in labour3 ,ut 8e +no8 abolutel. nothing about the 5alue o- an hour7
labour, i- all that 8e +no8 about it i that it i e;ual to one hour7 labour3 So, thereb., 8e ha5e not
ad5anced one hair7 breadth nearer our goal; 8e are contantl. turning about in a circle3
Claical economic, there-ore, ea.ed another turn3 >t aid: the 5alue o- a commodit. i e;ual to
it cot o- production3 ,ut, 8hat i the cot o- production o- 9labour:A >n order to an8er thi
;uetion, the economit are -orced to train logic But a little3 >ntead o- in5etigating the cot o-
1
9,. claical political econom., > undertand that econom. 8hich, ince the time o- W3 !ett., ha in5etigated the real
relation o- production in bourgeoi ociet., in contraditinction to 5ulgar econom., 8hich deal 8ith appearance onl.,
ruminate 8ithout ceaing on the material long ince pro5ided b. cienti-ic econom., and there ee+ plauible
e4planation o- the mot obtrui5e phenomena -or bourgeoi dail. ue, but -or the ret con-ine itel- to .tematiDing
in a pedantic 8a., and proclaiming -or e5erlating truth, trite idea held b. the el-'complacent bourgeoiie 8ith
regard to their o8n 8orld, to them the bet o- all poible 8orld3: <*ar4, Capital, Eolume >, p3 9C=
4
production o- labour itel-, 8hich, un-ortunatel., cannot be acertained, the. no8 in5etigate the
cot o- production o- the labourer3 %nd thi latter can be acertained3 >t change according to time
and circumtance, but -or a gi5en condition o- ociet., in a gi5en localit., and in a gi5en branch
o- production, it, too, i gi5en, at leat 8ithin ;uite narro8 limit3 We li5e toda. under the regime
o- capitalit production, under 8hich a large and teadil. gro8ing cla o- the population can li5e
onl. on the condition that it 8or+ -or the o8ner o- the mean o- production F tool, machine,
ra8 material, and mean o- ubitence F in return -or 8age3 Gn the bai o- thi mode o-
production, the labourer7 cot o- production conit o- the um o- the mean o- ubitence Hor
their price in mone.I 8hich on the a5erage are re;uiite to enable him to 8or+, to maintain in him
thi capacit. -or 8or+, and to replace him at hi departure, b. reaon o- age, ic+ne, or death,
8ith another labourer F that i to a., to propagate the 8or+ing cla in re;uired number3
Let u aume that the mone. price o- thee mean o- ubitence a5erage C hilling a da.3 Gur
labourer get, there-ore, a dail. 8age o- C hilling -rom hi emplo.er3 For thi, the capitalit let
him 8or+, a., 1/ hour a da.3 Gur capitalit, moreo5er, calculate ome8hat in the -ollo8ing
-ahion: Let u aume that our labourer Ha machinitI ha to ma+e a part o- a machine 8hich he
-inihe in one da.3 (he ra8 material Hiron and bra in the necear. prepared -ormI cot /0
hilling3 (he conumption o- coal b. the team'engine, the 8ear'and'tear o- thi engine itel-, o-
the turning'lathe, and o- the other tool 8ith 8hich our labourer 8or+, repreent, -or one da. and
one labourer, a 5alue o- 1 hilling3 (he 8age -or one da. are, according to our aumption, C
hilling3 (hi ma+e a total o- /4 hilling -or our piece o- a machine3
,ut, the capitalit calculate that, on an a5erage, he 8ill recei5e -or it a price o- /7 hilling -rom
hi cutomer, or C hilling o5er and abo5e hi outla.3a
Whence do the. C hilling poc+eted b. the capitalit comeA %ccording to the aertion o-
claical political econom., commoditie are in the long run old at their 5alue, that i, the. are
old at price 8hich correpond to the necear. ;uantitie o- labour contained in them3 (he
a5erage price o- our part o- a machine F /7 hilling F 8ould there-ore e;ual it 5alue, i3e3, e;ual
the amount o- labour embodied in it3 ,ut, o- thee /7 hilling, /1 hilling 8ere 5alue 8ere
5alue alread. e4iting be-ore the machinit began to 8or+; /0 hilling 8ere contained in the
ra8 material, 1 hilling in the -uel conumed during the 8or+ and in the machine and tool ued
in the proce and reduced in their e--icienc. to the 5alue o- thi amount3 (here remain 1
hilling, 8hich ha5e been added to the 5alue o- the ra8 material3 ,ut, according to the
uppoition o- our economit, themel5e, thee 1 hilling can arie onl. -rom the labour added
to the ra8 material b. the labourer3 2i 1/ hour7 labour ha created, according to thi, a ne8
5alue o- 1 hilling3 (here-ore, the 5alue o- hi 1/ hour7 labour 8ould be e;ui5alent to 1
hilling3 So 8e ha5e at lat dico5ered 8hat the 95alue o- labour: i3
92old on thereJ: crie our machinit3 9Si4 hillingA ,ut > ha5e recei5ed onl. C hillingJ *.
capitalit 8ear high and da. that the 5alue o- m. 1/ hour7 labour i no more than C hilling,
and i- > 8ere to demand 1, he7d laugh at me3 What +ind o- a tor. i thatA:
>- be-ore thi 8e got 8ith our 5alue o- labour into a 5iciou circle, 8e no8 urel. ha5e dri5en
traight into an inoluble contradiction3 We earched -or the 5alue o- labour, and 8e -ound more
than 8e can ue3 For the labourer, the 5alue o- the 1/ hour7 labour i C hilling; -or the
capitalit, it i 1 hilling, o- 8hich he pa. the 8or+ingman C hilling a 8age, and poc+et the
remaining C hilling himel-3 %ccording to thi, labour ha not one but t8o 5alue, and, moreo5er,
t8o 5er. di--erent 5alueJ
% oon a 8e reduce the 5alue, no8 e4preed in mone., to labour'time, the contradiction
become e5en more aburd3 ,. the 1/ hour7 labour, a ne8 5alue o- 1 hilling i created3
(here-ore, in 1 hour, the ne8 5alue created e;ual C hilling F the amount 8hich the labourer
recei5e -or 1/ hour7 labour3 For 1/ hour7 labour, the 8or+ingman recei5e, a an e;ui5alent,
&
the product o- 1 hour7 labour3 We are, thu, -orced to one o- t8o concluion: either labour ha
t8o 5alue, one o- 8hich i t8ice a large a the other, or 1/ e;ual 1J >n both cae, 8e get pure
aburditie3 (urn and t8it a 8e ma., 8e 8ill not get out o- thi contradiction a long a 8e
pea+ o- the bu.ing and elling o- 9labour: and o- the 95alue o- labour3: %nd But o it happened
to the political economit3 (he lat o--hoot o- claical political econom. F the #icardian chool
F 8a largel. 8rec+ed on the inolubilit. o- thi contradiction3 Claical political econom. had
run itel- into a blind alle.3 (he man 8ho dico5ered the 8a. out o- thi blind alle. 8a Karl
*ar43
What the economit had conidered a the cot o- production o- 9labour: 8a reall. the cot o-
production, not o- 9labour,: but o- the li5ing labourer himel-3 %nd 8hat thi labourer old to the
capitalit 8a not hi labour3
9So oon a hi labour reall. begin,:
a. *ar4, 9it ceae to belong to him,
and there-ore can no longer be old b.
him3:
%t the mot, he could ell hi future labour F i3e3, aume the obligation o- e4ecuting a certain
piece o- 8or+ in a certain time3 ,ut, in thi 8a., he doe not ell labour H8hich 8ould -irt ha5e
to be per-ormedI, but not -or a tipulated pa.ment he place hi labour'po8er at the dipoal o-
the capitalit -or a certain time Hin cae o- time'8ageI, or -or the per-ormance o- a certain ta+
Hin cae o- piece'8ageI3 2e hire out or ell hi labour-power3 ,ut thi labour'po8er ha gro8n
up 8ith hi peron and i ineparable -rom it3 >t cot o- production, there-ore, coincide 8ith hi
o8n cot o- production; 8hat the economit called the cot o- production o- labour i reall. the
cot o- production o- the labourer, and there8ith o- hi labour'po8er3 %nd, thu, 8e can alo go
bac+ -rom the cot o- production o- labour'po8er to the 5alue o- labour'po8er, and determine the
;uantit. o- ocial labour that i re;uired -or the production o- a labour'po8er o- a gi5en ;uantit.,
a *ar4 ha done in the chapter on 9(he ,u.ing and Selling o- Labour !o8er3: <Capital, Eolume
>=
"o8 8hat ta+e place a-ter the 8or+er ha old hi labour'po8er, i3e3, a-ter he ha placed hi
labour'po8er at the dipoal o- the capitalit -or tipulated'8age F 8hether time'8age or piece'
8ageA (he capitalit ta+e the labourer into hi 8or+hop or -actor., 8here all the article
re;uired -or the 8or+ can be -ound F ra8 material, au4iliar. material Hcoal, d.etu--, etc3I,
tool, and machine3 2ere, the 8or+er begin to 8or+3 2i dail. 8age are, a abo5e, C hilling,
and it ma+e no di--erence 8hether he earn them a da.'8age or piece'8age3 We again aume
that in 1/ hour the 8or+er add b. hi labour a ne8 5alue o- 1 hilling to the 5alue o- the ra8
material conumed, 8hich ne8 5alue the capitalit realiDe b. the ale o- the -inihed piece o-
8or+3 Gut o- thi ne8 5alue, he pa. the 8or+er hi C hilling, and the remaining C hilling he
+eep -or himel-3 >-, no8, the labourer create in 1/ hour a 5alue o- 1 hilling, in 1 hour he
create a 5alue o- C hilling3 Cone;uentl., a-ter 8or+ing 1 hour -or the capitalit, the labourer
ha returned to him the e;ui5alent o- the C hilling recei5ed a 8age3 %-ter 1 hour7 8or+, both
are ;uit, neither one o8ing a penn. to the other3
92old on thereJ: no8 crie out the capitalit3 9> ha5e hired the labourer -or a 8hole da., -or 1/
hour3 ,ut 1 hour are onl. hal-'a'da.3 So 8or+ along li5el. there until the other 1 hour are at an
end F onl. then 8ill 8e be e5en3: %nd, in -act, the labourer ha to ubmit to the condition o- the
contract upon 8hich he entered o- 9hi o8n -ree 8ill:, and according to 8hich he bound himel-
to 8or+ 1/ 8hole hour -or a product o- labour 8hich cot onl. 1 hour7 labour3
1
Similarl. 8ith piece'8age3 Let u uppoe that in 1/ hour our 8or+er ma+e 1/ commoditie3
?ach o- thee cot a hilling in ra8 material and 8ear'and'tear, and i old -or /3& hilling3 Gn
our -ormer aumption, the capitalit gi5e the labourer 3/& o- a hilling -or each piece, 8hich
ma+e a total o- C hilling -or 1/ piece3 (o earn thi, the 8or+er re;uire 1/ hour3 (he capitalit
recei5e C0 hilling -or the 1/ piece; deducting /4 hilling -or ra8 material and 8ear'and'tear,
there remain 1 hilling, o- 8hich he pa. C hilling in 8age and poc+et the remaining C3 @ut
a be-oreJ 2ere, alo, the 8or+er labour 1 hour -or himel- F i3e3, to replace hi 8age Hhal-'an'
hour in each o- the 1/ hourI, and 1 hour -or the capitalit3
(he roc+ upon 8hich the bet economit 8ere tranded, a long a the. tarted out -rom the
5alue o- labour, 5anihe a oon a 8e ma+e our tarting'point the 5alue o-labour-power3
Labour'po8er i, in our preent'da. capitalit ociet., a commodit. li+e e5er. other commodit.,
but .et a 5er. peculiar commodit.3 >t ha, namel., the peculiarit. o- being a 5alue'creating -orce,
the ource o- 5alue, and, moreo5er, 8hen properl. treated, the ource o- more 5alue than it
poee itel-3 >n the preent tate o- production, human labour'po8er not onl. produce in a
da. a greater 5alue than it itel- poee and cot; but 8ith each ne8 cienti-ic dico5er., 8ith
each ne8 technical in5ention, there alo rie the urplu o- it dail. production o5er it dail.
cot, 8hile a a cone;uence there diminihe that part o- the 8or+ing'da. in 8hich the labourer
produce the e;ui5alent o- hi da.7 8age, and, on the other hand, lengthen that part o- the
8or+ing'da. in 8hich he mut preent labour grati to the capitalit3
%nd thi i the economic contitution o- our entire modern ociet.: the 8or+ing cla alone
produce all 5alue3 For 5alue i onl. another e4preion -or labour, that e4preion, namel., b.
8hich i deignated, in our capitalit ociet. o- toda., the amount o- ociall. necear. labour
embodied in a particular commodit.3 ,ut, thee 5alue produced b. the 8or+er do not belong to
the 8or+er3 (he. belong to the o8ner o- the ra8 material, machine, tool, and mone., 8hich
enable them to bu. the labour'po8er o- the 8or+ing cla3 2ence, the 8or+ing cla get bac+
onl. a part o- the entire ma o- product produced b. it3 %nd, a 8e ha5e But een, the other
portion, 8hich the capitalit cla retain, and 8hich it ha to hare, at mot, onl. 8ith the
landlord cla, i increaing 8ith e5er. ne8 dico5er. and in5ention, 8hile the hare 8hich -all
to the 8or+ing cla Hper capitaI rie but little and 5er. lo8l., or not at all, and under certain
condition it ma. e5en -all3
,ut, thee dico5erie and in5ention 8hich upplant one another 8ith e5er'increaing peed, thi
producti5ene o- human labour 8hich increae -rom da. to da. to unheard'o- proportion, at
lat gi5e rie to a con-lict, in 8hich preent capitalitic econom. mut go to ruin3 Gn the one
hand, immeaurable 8ealth and a uper-luidit. o- product 8ith 8hich the bu.er cannot cope3
Gn the other hand, the great ma o- ociet. proletarianiDed, tran-ormed into 8age'labourer,
and thereb. diabled -rom appropriating to themel5e that uper-luidit. o- product3 (he
plitting up o- ociet. into a mall cla, immoderatel. rich, and a large cla o- 8age'labourer
de5oid o- all propert., bring it about that thi ociet. mother in it o8n uper-luidit., 8hile the
great maBorit. o- it member are carcel., or not at all, protected -rom e4treme 8ant3
(hi condition become e5er. da. more aburd and more unnecear.3 >t must be gotten rid o-; it
can be gotten rid o-3 % ne8 ocial order i poible, in 8hich the cla di--erence o- toda. 8ill
ha5e diappeared, and in 8hich F perhap a-ter a hort tranition period, 8hich, though ome8hat
de-icient in other repect, 8ill in an. cae be 5er. ue-ul morall. F there 8ill be the mean o-
li-e, o- the enBo.ment o- li-e, and o- the de5elopment and acti5it. o- all bodil. and mental
-acultie, through the .tematic ue and -urther de5elopment o- the enormou producti5e po8er
o- ociet., 8hich e4it 8ith u e5en no8, 8ith e;ual obligation upon all to 8or+3 %nd that the
8or+er are gro8ing e5er more determined to achie5e thi ne8 ocial order 8ill be pro5en on
both ide o- the ocean on thi da8ning *a. Da., and on Sunda., *a. Crd3 <?ngel i re-erring
to the *a. Da. celebration o- 1891=
7
F R E DE R I C E N !E " #
" o n $ o n % & p r i l ' ( % ) * + ) ,
Preliminary
From 5ariou ;uarter 8e ha5e been reproached -or neglecting to portra. the economic condition
8hich -orm the material bai o- the preent truggle bet8een clae and nation3 With et
purpoe 8e ha5e hitherto touched upon thee condition onl. 8hen the. -orced themel5e upon
the ur-ace o- the political con-lict3
>t 8a necear., be.ond e5er.thing ele, to -ollo8 the de5elopment o- the cla truggle in the
hitor. o- our o8n da., and to pro5e empiricall., b. the actual and dail. ne8l. created hitorical
material, that 8ith the ubBugation o- the 8or+ing cla, accomplihed in the da. o- Februar. and
*arch, 1848, the opponent o- that cla F the bourgeoi republican in France, and the bourgeoi
and peaant clae 8ho 8ere -ighting -eudal abolutim throughout the 8hole continent o-
?urope F 8ere imultaneoul. con;uered; that the 5ictor. o- the 9moderate republic: in France
ounded at the ame time the -all o- the nation 8hich had reponded to the Februar. re5olution
8ith heroic 8ar o- independence; and -inall. that, b. the 5ictor. o5er the re5olutionar.
8or+ingmen, ?urope -ell bac+ into it old double la5er., into the ?nglih'#uian la5er.3 (he
@une con-lict in !ari, the -all o- Eienna, the tragi'comed. in ,erlin in "o5ember 1848, the
deperate e--ort o- !oland, >tal., and 2ungar., the tar5ation o- >reland into ubmiion F thee
8ere the chie- e5ent in 8hich the ?uropean cla truggle bet8een the bourgeoiie and the
8or+ing cla 8a ummed up, and -rom 8hich 8e pro5ed that e5er. re5olutionar. upriing,
ho8e5er remote -rom the cla truggle it obBect might appear, mut o- neceit. -ail until the
re5olutionar. 8or+ing cla hall ha5e con;uered; F that e5er. ocial re-orm mut remain a
Ltopia until the proletarian re5olution and the -eudalitic counter're5olution ha5e been pitted
againt each other in a 8orld'8ide 8ar3 >n our preentation, a in realit., ,elgium and
S8itDerland 8ere tragicomic caricaturih genre picture in the great hitoric tableau; the one the
model State o- the bourgeoi monarch., the other the model State o- the bourgeoi republic; both
o- them, State that -latter themel5e to be But a -ree -rom the cla truggle a -rom the
?uropean re5olution3
,ut no8, a-ter our reader ha5e een the cla truggle o- the .ear 1848 de5elop into coloal
political proportion, it i time to e4amine more cloel. the economic condition themel5e upon
8hich i -ounded the e4itence o- the capitalit cla and it cla rule, a 8ell a the la5er. o-
the 8or+er3
We hall preent the ubBect in three great di5iion:
(he #elation o- Wage'Labour to Capital, the Sla5er. o- the Wor+er, the #ule o- the
Capitalit3
(he >ne5itable #uin o- the *iddle Clae <pett.'bourgeoi= and the o'called Common
<peaant= under the preent .tem3
(he Commercial SubBugation and ?4ploitation o- the ,ourgeoi clae o- the 5ariou
?uropean nation b. the Depot o- the World *ar+et F ?ngland3
We hall ee+ to portra. thi a impl. and popularl. a poible, and hall not preuppoe a
+no8ledge o- e5en the mot elementar. notion o- political econom.3 We 8ih to be undertood
b. the 8or+er3 %nd, moreo5er, there pre5ail in 6erman. the mot remar+able ignorance and
con-uion o- idea in regard to the implet economic relation, -rom the patented de-ender o-
8
e4iting condition, do8n to the ocialit 8onder'8or+er and the unrecogniDed political
geniue, in 8hich di5ided 6erman. i e5en richer than in duodecimo princeling3 We there-ore
proceed to the conideration o- the -irt problem3
What are Wages?
How are they Determined?
>- e5eral 8or+men 8ere to be a+ed: 92o8 much 8age do .ou getA:, one 8ould repl., 9> get
t8o hilling a da.:, and o on3 %ccording to the di--erent branche o- indutr. in 8hich the. are
emplo.ed, the. 8ould mention di--erent um o- mone. that the. recei5e -rom their repecti5e
emplo.er -or the completion o- a certain ta+; -or e4ample, -or 8ea5ing a .ard o- linen, or -or
etting a page o- t.pe3 Depite the 5ariet. o- their tatement, the. 8ould all agree upon one
point: that 8age are the amount o- mone. 8hich the capitalit pa. -or a certain period o- 8or+
or -or a certain amount o- 8or+3
Cone;uentl., it appear that the capitalit bu. their labour 8ith mone., and that -or mone. the.
ell him their labour3 ,ut thi i merel. an illuion3 What the. actuall. ell to the capitalit -or
mone. i their labour'po8er3 (hi labour'po8er the capitalit bu. -or a da., a 8ee+, a month,
etc3 %nd a-ter he ha bought it, he ue it up b. letting the 8or+er labour during the tipulated
time3 With the ame amount o- mone. 8ith 8hich the capitalit ha bought their labour'po8er
H-or e4ample, 8ith t8o hillingI he could ha5e bought a certain amount o- ugar or o- an. other
commodit.3 (he t8o hilling 8ith 8hich he bought /0 pound o- ugar i the price o- the /0
pound o- ugar3 (he t8o hilling 8ith 8hich he bought 1/ hourM ue o- labour'po8er, i the
price o- 1/ hourM labour3 Labour'po8er, then, i a commodit., no more, no le o than i the
ugar3 (he -irt i meaured b. the cloc+, the other b. the cale3
(heir commodit., labour'po8er, the 8or+er e4change -or the commodit. o- the capitalit, -or
mone., and, moreo5er, thi e4change ta+e place at a certain ratio3 So much mone. -or o long a
ue o- labour'po8er3 For 1/ hourM 8ea5ing, t8o hilling3 %nd thee t8o hilling, do the. not
repreent all the other commoditie 8hich > can bu. -or t8o hillingA (here-ore, actuall., the
8or+er ha e4changed hi commodit., labour'po8er, -or commoditie o- all +ind, and, moreo5er,
at a certain ratio3 ,. gi5ing him t8o hilling, the capitalit ha gi5en him o much meat, o much
clothing, o much 8ood, light, etc3, in e4change -or hi da.M 8or+3 (he t8o hilling there-ore
e4pre the relation in 8hich labour'po8er i e4changed -or other commoditie, the e4change'
5alue o- labour'po8er3
(he e4change 5alue o- a commodit. etimated in mone. i called it price3 Wage there-ore are
onl. a pecial name -or the price o- labour'po8er, and are uuall. called the price o- labour; it i
the pecial name -or the price o- thi peculiar commodit., 8hich ha no other repoitor. than
human -leh and blood3
Let u ta+e an. 8or+er; -or e4ample, a 8ea5er3 (he capitalit upplie him 8ith the loom and
.arn3 (he 8ea5er applie himel- to 8or+, and the .arn i turned into cloth3 (he capitalit ta+e
poeion o- the cloth and ell it -or /0 hilling, -or e4ample3 "o8 are the 8age o- the 8ea5er
a hare o- the cloth, o- the /0 hilling, o- the product o- the 8or+A ,. no mean3 Long be-ore the
cloth i old, perhap long be-ore it i -ull. 8o5en, the 8ea5er ha recei5ed hi 8age3 (he
capitalit, then, doe not pa. hi 8age out o- the mone. 8hich he 8ill obtain -rom the cloth, but
out o- mone. alread. on hand3 @ut a little a loom and .arn are the product o- the 8ea5er to
8hom the. are upplied b. the emplo.er, But o little are the commoditie 8hich he recei5e in
9
e4change -or hi commodit. F labour'po8er F hi product3 >t i poible that the emplo.er -ound
no purchaer at all -or the cloth3 >t i poible that he did not get e5en the amount o- the 8age
b. it ale3 >t i poible that he ell it 5er. pro-itabl. in proportion to the 8ea5erM 8age3 ,ut all
that doe not concern the 8ea5er3 With a part o- hi e4iting 8ealth, o- hi capital, the capitalit
bu. the labour'po8er o- the 8ea5er in e4actl. the ame manner a, 8ith another part o- hi
8ealth, he ha bought the ra8 material F the .arn F and the intrument o- labour F the loom3 %-ter
he ha made thee purchae, and among them belong the labour'po8er necear. to the
production o- the cloth he produce onl. 8ith ra8 material and intrument o- labour belonging
to him3 For our good 8ea5er, too, i one o- the intrument o- labour, and being in thi repect on
a par 8ith the loom, he ha no more hare in the product Hthe clothI, or in the price o- the product,
than the loom itel- ha3
Wage, there-ore, are not a hare o- the 8or+er in the commoditie produced b. himel-3 Wage
are that part o- alread. e4iting commoditie 8ith 8hich the capitalit bu. a certain amount o-
producti5e labour'po8er3
Cone;uentl., labour'po8er i a commodit. 8hich it poeor, the 8age'8or+er, ell to the
capitalit3 Wh. doe he ell itA >t i in order to li5e3
,ut the putting o- labour'po8er into action F i3e3, the 8or+ F i the acti5e e4preion o- the
labourerM o8n li-e3 %nd thi li-e acti5it. he ell to another peron in order to ecure the
necear. mean o- li-e3 2i li-e'acti5it., there-ore, i but a mean o- ecuring hi o8n e4itence3
2e 8or+ that he ma. +eep ali5e3 2e doe not count the labour itel- a a part o- hi li-e; it i
rather a acri-ice o- hi li-e3 >t i a commodit. that he ha auctioned o-- to another3 (he product o-
hi acti5it., there-ore, i not the aim o- hi acti5it.3 What he produce -or himel- i not the il+
that he 8ea5e, not the gold that he dra8 up the mining ha-t, not the palace that he build3 What
he produce -or himel- i 8age; and the il+, the gold, and the palace are reol5ed -or him into a
certain ;uantit. o- necearie o- li-e, perhap into a cotton Bac+et, into copper coin, and into a
baement d8elling3 %nd the labourer 8ho -or 1/ hour long, 8ea5e, pin, bore, turn, build,
ho5el, brea+ tone, carrie hod, and o on F i thi 1/ hourM 8ea5ing, pinning, boring,
turning, building, ho5elling, tone'brea+ing, regarded b. him a a mani-etation o- li-e, a li-eA
Nuite the contrar.3 Li-e -or him begin 8here thi acti5it. ceae, at the table, at the ta5ern, in
bed3 (he 1/ hourM 8or+, on the other hand, ha no meaning -or him a 8ea5ing, pinning, boring,
and o on, but onl. a earning, 8hich enable him to it do8n at a table, to ta+e hi eat in the
ta5ern, and to lie do8n in a bed3 >- the il+'8ormM obBect in pinning 8ere to prolong it
e4itence a caterpillar, it 8ould be a per-ect e4ample o- a 8age'8or+er3
Labour'po8er 8a not al8a. a commodit. HmerchandieI3 Labour 8a not al8a. 8age'labour,
i3e3, -ree labour3 (he la5e did not ell hi labour'po8er to the la5e'o8ner, an. more than the o4
ell hi labour to the -armer3 (he la5e, together 8ith hi labour'po8er, 8a old to hi o8ner
once -or all3 2e i a commodit. that can pa -rom the hand o- one o8ner to that o- another3 2e
himel- i a commodit., but hi labour'po8er i not hi commodit.3 (he er- ell onl. a portion
o- hi labour'po8er3 >t i not he 8ho recei5e 8age -rom the o8ner o- the land; it i rather the
o8ner o- the land 8ho recei5e a tribute -rom him3 (he er- belong to the oil, and to the lord o-
the oil he bring it -ruit3 (he -ree labourer, on the other hand, ell hi 5er. el-, and that b.
-raction3 2e auction o-- eight, 10, 1/, 1& hour o- hi li-e, one da. li+e the ne4t, to the highet
bidder, to the o8ner o- ra8 material, tool, and the mean o- li-e F i3e3, to the capitalit3 (he
labourer belong neither to an o8ner nor to the oil, but eight, 10, 1/, 1& hour o- hi dail. li-e
belong to 8homoe5er bu. them3 (he 8or+er lea5e the capitalit, to 8hom he ha old himel-,
a o-ten a he chooe, and the capitalit dicharge him a o-ten a he ee -it, a oon a he no
longer get an. ue, or not the re;uired ue, out o- him3 ,ut the 8or+er, 8hoe onl. ource o-
income i the ale o- hi labour'po8er, cannot lea5e the 8hole cla o- bu.er, i3e3, the capitalit
10
cla, unle he gi5e up hi o8n e4itence3 2e doe not belong to thi or that capitalit, but to the
capitalit cla; and it i -or him to -ind hi man F i3e3, to -ind a bu.er in thi capitalit cla3
,e-ore entering more cloel. upon the relation o- capital to 8age'labour, 8e hall preent brie-l.
the mot general condition 8hich come into conideration in the determination o- 8age3
Wage, a 8e ha5e een, are the price o- a certain commodit., labour'po8er3 Wage, there-ore, are
determined b. the ame la8 that determine the price o- e5er. other commodit.3 (he ;uetion
then i, 2o8 i the price o- a commodit. determinedA
By what is the price of a commodity determined?
,. the competition bet8een bu.er and eller, b. the relation o- the demand to the uppl., o- the
call to the o--er3 (he competition b. 8hich the price o- a commodit. i determined i three-old3
(he ame commodit. i o--ered -or ale b. 5ariou eller3 Whoe5er ell commoditie o- the
ame ;ualit. mot cheapl., i ure to dri5e the other eller -rom the -ield and to ecure the
greatet mar+et -or himel-3 (he eller there-ore -ight among themel5e -or the ale, -or the
mar+et3 ?ach one o- them 8ihe to ell, and to ell a much a poible, and i- poible to ell
alone, to the e4cluion o- all other eller3 ?ach one ell cheaper than the other3 (hu there ta+e
place a competition among the eller 8hich -orce do8n the price o- the commoditie o--ered b.
them3
,ut there i alo a competition among the bu.er; thi upon it ide caue the price o- the
pro--ered commoditie to rie3
Finall., there i competition bet8een the bu.er and the eller: thee 8ih to purchae a cheapl.
a poible, thoe to ell a dearl. a poible3 (he reult o- thi competition bet8een bu.er and
eller 8ill depend upon the relation bet8een the t8o abo5e'mentioned camp o- competitor F
i3e3, upon 8hether the competition in the arm. o- eller i tronger3 >ndutr. lead t8o great
armie into the -ield againt each other, and each o- thee again i engaged in a battle among it
o8n troop in it o8n ran+3 (he arm. among 8hoe troop there i le -ighting, carrie o-- the
5ictor. o5er the oppoing hot3
Let u uppoe that there are 100 bale o- cotton in the mar+et and at the ame time purchaer -or
1,000 bale o- cotton3 >n thi cae, the demand i 10 time greater than the uppl.3 Competition
among the bu.er, then, 8ill be 5er. trong; each o- them trie to get hold o- one bale, i- poible,
o- the 8hole 100 bale3 (hi e4ample i no arbitrar. uppoition3 >n the hitor. o- commerce 8e
ha5e e4perienced period o- carcit. o- cotton, 8hen ome capitalit united together and ought
to bu. up not 100 bale, but the 8hole cotton uppl. o- the 8orld3 >n the gi5en cae, then, one
bu.er ee+ to dri5e the other -rom the -ield b. o--ering a relati5el. higher price -or the bale o-
cotton3 (he cotton eller, 8ho percei5e the troop o- the enem. in the mot 5iolent contention
among themel5e, and 8ho there-ore are -ull. aured o- the ale o- their 8hole 100 bale, 8ill
be8are o- pulling one anotherM hair in order to -orce do8n the price o- cotton at the 5er. moment
in 8hich their opponent race 8ith one another to cre8 it up high3 So, all o- a udden, peace
reign in the arm. o- eller3 (he. tand oppoed to the bu.er li+e one man, -old their arm in
philoophic contentment and their claim 8ould -ind no limit did not the o--er o- e5en the mot
importunate o- bu.er ha5e a 5er. de-inite limit3
>-, then, the uppl. o- a commodit. i le than the demand -or it, competition among the eller
i 5er. light, or there ma. be none at all among them3 >n the ame proportion in 8hich thi
competition decreae, the competition among the bu.er increae3 #eult: a more or le
coniderable rie in the price o- commoditie3
11
>t i 8ell +no8n that the oppoite cae, 8ith the oppoite reult, happen more -re;uentl.3 6reat
e4ce o- uppl. o5er demand; deperate competition among the eller, and a lac+ o- bu.er;
-orced ale o- commoditie at ridiculoul. lo8 price3
,ut 8hat i a rie, and 8hat a -all o- priceA What i a high and 8hat a lo8 priceA % grain o- and
i high 8hen e4amined through a microcope, and a to8er i lo8 8hen compared 8ith a
mountain3 %nd i- the price i determined b. the relation o- uppl. and demand, b. 8hat i the
relation o- uppl. and demand determinedA
Let u turn to the -irt 8orth. citiDen 8e meet3 2e 8ill not heitate one moment, but, li+e
%le4ander the 6reat, 8ill cut thi metaph.ical +not 8ith hi multiplication table3 2e 8ill a. to
u: 9>- the production o- the commoditie 8hich > ell ha cot me 100 pound, and out o- the ale
o- thee good > ma+e 110 pound F 8ithin the .ear, .ou undertand F thatM an honet, ound,
reaonable pro-it3 ,ut i- in the e4change > recei5e 1/0 or 1C0 pound, thatM a higher pro-it; and i-
> hould get a much a /00 pound, that 8ould be an e4traordinar., and enormou pro-it3: What
i it, then, that er5e thi citiDen a the tandard o- hi pro-itA (he cot o- the production o- hi
commoditie3 >- in e4change -or thee good he recei5e a ;uantit. o- other good 8hoe
production ha cot le, he ha lot3 >- he recei5e in e4change -or hi good a ;uantit. o- other
good 8hoe production ha cot more, he ha gained3 %nd he rec+on the -alling or riing o- the
pro-it according to the degree at 8hich the e4change 5alue o- hi good tand, 8hether abo5e or
belo8 hi Dero F the cot o- production3
We ha5e een ho8 the changing relation o- uppl. and demand caue no8 a rie, no8 a -all o-
price; no8 high, no8 lo8 price3 >- the price o- a commodit. rie coniderabl. o8ing to a
-ailing uppl. or a diproportionatel. gro8ing demand, then the price o- ome other commodit.
mut ha5e -allen in proportion; -or o- coure the price o- a commodit. onl. e4pree in mone.
the proportion in 8hich other commoditie 8ill be gi5en in e4change -or it3 >-, -or e4ample, the
price o- a .ard o- il+ rie -rom t8o to three hilling, the price o- il5er ha -allen in relation to
the il+, and in the ame 8a. the price o- all other commoditie 8hoe price ha5e remained
tationar. ha5e -allen in relation to the price o- il+3 % large ;uantit. o- them mut be gi5en in
e4change in order to obtain the ame amount o- il+3 "o8, 8hat 8ill be the cone;uence o- a rie
in the price o- a particular commodit.A % ma o- capital 8ill be thro8n into the properou
branch o- indutr., and thi immigration o- capital into the pro5ince o- the -a5ored indutr. 8ill
continue until it .ield no more than the cutomar. pro-it, or, rather until the price o- it
product, o8ning to o5erproduction, in+ belo8 the cot o- production3
Con5erel.: i- the price o- a commodit. -all belo8 it cot o- production, then capital 8ill be
8ithdra8n -rom the production o- thi commodit.3 ?4cept in the cae o- a branch o- indutr.
8hich ha become obolete and i there-ore doomed to diappear, the production o- uch a
commodit. Hthat i, it uppl.I, 8ill, o8ning to thi -light o- capital, continue to decreae until it
correpond to the demand, and the price o- the commodit. rie again to the le5el o- it cot o-
production; or, rather, until the uppl. ha -allen belo8 the demand and it price ha rien abo5e
it cot o- production, -or the current price o- a commodit. i al8a. either abo5e or belo8 it
cot o- production3
We ee ho8 capital continuall. emigrate out o- the pro5ince o- one indutr. and immigrate into
that o- another3 (he high price produce an e4cei5e immigration, and the lo8 price an e4cei5e
emigration3
We could ho8, -rom another point o- 5ie8, ho8 not onl. the uppl., but alo the demand, i
determined b. the cot o- production3 ,ut thi 8ould lead u too -ar a8a. -rom our ubBect3
We ha5e But een ho8 the -luctuation o- uppl. and demand al8a. bring the price o- a
commodit. bac+ to it cot o- production3 (he actual price o- a commodit., indeed, tand al8a.
abo5e or belo8 the cot o- production; but the rie and -all reciprocall. balance each other, o
1/
that, 8ithin a certain period o- time, i- the ebb and -lo8 o- the indutr. are rec+oned up
together, the commoditie 8ill be e4changed -or one another in accordance 8ith their cot o-
production3 (heir price i thu determined b. their cot o- production3
(he determination o- price b. the cot o- production i not to be undertood in the ene o- the
bourgeoi economit3 (he economit a. that the a5erage price o- commoditie e;ual the cot
o- production: that i the la83 (he anarchic mo5ement, in 8hich the rie i compenated -or b. a
-all and the -all b. a rie, the. regard a an accident3 We might But a 8ell conider the
-luctuation a the la8, and the determination o- the price b. cot o- production a an accident F
a i, in -act, done b. certain other economit3 ,ut it i preciel. thee -luctuation 8hich,
5ie8ed more cloel., carr. the mot -right-ul de5atation in their train, and, li+e an earth;ua+e,
caue bourgeoi ociet. to ha+e to it 5er. -oundation F it i preciel. thee -luctuation that
-orce the price to con-orm to the cot o- production3 >n the totalit. o- thi diorderl. mo5ement i
to be -ound it order3 >n the total coure o- thi indutrial anarch., in thi circular mo5ement,
competition balance, a it 8ere, the one e4tra5agance b. the other3
We thu ee that the price o- a commodit. i indeed determined b. it cot o- production, but in
uch a manner that the period in 8hich the price o- thee commoditie rie abo5e the cot o-
production are balanced b. the period in 8hich it in+ belo8 the cot o- production, and 5ice
5era3 G- coure thi doe not hold good -or a ingle gi5en product o- an indutr., but onl. -or
that branch o- indutr.3 So alo it doe not hold good -or an indi5idual manu-acturer, but onl. -or
the 8hole cla o- manu-acturer3
(he determination o- price b. cot o- production i tantamount to the determination o- price b.
the labour'time re;uiite to the production o- a commodit., -or the cot o- production conit,
-irt o- ra8 material and 8ear and tear o- tool, etc3, i3e3, o- indutrial product 8hoe production
ha cot a certain number o- 8or+'da., 8hich there-ore repreent a certain amount o- labour'
time, and, econdl., o- direct labour, 8hich i alo meaured b. it duration3
By what are wages determined?
"o8, the ame general la8 8hich regulate the price o- commoditie in general, naturall.
regulate 8age, or the price o- labour'po8er3 Wage 8ill no8 rie, no8 -all, according to the
relation o- uppl. and demand, according a competition hape itel- bet8een the bu.er o-
labour'po8er, the capitalit, and the eller o- labour'po8er, the 8or+er3 (he -luctuation o-
8age correpond to the -luctuation in the price o- commoditie in general3 ,ut 8ithin the limit
o- thee -luctuation the price o- labour'po8er 8ill be determined b. the cot o- production, b.
the labour'time necear. -or production o- thi commodit.: labour'po8er3
What, then, i the cot o- production o- labour'po8erA
>t i the cot re;uired -or the maintenance o- the labourer a a labourer, and -or hi education and
training a a labourer3
(here-ore, the horter the time re;uired -or training up to a particular ort o- 8or+, the maller i
the cot o- production o- the 8or+er, the lo8er i the price o- hi labour'po8er, hi 8age3 >n
thoe branche o- indutr. in 8hich hardl. an. period o- apprenticehip i necear. and the mere
bodil. e4itence o- the 8or+er i u--icient, the cot o- hi production i limited almot
e4clui5el. to the commoditie necear. -or +eeping him in 8or+ing condition3 (he price o- hi
8or+ 8ill there-ore be determined b. the price o- the necear. mean o- ubitence3
2ere, ho8e5er, there enter another conideration3 (he manu-acturer 8ho calculate hi cot o-
production and, in accordance 8ith it, the price o- the product, ta+e into account the 8ear and
1C
tear o- the intrument o- labour3 >- a machine cot him, -or e4ample, 1,000 hilling, and thi
machine i ued up in 10 .ear, he add 100 hilling annuall. to the price o- the commoditie, in
order to be able a-ter 10 .ear to replace the 8orn'out machine 8ith a ne8 one3 >n the ame
manner, the cot o- production o- imple labour'po8er mut include the cot o- propagation, b.
mean o- 8hich the race o- 8or+er i enabled to multipl. itel-, and to replace 8orn'out 8or+er
8ith ne8 one3 (he 8ear and tear o- the 8or+er, there-ore, i calculated in the ame manner a the
8ear and tear o- the machine3
(hu, the cot o- production o- imple labour'po8er amount to the cot o- the e4itence and
propagation o- the 8or+er3 (he price o- thi cot o- e4itence and propagation contitute 8age3
(he 8age thu determined are called the minimum o- 8age3 (hi minimum 8age, li+e the
determination o- the price o- commoditie in general b. cot o- production, doe not hold good
-or the ingle indi5idual, but onl. -or the race3 >ndi5idual 8or+er, indeed, million o- 8or+er,
do not recei5e enough to be able to e4it and to propagate themel5e; but the 8age o- the 8hole
8or+ing cla adBut themel5e, 8ithin the limit o- their -luctuation, to thi minimum3
"o8 that 8e ha5e come to an undertanding in regard to the mot general la8 8hich go5ern
8age, a 8ell a the price o- e5er. other commodit., 8e can e4amine our ubBect more
particularl.3
The Nature and Growth of Capital
Capital conit o- ra8 material, intrument o- labour, and mean o- ubitence o- all +ind,
8hich are emplo.ed in producing ne8 ra8 material, ne8 intrument, and ne8 mean o-
ubitence3 %ll thee component o- capital are created b. labour, product o- labour,
accumulated labour3 %ccumulated labour that er5e a a mean to ne8 production i capital3
So a. the economit3
What i a "egro la5eA % man o- the blac+ race3 (he one e4planation i 8orth. o- the other3
% "egro i a "egro3 Gnl. under certain condition doe he become a la5e3 % cotton'pinning
machine i a machine -or pinning cotton3 Gnl. under certain condition doe it become capital3
(orn a8a. -rom thee condition, it i a little capital a gold i itel- mone., or ugar i the price
o- ugar3
>n the proce o- production, human being 8or+ not onl. upon nature, but alo upon one another3
(he. produce onl. b. 8or+ing together in a peci-ied manner and reciprocall. e4changing their
acti5itie3 >n order to produce, the. enter into de-inite connection and relation to one another,
and onl. 8ithin thee ocial connection and relation doe their in-luence upon nature operate F
i3e3, doe production ta+e place3
(hee ocial relation bet8een the producer, and the condition under 8hich the. e4change their
acti5itie and hare in the total act o- production, 8ill naturall. 5ar. according to the character o-
the mean o- production3 With the dico5er o- a ne8 intrument o- 8ar-are, the -irearm, the 8hole
internal organiDation o- the arm. 8a necearil. altered, the relation 8ithin 8hich indi5idual
compoe an arm. and can 8or+ a an arm. 8ere tran-ormed, and the relation o- di--erent armie
to another 8a li+e8ie changed3
We thu ee that the ocial relation 8ithin 8hich indi5idual produce, the ocial relation o-
production, are altered, tran-ormed, 8ith the change and de5elopment o- the material mean o-
production, o- the -orce o- production3 (he relation o- production in their totalit. contitute
14
8hat i called the ocial relation, ociet., and, moreo5er, a ociet. at a de-inite tage o- hitorical
de5elopment, a ociet. 8ith peculiar, ditincti5e characteritic3 %ncient ociet., -eudal ociet.,
bourgeoi Hor capitalitI ociet., are uch totalitie o- relation o- production, each o- 8hich
denote a particular tage o- de5elopment in the hitor. o- man+ind3
Capital alo i a ocial relation o- production3 >t i a bourgeoi relation o- production, a relation o-
production o- bourgeoi ociet.3 (he mean o- ubitence, the intrument o- labour, the ra8
material, o- 8hich capital conit F ha5e the. not been produced and accumulated under gi5en
ocial condition, 8ithin de-inite pecial relationA %re the. not emplo.ed -or ne8 production,
under gi5en pecial condition, 8ithin de-inite ocial relationA %nd doe not But the de-inite
ocial character tamp the product 8hich er5e -or ne8 production a capitalA
Capital conit not onl. o- mean o- ubitence, intrument o- labour, and ra8 material, not
onl. a material product; it conit But a much o- e4change 5alue3 %ll product o- 8hich it
conit are commoditie3 Capital, cone;uentl., i not onl. a um o- material product, it i a
um o- commoditie, o- e4change 5alue, o- ocial magnitude3 Capital remain the ame 8hether
8e put cotton in the place o- 8ool, rice in the place o- 8heat, teamhip in the place o- railroad,
pro5ided onl. that the cotton, the rice, the teamhip F the bod. o- capital F ha5e the ame
e4change 5alue, the ame price, a the 8ool, the 8heat, the railroad, in 8hich it 8a pre5ioul.
embodied3 (he bodil. -orm o- capital ma. tran-orm itel- continuall., 8hile capital doe not
u--er the leat alteration3
,ut though e5er. capital i a um o- commoditie F i3e3, o- e4change 5alue F it doe not -ollo8
that e5er. um o- commoditie, o- e4change 5alue, i capital3
?5er. um o- e4change 5alue i an e4change 5alue3 ?ach particular e4change 5alue i a um o-
e4change 5alue3 For e4ample: a houe 8orth 1,000 pound i an e4change 5alue o- 1,000
pound: a piece o- paper 8orth one penn. i a um o- e4change 5alue o- 100 1)100th o- a
penn.3 !roduct 8hich are e4changeable -or other are commoditie3 (he de-inite proportion in
8hich the. are e4changeable -orm their e4change 5alue, or, e4preed in mone., their price3 (he
;uantit. o- thee product can ha5e no e--ect on their character a commoditie, a repreenting
an e4change 5alue , a ha5ing a certain price3 Whether a tree be large or mall, it remain a tree3
Whether 8e e4change iron in penn.8eight or in hundred8eight, -or other product, doe thi
alter it character: it being a commodit., or e4change 5alueA %ccording to the ;uantit., it i a
commodit. o- greater or o- leer 5alue, o- higher or o- lo8er price3
2o8 then doe a um o- commoditie, o- e4change 5alue, become capitalA
(hereb., that a an independent ocial po8er F i3e3, a the po8er o- a part o- ociet. F it preer5e
itel- and multiplie b. e4change 8ith direct, li5ing labour'po8er3
(he e4itence o- a cla 8hich poee nothing but the abilit. to 8or+ i a necear.
preuppoition o- capital3
>t i onl. the dominion o- pat, accumulated, materialiDed labour o5er immediate li5ing labour
that tamp the accumulated labour 8ith the character o- capital3
Capital doe not conit in the -act that accumulated labour er5e li5ing labour a a mean -or
ne8 production3 >t conit in the -act that li5ing labour er5e accumulated labour a the mean
o- preer5ing and multipl.ing it e4change 5alue3
1&
Relation of Wage-Labour to Capital
What i it that ta+e place in the e4change bet8een the capitalit and the 8age'labourerA
(he labourer recei5e mean o- ubitence in e4change -or hi labour'po8er; the capitalit
recei5e, in e4change -or hi mean o- ubitence, labour, the producti5e acti5it. o- the labourer,
the creati5e -orce b. 8hich the 8or+er not onl. replace 8hat he conume, but alo gi5e to the
accumulated labour a greater 5alue than it pre5ioul. poeed3 (he labourer get -rom the
capitalit a portion o- the e4iting mean o- ubitence3 For 8hat purpoe do thee mean o-
ubitence er5e himA For immediate conumption3 ,ut a oon a > conume mean o-
ubitence, the. are irre5ocabl. lot to me, unle > emplo. the time during 8hich thee mean
utain m. li-e in producing ne8 mean o- ubitence, in creating b. m. labour ne8 5alue in
place o- the 5alue lot in conumption3 ,ut it i But thi noble reproducti5e po8er that the
labourer urrender to the capitalit in e4change -or mean o- ubitence recei5ed3 Cone;uentl.,
he ha lot it -or himel-3
Let u ta+e an e4ample3 For one hilling a labourer 8or+ all da. long in the -ield o- a -armer, to
8hom he thu ecure a return o- t8o hilling3 (he -armer not onl. recei5e the replaced 5alue
8hich he ha gi5en to the da. labourer, he ha doubled it3 (here-ore, he ha conumed the one
hilling that he ga5e to the da. labourer in a -ruit-ul, producti5e manner3 For the one hilling he
ha bought the labour'po8er o- the da.'labourer, 8hich create product o- the oil o- t8ice the
5alue, and out o- one hilling ma+e t8o3 (he da.'labourer, on the contrar., recei5e in the place
o- hi producti5e -orce, 8hoe reult he ha But urrendered to the -armer, one hilling, 8hich he
e4change -or mean o- ubitence, 8hich he conume more or le ;uic+l.3 (he one hilling
ha there-ore been conumed in a double manner F reproducti5el. -or the capitalit, -or it ha
been e4changed -or labour'po8er, 8hich brought -orth t8o hilling; unproducti5el. -or the
8or+er, -or it ha been e4changed -or mean o- ubitence 8hich are lot -or e5er, and 8hoe
5alue he can obtain again onl. b. repeating the ame e4change 8ith the -armer3 Capital there-ore
preuppoe 8age'labour; 8age'labour preuppoe capital3 (he. condition each other; each
bring the other into e4itence3
Doe a 8or+er in a cotton -actor. produce onl. cottonA "o3 2e produce capital3 2e produce
5alue 8hich er5e ane8 to command hi 8or+ and to create b. mean o- it ne8 5alue3
Capital can multipl. itel- onl. b. e4changing itel- -or labour'po8er, b. calling 8age'labour
into li-e3 (he labour'po8er o- the 8age'labourer can e4change itel- -or capital onl. b. increaing
capital, b. trengthening that 5er. po8er 8hoe la5e it i3 >ncreae o- capital, there-ore, i
increae o- the proletariat, i3e3, o- the 8or+ing cla3
%nd o, the bourgeoiie and it economit maintain that the interet o- the capitalit and o- the
labourer i the ame3 %nd in -act, o the. areJ (he 8or+er perihe i- capital doe not +eep him
bu.3 Capital perihe i- it doe not e4ploit labour'po8er, 8hich, in order to e4ploit, it mut bu.3
(he more ;uic+l. the capital detined -or production F the producti5e capital F increae, the
more properou indutr. i, the more the bourgeoiie enriche itel-, the better buine get, o
man. more 8or+er doe the capitalit need, o much the dearer doe the 8or+er ell himel-3 (he
-atet poible gro8th o- producti5e capital i, there-ore, the indipenable condition -or a
tolerable li-e to the labourer3
,ut 8hat i gro8th o- producti5e capitalA 6ro8th o- the po8er o- accumulated labour o5er li5ing
labour; gro8th o- the rule o- the bourgeoiie o5er the 8or+ing cla3 When 8age'labour produce
the alien 8ealth dominating it, the po8er hotile to it, capital, there -lo8 bac+ to it it mean o-
emplo.ment F i3e3, it mean o- ubitence, under the condition that it again become a part o-
11
capital, that i become again the le5er 8hereb. capital i to be -orced into an accelerated
e4pani5e mo5ement3
(o a. that the interet o- capital and the interet o- the 8or+er are identical, igni-ie onl. thi:
that capital and 8age'labour are t8o ide o- one and the ame relation3 (he one condition the
other in the ame 8a. that the uurer and the borro8er condition each other3
% long a the 8age'labourer remain a 8age'labourer, hi lot i dependent upon capital3 (hat i
8hat the boated communit. o- interet bet8een 8or+er and capitalit amount to3
>- capital gro8, the ma o- 8age'labour gro8, the number o- 8age'8or+er increae; in a
8ord, the 8a. o- capital e4tend o5er a greater ma o- indi5idual3
Let u uppoe the mot -a5orable cae: i- producti5e capital gro8, the demand -or labour gro83
>t there-ore increae the price o- labour'po8er, 8age3
% houe ma. be large or mall; a long a the neighboring houe are li+e8ie mall, it ati-ie
all ocial re;uirement -or a reidence3 ,ut let there arie ne4t to the little houe a palace, and the
little houe hrin+ to a hut3 (he little houe no8 ma+e it clear that it inmate ha no ocial
poition at all to maintain, or but a 5er. inigni-icant one; and ho8e5er high it ma. hoot up in
the coure o- ci5iliDation, i- the neighboring palace rie in e;ual or e5en in greater meaure, the
occupant o- the relati5el. little houe 8ill al8a. -ind himel- more uncom-ortable, more
diati-ied, more cramped 8ithin hi -our 8all3
%n appreciable rie in 8age preuppoe a rapid gro8th o- producti5e capital3 #apid gro8th o-
producti5e capital call -orth But a rapid a gro8th o- 8ealth, o- lu4ur., o- ocial need and ocial
pleaure3 (here-ore, although the pleaure o- the labourer ha5e increaed, the ocial
grati-ication 8hich the. a--ord ha -allen in comparion 8ith the increaed pleaure o- the
capitalit, 8hich are inacceible to the 8or+er, in comparion 8ith the tage o- de5elopment o-
ociet. in general3 Gur 8ant and pleaure ha5e their origin in ociet.; 8e there-ore meaure
them in relation to ociet.; 8e do not meaure them in relation to the obBect 8hich er5e -or their
grati-ication3 Since the. are o- a ocial nature, the. are o- a relati5e nature3
,ut 8age are not at all determined merel. b. the um o- commoditie -or 8hich the. ma. be
e4changed3 Gther -actor enter into the problem3 What the 8or+er directl. recei5e -or their
labour'po8er i a certain um o- mone.3 %re 8age determined merel. b. thi mone. priceA
>n the 11th centur., the gold and il5er circulation in ?urope increaed in cone;uence o- the
dico5er. o- richer and more eail. 8or+ed mine in %merica3 (he 5alue o- gold and il5er,
there-ore, -ell in relation to other commoditie3 (he 8or+er recei5ed the ame amount o- coined
il5er -or their labour'po8er a be-ore3 (he mone. price o- their 8or+ remained the ame, and .et
their 8age had -allen, -or in e4change -or the ame amount o- il5er the. obtained a maller
amount o- other commoditie3 (hi 8a one o- the circumtance 8hich -urthered the gro8th o-
capital, the rie o- the bourgeoiie, in the 18th centur.3
Let u ta+e another cae3 >n the 8inter o- 1847, in cone;uence o- bad har5et, the mot
indipenable mean o- ubitence F grain, meat, butter, cheee, etc3 F roe greatl. in price3 Let
u uppoe that the 8or+er till recei5ed the ame um o- mone. -or their labour'po8er a
be-ore3 Did not their 8age -allA (o be ure3 For the ame mone. the. recei5ed in e4change le
bread, meat, etc3 (heir 8age -ell, not becaue the 5alue o- il5er 8a le, but becaue the 5alue
o- the mean o- ubitence had increaed3
Finall., let u uppoe that the mone. price o- labour'po8er remained the ame, 8hile all
agricultural and manu-actured commoditie had -allen in price becaue o- the emplo.ment o- ne8
machine, o- -a5orable eaon, etc3 For the ame mone. the 8or+er could no8 bu. more
commoditie o- all +ind3 (heir 8age ha5e there-ore rien, But becaue their mone. 5alue ha
not changed3
17
(he mone. price o- labour'po8er, the nominal 8age, do not there-ore coincide 8ith the actual or
real 8age F i3e3, 8ith the amount o- commoditie 8hich are actuall. gi5en in e4change -or the
8age3 >- then 8e pea+ o- a rie or -all o- 8age, 8e ha5e to +eep in mind not onl. the mone.
price o- labour'po8er, the nominal 8age, but alo the real 8age3
,ut neither the nominal 8age F i3e3, the amount o- mone. -or 8hich the labourer ell himel- to
the capitalit F nor the real 8age F i3e3, the amount o- commoditie 8hich he can bu. -or thi
mone. F e4haut the relation 8hich are comprehended in the term 8age3
Wage are determined abo5e all b. their relation to the gain, the pro-it, o- the capitalit3 >n other
8ord, 8age are a proportionate, relati5e ;uantit.3
#eal 8age e4pre the price o- labour'po8er in relation to the price o- commoditie; relati5e
8age, on the other hand, e4pre the hare o- immediate labour in the 5alue ne8l. created b. it,
in relation to the hare o- it 8hich -all to accumulated labour, to capital3
The General Law that Determines the Rise and
Fall of Wages and Profts
We ha5e aid: 9Wage are not a hare o- the 8or+er in the commoditie produced b. him3 Wage
are that part o- alread. e4iting commoditie 8ith 8hich the capitalit bu. a certain amount o-
producti5e labour'po8er3: ,ut the capitalit mut replace thee 8age out o- the price -or 8hich
he ell the product made b. the 8or+er; he mut o replace it that, a a rule, there remain to him
a urplu abo5e the cot o- production e4pended b. him, that i, he mut get a pro-it3
(he elling price o- the commoditie produced b. the 8or+er i di5ided, -rom the point o- 5ie8 o-
the capitalit, into three part:
Firt, the replacement o- the price o- the ra8 material ad5anced b. him, in addition to the
replacement o- the 8ear and tear o- the tool, machine, and other intrument o- labour li+e8ie
ad5anced b. him;
Second, the replacement o- the 8age ad5anced; and
(hird, the urplu le-to5er F i3e3, the pro-it o- the capitalit3
While the -irt part merel. replace pre5ioul. e4iting 5alue, it i e5ident that the replacement
o- the 8age and the urplu Hthe pro-it o- capitalI are a a 8hole ta+en out o- the ne8 5alue,
8hich i produced b. the labour o- the 8or+er and added to the ra8 material3 %nd in thi ene
8e can 5ie8 8age a 8ell a pro-it, -or the purpoe o- comparing them 8ith each other, a hare
in the product o- the 8or+er3
#eal 8age ma. remain the ame, the. ma. e5en rie, ne5erthele the relati5e 8age ma. -all3
Let u uppoe, -or intance, that all mean o- ubitence ha5e -allen /)Crd in price, 8hile the
da.M 8age ha5e -allen but 1)Crd F -or e4ample, -rom three to t8o hilling3 %lthough the 8or+er
can no8 get a greater amount o- commoditie 8ith thee t8o hilling than he -ormerl. did 8ith
three hilling, .et hi 8age ha5e decreaed in proportion to the gain o- the capitalit3 (he pro-it
o- the capitalit F the manu-acturerM -or intance F ha increaed one hilling, 8hich mean that
-or a maller amount o- e4change 5alue, 8hich he pa. to the 8or+er, the latter mut produce a
greater amount o- e4change 5alue than be-ore3 (he hare o- capital in proportion to the hare o-
labour ha rien3 (he ditribution o- ocial 8ealth bet8een capital and labour ha become till
18
more une;ual3 (he capitalit command a greater amount o- labour 8ith the ame capital3 (he
po8er o- the capitalit cla o5er the 8or+ing cla ha gro8n, the ocial poition o- the 8or+er
ha become 8ore, ha been -orced do8n till another degree belo8 that o- the capitalit3
What, then, i the general la8 that determine the rie and -all o- 8age and pro-it in their
reciprocal relationA
(he. tand in in5ere proportion to each other3 (he hare o- Hpro-itI increae in the ame
proportion in 8hich the hare o- labour H8ageI -all, and 5ice 5era3 !ro-it rie in the ame
degree in 8hich 8age -all; it -all in the ame degree in 8hich 8age rie3
>t might perhap be argued that the capitalit cla can gain b. an ad5antageou e4change o- hi
product 8ith other capitalit, b. a rie in the demand -or hi commoditie, 8hether in
cone;uence o- the opening up o- ne8 mar+et, or in cone;uence o- temporaril. increaed
demand in the old mar+et, and o on; that the pro-it o- the capitalit, there-ore, ma. be multiplied
b. ta+ing ad5antage o- other capitalit, independentl. o- the rie and -all o- 8age, o- the
e4change 5alue o- labour'po8er; or that the pro-it o- the capitalit ma. alo rie through
impro5ement in the intrument o- labour, ne8 application o- the -orce o- nature, and o on3
,ut in the -irt place it mut be admitted that the reult remain the ame, although brought about
in an oppoite manner3 !ro-it, indeed, ha not rien becaue 8age ha5e -allen, but 8age ha5e
-allen becaue pro-it ha rien3 With the ame amount o- another manM labour the capitalit ha
bought a larger amount o- e4change 5alue 8ithout ha5ing paid more -or the labour on that
account F i3e3, the 8or+ i paid -or le in proportion to the net gain 8hich it .ield to the
capitalit3
>n the econd place, it mut be borne in mind that, depite the -luctuation in the price o-
commoditie, the a5erage price o- e5er. commodit., the proportion in 8hich it e4change -or
other commoditie, i determined b. it cot o- production3 (he act o- o5erreaching and ta+ing
ad5antage o- one another 8ithin the capitalit ran+ necearil. e;ualiDe themel5e3 (he
impro5ement o- machiner., the ne8 application o- the -orce o- nature in the er5ice o-
production, ma+e it poible to produce in a gi5en period o- time, 8ith the ame amount o- labour
and capital, a larger amount o- product, but in no 8ie a larger amount o- e4change 5alue3 >- b.
the ue o- the pinning'machine > can -urnih t8ice a much .arn in an hour a be-ore it
in5ention F -or intance, 100 pound intead o- &0 pound F in the long run > recei5e bac+, in
e4change -or thi 100 pound no more commoditie than > did be-ore -or &0; becaue the cot o-
production ha -allen b. 1)/, or becaue > can -urnih double the product at the ame cot3
Finall., in 8hatoe5er proportion the capitalit cla, 8hether o- one countr. or o- the entire
8orld'mar+et, ditribute the net re5enue o- production among themel5e, the total amount o- thi
net re5enue al8a. conit e4clui5el. o- the amount b. 8hich accumulated labour ha been
increaed -rom the proceed o- direct labour3 (hi 8hole amount, there-ore, gro8 in the ame
proportion in 8hich labour augment capital F i3e3, in the ame proportion in 8hich pro-it rie a
compared 8ith 8age3
19
The Interests of Capital and Wage-Labour are
diametrically opposed.
Efect of growth of productive Capital on
Wages
We thu ee that, e5en i- 8e +eep ourel5e 8ithin the relation o- capital and 8age'labour, the
interet o- capital and the interet o- 8age'labour are diametricall. oppoed to each other3
% rapid gro8th o- capital i .non.mou 8ith a rapid gro8th o- pro-it3 !ro-it can gro8 rapidl.
onl. 8hen the price o- labour F the relati5e 8age F decreae But a rapidl.3 #elati5e 8age ma.
-all, although real 8age rie imultaneoul. 8ith nominal 8age, 8ith the mone. 5alue o-
labour, pro5ided onl. that the real 8age doe not rie in the ame proportion a the pro-it3 >-, -or
intance, in good buine .ear 8age rie & per cent, 8hile pro-it rie C0 per cent, the
proportional, the relati5e 8age ha not increaed, but decreaed3
>-, there-ore, the income o- the 8or+er increaed 8ith the rapid gro8th o- capital, there i at the
ame time a 8idening o- the ocial cham that di5ide the 8or+er -rom the capitalit, and increae
in the po8er o- capital o5er labour, a greater dependence o- labour upon capital3
(o a. that 9the 8or+er ha an interet in the rapid gro8th o- capital:, mean onl. thi: that the
more peedil. the 8or+er augment the 8ealth o- the capitalit, the larger 8ill be the crumb
8hich -all to him, the greater 8ill be the number o- 8or+er than can be called into e4itence, the
more can the ma o- la5e dependent upon capital be increaed3
We ha5e thu een that e5en the mot -a5orable ituation -or the 8or+ing cla, namel., the mot
rapid gro8th o- capital, ho8e5er much it ma. impro5e the material li-e o- the 8or+er, doe not
abolih the antagonim bet8een hi interet and the interet o- the capitalit3 !ro-it and 8age
remain a be-ore, in in5ere proportion3
>- capital gro8 rapidl., 8age ma. rie, but the pro-it o- capital rie diproportionatel. -ater3
(he material poition o- the 8or+er ha impro5ed, but at the cot o- hi ocial poition3 (he ocial
cham that eparate him -rom the capitalit ha 8idened3
Finall., to a. that 9the mot -a5orable condition -or 8age'labour i the -atet poible gro8th o-
producti5e capital:, i the ame a to a.: the ;uic+er the 8or+ing cla multiplie and augment
the po8er inimical to it F the 8ealth o- another 8hich lord o5er that cla F the more -a5orable
8ill be the condition under 8hich it 8ill be permitted to toil ane8 at the multiplication o-
bourgeoi 8ealth, at the enlargement o- the po8er o- capital, content thu to -orge -or itel- the
golden chain b. 8hich the bourgeoiie drag it in it train3
6ro8th o- producti5e capital and rie o- 8age, are the. reall. o indiolubl. united a the
bourgeoi economit maintainA We mut not belie5e their mere 8ord3 We dare not belie5e them
e5en 8hen the. claim that the -atter capital i the more 8ill it la5e be pampered3 (he
bourgeoiie i too much enlightened, it +eep it account much too care-ull., to hare the
preBudice o- the -eudal lord, 8ho ma+e an otentatiou dipla. o- the magni-icence o- hi
retinue3 (he condition o- e4itence o- the bourgeoiie compel it to attend care-ull. to it
boo++eeping3 We mut there-ore e4amine more cloel. into the -ollo8ing ;uetion:
/0
In what manner does the growth of productive
capital afect wages?
>- a a 8hole, the producti5e capital o- bourgeoi ociet. gro8, there ta+e place a more man.'
ided accumulation o- labour3 (he indi5idual capital increae in number and in magnitude3 (he
multiplication o- indi5idual capital increae the competition among capitalit3 (he increaing
magnitude o- increaing capital pro5ide the mean o- leading more po8er-ul armie o- 8or+er
8ith more gigantic intrument o- 8ar upon the indutrial battle-ield3
(he one capitalit can dri5e the other -rom the -ield and carr. o-- hi capital onl. b. elling more
cheapl.3 >n order to ell more cheapl. 8ithout ruining himel-, he mut produce more cheapl. F
i3e3, increae the producti5e -orce o- labour a much a poible3
,ut the producti5e -orce o- labour i increaed abo5e all b. a greater di5iion o- labour and b. a
more general introduction and contant impro5ement o- machiner.3 (he larger the arm. o-
8or+er among 8hom the labour i ubdi5ided, the more gigantic the cale upon 8hich
machiner. i introduced, the more in proportion doe the cot o- production decreae, the more
-ruit-ul i the labour3 %nd o there arie among the capitalit a uni5eral ri5alr. -or the increae
o- the di5iion o- labour and o- machiner. and -or their e4ploitation upon the greatet poible
cale3
>-, no8, b. a greater di5iion o- labour, b. the application and impro5ement o- ne8 machine, b.
a more ad5antageou e4ploitation o- the -orce o- nature on a larger cale, a capitalit ha -ound
the mean o- producing 8ith the ame amount o- labour H8hether it be direct or accumulated
labourI a larger amount o- product o- commoditie than hi competitor F i-, -or intance, he can
produce a 8hole .ard o- linen in the ame labour'time in 8hich hi competitor 8ea5e hal-'a'
.ard F ho8 8ill thi capitalit actA
2e could +eep on elling hal-'a'.ard o- linen at old mar+et price; but thi 8ould not ha5e the
e--ect o- dri5ing hi opponent -rom the -ield and enlarging hi o8n mar+et3 ,ut hi need o- a
mar+et ha increaed in the ame meaure in 8hich hi producti5e po8er ha e4tended3 (he more
po8er-ul and cotl. mean o- production that he ha called into e4itence enable him, it i true, to
ell hi 8are more cheapl., but the. compel him at the ame time to ell more 8are, to get
control o- a 5er. much greater mar+et -or hi commoditie; cone;uentl., thi capitalit 8ill ell
hi hal-'.ard o- linen more cheapl. than hi competitor3
,ut the capitalit 8ill not ell the 8hole .ard o cheapl. a hi competitor ell the hal-'.ard,
although the production o- the 8hole .ard cot him no more than doe that o- the hal-'.ard to the
other3 Gther8ie, he 8ould ma+e no e4tra pro-it, and 8ould get bac+ in e4change onl. the cot
o- production3 2e might obtain a greater income -rom ha5ing et in motion a larger capital, but
not -rom ha5ing made a greater pro-it on hi capital than the other3 *oreo5er, he attain the
obBect he i aiming at i- he price hi good onl. a mall percentage lo8er than hi competitor3
2e dri5e them o-- the -ield, he 8ret -rom them at leat part o- their mar+et, b. underelling
them3
%nd -inall., let u remember that the current price al8a. tand either abo5e or belo8 the cot o-
production, according a the ale o- a commodit. ta+e place in the -a5orable or un-a5orable
period o- the indutr.3 %ccording a the mar+et price o- the .ard o- linen tand abo5e or belo8
it -ormer cot o- production, 8ill the percentage 5ar. at 8hich the capitalit 8ho ha made ue o-
the ne8 and more -aith-ul mean o- production ell abo5e hi real cot o- production3
,ut the pri5ilege o- our capitalit i not o- long duration3 Gther competing capitalit introduce
the ame machine, the ame di5iion o- labour, and introduce them upon the ame or e5en upon
a greater cale3 %nd -inall. thi introduction become o uni5eral that the price o- the linen i
lo8ered not onl. belo8 it old, but e5en belo8 it ne8 cot o- production3
/1
(he capitalit there-ore -ind themel5e, in their mutual relation, in the ame ituation in 8hich
the. 8ere be-ore the introduction o- the ne8 mean o- production; and i- the. are b. thee mean
enabled to o--er double the product at the old price, the. are no8 -orced to -urnih double the
product -or le than the old price3 2a5ing arri5ed at the ne8 point, the ne8 cot o- production,
the battle -or upremac. in the mar+et ha to be -ought out ane83 6i5en more di5iion o- labour
and more machiner., and there reult a greater cale upon 8hich di5iion o- labour and
machiner. are e4ploited3 %nd competition again bring the ame reaction againt thi reult3
Efect of Capitalist Competition on the Capitalist
Class
the Middle Class and the Working Class
We thu ee ho8 the method o- production and the mean o- production are contantl. enlarged,
re5olutioniDed, ho8 di5iion o- labour necearil. dra8 a-ter it greater di5iion o- labour, the
emplo.ment o- machiner. greater emplo.ment o- machiner., 8or+ upon a large cale 8or+ upon
a till greater cale3 (hi i the la8 that continuall. thro8 capitalit production out o- it old rut
and compel capital to train e5er more the producti5e -orce o- labour -or the 5er. reaon that it
ha alread. trained them F the la8 that grant it no repite, and contantl. hout in it ear:
*archJ marchJ (hi i no other la8 than that 8hich, 8ithin the periodical -luctuation o-
commerce, necearil. adBut the price o- a commodit. to it cot o- production3
"o matter ho8 po8er-ul the mean o- production 8hich a capitalit ma. bring into the -ield,
competition 8ill ma+e their adoption general; and -rom the moment that the. ha5e been generall.
adopted, the ole reult o- the greater producti5ene o- hi capital 8ill be that he mut -urnih at
the ame price, 10, /0, 100 time a much a be-ore3 ,ut ince he mut -ind a mar+et -or, perhap,
1,000 time a much, in order to out8eigh the lo8er elling price b. the greater ;uantit. o- the
ale; ince no8 a more e4teni5e ale i necear. not onl. to gain a greater pro-it, but alo in
order to replace the cot o- production Hthe intrument o- production itel- gro8 al8a. more
cotl., a 8e ha5e eenI, and ince thi more e4teni5e ale ha become a ;uetion o- li-e and
death not onl. -or him, but alo -or hi ri5al, the old truggle mut begin again, and it i all the
more 5iolent the more po8er-ul the mean o- production alread. in5ented are3 (he di5iion o-
labour and the application o- machiner. 8ill there-ore ta+e a -reh tart, and upon an e5en greater
cale3
Whate5er be the po8er o- the mean o- production 8hich are emplo.ed, competition ee+ to rob
capital o- the golden -ruit o- thi po8er b. reducing the price o- commoditie to the cot o-
production; in the ame meaure in 8hich production i cheapened ' i3e3, in the ame meaure in
8hich more can be produced 8ith the ame amount o- labour F it compel b. a la8 8hich i
irreitible a till greater cheapening o- production, the ale o- e5er greater mae o- product -or
maller price3 (hu the capitalit 8ill ha5e gained nothing more b. hi e--ort than the obligation
to -urnih a greater product in the ame labour'time; in a 8ord, more di--icult condition -or the
pro-itable emplo.ment o- hi capital3 While competition, there-ore, contantl. purue him 8ith
it la8 o- the cot o- production and turn againt himel- e5er. 8eapon that he -orge againt hi
ri5al, the capitalit continuall. ee+ to get the bet o- competition b. retlel. introducing
//
-urther ubdi5iion o- labour and ne8 machine, 8hich, though more e4peni5e, enable him to
produce more cheapl., intead o- 8aiting until the ne8 machine hall ha5e been rendered
obolete b. competition3
>- 8e no8 concei5e thi -e5erih agitation a it operate in the mar+et o- the 8hole 8orld, 8e
hall be in a poition to comprehend ho8 the gro8th, accumulation, and concentration o- capital
bring in their train an e5er more detailed ubdi5iion o- labour, an e5er greater impro5ement o-
old machine, and a contant application o- ne8 machine F a proce 8hich goe on
uninterruptedl., 8ith -e5erih hate, and upon an e5er more gigantic cale3
,ut 8hat e--ect do thee condition, 8hich are ineparable -rom the gro8th o- producti5e capital,
ha5e upon the determination o- 8ageA
(he greater di5iion o- labour enable one labourer to accomplih the 8or+ o- -i5e, 10, or /0
labourer; it there-ore increae competition among the labourer -i5e-old, ten-old, or t8ent.-old3
(he labourer compete not onl. b. elling themel5e one cheaper than the other, but alo b. one
doing the 8or+ o- -i5e, 10, or /0; and the. are -orced to compete in thi manner b. the di5iion o-
labour, 8hich i introduced and teadil. impro5ed b. capital3
Furthermore, to the ame degree in 8hich the di5iion o- labour increae, i the labour
impli-ied3 (he pecial +ill o- the labourer become 8orthle3 2e become tran-ormed into a
imple monotonou -orce o- production, 8ith neither ph.ical nor mental elaticit.3 2i 8or+
become acceible to all; there-ore competitor pre upon him -rom all ide3 *oreo5er, it mut
be remembered that the more imple, the more eail. learned the 8or+ i, o much the le i it
cot to production, the e4pene o- it ac;uiition, and o much the lo8er mut the 8age in+ F
-or, li+e the price o- an. other commodit., the. are determined b. the cot o- production3
(here-ore, in the ame manner in 8hich labour become more unati-actor., more repuli5e, do
competition increae and 8age decreae3
(he labourer ee+ to maintain the total o- hi 8age -or a gi5en time b. per-orming more labour,
either b. 8or+ing a great number o- hour, or b. accomplihing more in the ame number o-
hour3 (hu, urged on b. 8ant, he himel- multiplie the diatrou e--ect o- di5iion o- labour3
(he reult i: the more he 8or+, the le 8age he recei5e3 %nd -or thi imple reaon: the more
he 8or+, the more he compete againt hi -ello8 8or+men, the more he compel them to
compete againt him, and to o--er themel5e on the ame 8retched condition a he doe; o that,
in the lat anal.i, he compete againt himel- a a member o- the 8or+ing cla3
*achiner. produce the ame e--ect, but upon a much larger cale3 >t upplant +illed labourer
b. un+illed, men b. 8omen, adult b. children; 8here ne8l. introduced, it thro8 8or+er upon
the treet in great mae; and a it become more highl. de5eloped and more producti5e it
dicard them in additional though maller number3
We ha5e hatil. +etched in broad outline the indutrial 8ar o- capitalit among themel5e3
(hi 8ar ha the peculiarit. that the battle in it are 8on le b. recruiting than b. dicharging the
arm. o- 8or+er3 (he general Hthe capitalitI 5ie 8ith one another a to 8ho can dicharge the
greatet number o- indutrial oldier3
(he economit tell u, to be ure, that thoe labourer 8ho ha5e been rendered uper-luou b.
machiner. -ind ne8 5enue o- emplo.ment3 (he. dare not aert directl. that the ame labourer
that ha5e been dicharged -ind ituation in ne8 branche o- labour3 Fact cr. out too loudl.
againt thi lie3 Strictl. pea+ing, the. onl. maintain that ne8 mean o- emplo.ment 8ill be
-ound -or other ection o- the 8or+ing cla; -or e4ample, -or that portion o- the .oung
generation o- labourer 8ho 8ere about to enter upon that branch o- indutr. 8hich had But been
abolihed3 G- coure, thi i a great ati-action to the diabled labourer3 (here 8ill be no lac+ o-
-reh e4ploitable blood and mucle -or the *er3 Capitalit F the dead ma. bur. their dead3
(hi conolation eem to be intended more -or the com-ort o- the capitalit themel5e than
/C
their labourer3 >- the 8hole cla o- the 8age'labourer 8ere to be annihilated b. machiner., ho8
terrible that 8ould be -or capital, 8hich, 8ithout 8age'labour, ceae to be capitalJ
,ut e5en i- 8e aume that all 8ho are directl. -orced out o- emplo.ment b. machiner., a 8ell
a all o- the riing generation 8ho 8ere 8aiting -or a chance o- emplo.ment in the ame branch
o- indutr., do actuall. -ind ome ne8 emplo.ment F are 8e to belie5e that thi ne8 emplo.ment
8ill pa. a high 8age a did the one the. ha5e lotA >- it did, it 8ould be in contradiction to the
la8 o- political econom.3 We ha5e een ho8 modern indutr. al8a. tend to the ubtitution o-
the impler and more ubordinate emplo.ment -or the higher and more comple4 one3 2o8,
then, could a ma o- 8or+er thro8n out o- one branch o- indutr. b. machiner. -ind re-uge in
another branch, unle the. 8ere to be paid more poorl.A
%n e4ception to the la8 ha been adduced, namel., the 8or+er 8ho are emplo.ed in the
manu-acture o- machiner. itel-3 % oon a there i in indutr. a greater demand -or and a
greater conumption o- machiner., it i aid that the number o- machine mut necearil.
increae; cone;uentl., alo, the manu-acture o- machine; cone;uentl., alo, the emplo.ment o-
8or+er in machine manu-acture; and the 8or+er emplo.ed in thi branch o- indutr. are +illed,
e5en educated, 8or+er3
Since the .ear 1840 thi aertion, 8hich e5en be-ore that date 8a onl. hal-'true, ha lot all
emblance o- truth; -or the mot di5ere machine are no8 applied to the manu-acture o- the
machine themel5e on ;uite a e4teni5e a cale a in the manu-acture o- cotton .arn, and the
labourer emplo.ed in machine -actorie can but pla. the role o- 5er. tupid machine alongide
o- the highl. ingeniou machine3
,ut in place o- the man 8ho ha been dimied b. the machine, the -actor. ma. emplo.,
perhap, three children and one 8omanJ %nd mut not the 8age o- the man ha5e pre5ioul.
u--iced -or the three children and one 8omanA *ut not the minimum 8age ha5e u--iced -or
the preer5ation and propagation o- the raceA What, then, do thee belo5ed bourgeoi phrae
pro5eA "othing more than that no8 -our time a man. 8or+erM li5e are ued up a there 8ere
pre5ioul., in order to obtain the li5elihood o- one 8or+ing -amil.3
(o um up: the more producti5e capital gro8, the more it e4tend the di5iion o- labour and the
application o- machiner.; the more the di5iion o- labour and the application o- machiner.
e4tend, the more doe competition e4tend among the 8or+er, the more do their 8age hrin+
together3
>n addition, the 8or+ing cla i alo recruited -rom the higher trata o- ociet.; a ma o- mall
buine men and o- people li5ing upon the interet o- their capital i precipitated into the ran+
o- the 8or+ing cla, and the. 8ill ha5e nothing ele to do than to tretch out their arm alongide
o- the arm o- the 8or+er3 (hu the -oret o- outtretched arm, begging -or 8or+, gro8 e5er
thic+er, 8hile the arm themel5e gro8 e5er. leaner3
>t i e5ident that the mall manu-acturer cannot ur5i5e in a truggle in 8hich the -irt condition
o- ucce i production upon an e5er greater cale3 >t i e5ident that the mall manu-acturer and
thereb. increaing the number o- candidate -or the proletariat F all thi re;uire no -urther
elucidation3
Finall., in the ame meaure in 8hich the capitalit are compelled, b. the mo5ement decribed
abo5e, to e4ploit the alread. e4iting gigantic mean o- production on an e5er'increaing cale,
and -or thi purpoe to et in motion all the mainpring o- credit, in the ame meaure do the.
increae the indutrial earth;ua+e, in the midt o- 8hich the commercial 8orld can preer5e
itel- onl. b. acri-icing a portion o- it 8ealth, it product, and e5en it -orce o- production, to
the god o- the lo8er 8orld F in hort, the crie increae3 (he. become more -re;uent and more
5iolent, i- -or no other reaon, than -or thi alone, that in the ame meaure in 8hich the ma o-
product gro8, and there-ore the need -or e4teni5e mar+et, in the ame meaure doe the
/4
8orld mar+et hrin+ e5er more, and e5er -e8er mar+et remain to be e4ploited, ince e5er.
pre5iou crii ha ubBected to the commerce o- the 8orld a hitherto uncon;uered or but
uper-iciall. e4ploited mar+et3
,ut capital not onl. li5e upon labour3 Li+e a mater, at once ditinguihed and barbarou, it drag
8ith it into it gra5e the corpe o- it la5e, 8hole hecatomb o- 8or+er, 8ho perih in the
crie3
We thu ee that i- capital gro8 rapidl., competition among the 8or+er gro8 8ith e5en greater
rapidit. F i3e3, the mean o- emplo.ment and ubitence -or the 8or+ing cla decreae in
proportion e5en more rapidl.; but, thi not8ithtanding, the rapid gro8th o- capital i the mot
-a5orable condition -or 8age'labour3
/&