MENC: The National Association for Music Education

Historical Perspectives on Technology and Music

Author(s): Peter Webster
Source: Music Educators Journal, Vol. 89, No. 1, Special Focus: Changing Perspectives in Music
Education (Sep., 2002), pp. 38-43+54
Published by: MENC: The National Association for Music Education
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3399883
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http://www.jstor.org
Historical
Perspectives
on
Techn ology
an d M u sic
P e t e r We b s t e r
n the
open in g paragraph
of a 1926 article on the u se of rad io
in mu sic
in stru ction ,
William Fisher
stated ,
"We live in a
period
of
rapid
an d
su rprisin g chan ges.
From ou r
age-lon g
bon d age
to time an d
space
we are fast
bein g released ,
an d n o
thin kin g
man d ares set the bou n d s for tomorrow's d iscover-
ies."1 This article was titled "The Rad io an d
M u sic,"
an d it was
pu blished
in this
jou rn al,
which was then called the M u sic
Su pervisors' Jou rn al.
Child ren
en terin g
formal ed u cation
tod ay
are u n aware of a
world withou t
compu ters, person al d igital assistan ts, portable
CD
an d M PG3
players, d igital keyboard s,
an d the In tern et with its
con n ection to vast amou n ts of in formation . M u sic is
everywhere
in
these
med ia,
an d mu sic teachers are
con tin u ally in spired
to u se
these
compu ter-based techn ologies
in their work. This con n ection
between the fu n d amen tal
goals
of ou r
profession
an d the
opportu -
n ities that
techn ology presen ts
is
hard ly
n ew.
Compu ter-based
techn ology
is far more
complex tod ay
than ever
before,
an d
mu sic-an d its world wid e
presen ce
in ou r
society-has
n ever been
richer; thu s,
ou r fascin ation with
techn ology
an d its role in teach-
in g
an d
learn in g
con tin u es to
grow.
The word
"techn ology"
itself comes from Greek roots that
relate to art/skill an d d iscou rse/commu n ication . From the med ieval
r I
.
Peter Webster is
John
Beattie
professor of
mu sic ed u cation
an d
techn ology
an d associate
d ean
of
the School
of
M u sic at
Northwestern
Un iversity
in
Evan ston ,
Illin ois.
M USIC EDUCATORS
JOURNA
Throu gh
the
years,
ad van ces in
B
y
techn ology
have led
to
chan ges
in how
mu sic is
performed
an d
tau ght.
c-
0
O
LU
U
(/)
+D
z
CO
()
U
0Q
Cl.
38
NA.-
1.1
IN ~b t
d ays
of the famou s mu sic teacher
Gu id o of
Arez z o,
who u sed his han d
to teach mu sic in tervals an d
mod es,
to
the
presen t d ay,
when a teacher
may
u se an In tern et site with Flash tech-
n ology
to rein force the
very
same
thin g,
we have celebrated the u se of
applied
scien ce to
improve
stu d en t
u n d erstan d in g
of ou r
very complex
art form. This article
places
some of
the lan d marks in
compu ter-based
techn ology
in to historical
perspective.
I have chosen to
organ iz e d evelop-
men ts in to those that relate first to
hard ware,
then
software,
an d
fin ally
to a
philosophy
of u se. The Techn ol-
ogy
Time Lin e sid ebar
provid es
an
overview of hard ware an d software
d evelopmen t.
The Selected
Read in gs
sid ebar an d the sou rces listed in the
n otes offer resou rces for
d eeper
u n d erstan d in g
of this
topic.
Hard ware Ad van ces
Developmen ts
in mu sic techn olo-
gy
owe mu ch to the
imagin ation s
an d
achievemen ts of n ot
on ly mu sician s,
bu t also
physicists, en gin eers,
in ven -
tors,
an d mathematician s in terested in
mu sic. Their achievemen ts have been
most
d irectly
related to the hard ware
aspect
of mu sic an d
techn ology
an d
are n oted here in five
phases.2
Phase 1
(1600s
to
mid -1800s):
Gears an d Levers. This is the
age
of
mu sic
boxes, player pian os, calliopes,
an d other mu sic machin es that u sed
pn eu matic
an d
sprin g-d riven power.
M an y
of these
early
mechan ical
d evices can be seen an d heard
tod ay
in mu seu ms d ed icated to
preservin g
su ch trad ition s.3 Their sou n d
qu ality
an d
craftsman ship
of
d esign
are
impressive.
Dramatic ad van ces in tra-
d ition al acou stic in stru men ts were
mad e
d u rin g
this
time,
in clu d in g
improvemen ts
in
strin g, win d ,
an d
percu ssion
in stru men ts that have
come to d efin e these in stru men ts
tod ay.
In the world of mathematical
calcu lation s,
Charles
Babbage
d e-
sign ed calcu latin g
machin es that
au tomated the
preparation
of
n aviga-
tion tables an d solved mathematical
problems.
Ou r
u n d erstan d in g
of the
physics
of sou n d
accompan ied
these
hard ware achievemen ts. For
example,
d u rin g
this time
period , Joseph
Sau veu r's acou stical research led to
more
precise ren d erin g
of the over-
S E P T E M B E R 2 0 0 2
Selected
Read in gs
on M u sic
Techn ology
Berz ,William L., an d Ju d ith
Bowman .
Application s of
Research in M u sic
Techn ology.
Reston ,VA: M ENC, 1994. An excellen t sou rce for resu lts of research on
mu sic
techn ology.
Chad abe, Joel.
Electric Sou n d : The Past an d Promise
of
Electron ic M u sic.
Upper
Sad d le
River,
NJ:
Pren tice Hall,
1997. On e of the most
comprehen sive
sou rces on electron ic mu sic
history.
Reblitz , Arthu r A.,
an d
Q.
David Bowers. Treasu res
of
M echan ical M u sic. Vestal,
NY:Vestal Press,
1981. On e of the most
comprehen sive
sou rces of in for-
mation on mechan ical in stru men ts.
Williams,
David Brian , an d Peter Richard Webster.
Experien cin g
M u sic
Techn ology.
2n d ed . New York: Schirmer/Wad sworth,
1999. Con tain s a n u mber of time
lin es that d ocu men t
sign ifican t
mu sic
techn ology
even ts.
Techn ology
Time Lin e
1600s to mid - 1800s
*
M u sic
boxes,
player pian os, calliopes,
an d other machin es u se
pn eu matic
an d
sprin g-d riven power
to make mu sic.
* Ad van ces in trad ition al acou stic in stru men ts are mad e.
* Charles
Babbage d esign s calcu latin g
machin es.
*
Joseph
Sau veu r's acou stical research lead s to more
precise ren d erin g
of the
overton e series.
*
Jean
Fou rier
d evelops
a method of sou n d
syn thesis.
* Herman n von Helmholtz
begin s
his
pion eerin g
work in acou stics.
M id -1800s to
early
1900s
* Alexan d er Graham Bell in ven ts the
telephon e.
*
Thomas Ed ison in ven ts the
phon ograph.
* Herman Hollerith
d evelops
a
system
of
cod in g
d ata on
pu n ched
card s.
* Thad d eu s Cahill bu ild s the Telharmon iu m.
Early
1900s to mid -1950s
*
Early compu ters
su ch as the ABC, UNIVAC, an d the ENIAC are bu ilt.
*
The vacu u m-tu be oscillator lead s to the
d evelopmen t
of
amplifiers,
n ew
phon ographs, tape
record ers,
ju keboxes,
an d electric
gu itars.
* Electron ic
performan ce
in stru men ts su ch as the Hammon d
organ ,Theremin ,
an d On d es M arten ot are created .
M id - 1950s to late 1970s
*
Large
main frame
compu ters
become more common an d afford able,
while
smaller
min icompu ters
are
d eveloped .
*
Compu ter-assisted
in stru ction from main frame
systems
is fou n d on u n iversi-
ty campu ses.
*
Robert
M oog
an d Don ald Bu chla
d evelop commercially
su ccessfu l mu sic
syn -
thesiz ers.
*
Wolfgan g Ku hn an d
Reyn old Allvin
u se a
pitch
extraction d evice an d a main -
frame
compu ter
for
ju d gin g
the
pitch accu racy
of melod ic
pattern s.
Con tin u ed on
page
40
39
Con tin u ed
from page
39
* Ned Deihl works with a
large compu ter
on ear
train in g
for in stru men talists.
* Don Bitz er
d evelops
the PLATO
system.
G. David Peters an d Robert Placek u se
PLATO for
college
mu sic in stru ction ,
an d Fred Hofstetter u ses it to
d evelop
the
GUIDO
ear-train in g
cu rricu lu m.
*The Nation al Con sortiu m for
Compu ter-Based
M u sical In stru ction
(NCCBM I)
is
established .
Late 1970s to 1984
*The
Apple
lie
person al compu ter
is
d eveloped ,
followed
by person al compu ters
from
IBM ,Atari,
Rad io
Shack,
an d other
compan ies.
* M icro M u sic in trod u ces the first commercial
library
of
compu ter-assisted
in stru ction
(CAI)
software.
*
Compu ter techn ology
becomes afford able
en ou gh
for
pu rchase by
school
sys-
tems.
*
Compu ter lan gu ages
su ch as BASIC an d LOGO allow stu d en ts an d ed u cators to
d esign
cu stom software.
1985 to 1994
* The sixteen -bit M acin tosh
platform
with bu ilt-in sou n d
emerges,
an d n ew IBM
machin es follow.
* Ad van ces in hard d isk an d removable
storage
allow more ed u cators to
experi-
men t with their own
compu ter programs.
* The M IDI
(M u sic
In stru men t
Digital In terface) protocol
is in trod u ced .
* Laser-d riven CD-ROM d rives that can
play
au d io CDs are
d eveloped .
* In teractive mu sic
teachin g
software
programs
M u sic
M ou se, Ban d -in -a-Box,
an d
Practica M u sica become available.
*
The Delu xe M u sic Con stru ction Set, ENIGM A
(which
later became
Fin ale),
M u sicPrin ter
Plu s,
an d
Nightin gale
u se M IDI
su pport
an d
laser-prin tin g techn ology
for mu sic n otation .
*
Programs
su ch as
Digital Performer, M u sicshop,
an d Vision
help
mu sician s an d stu -
d en ts
experimen t
with mu sic
prod u ction .
* Robert Win ter u ses
Apple's HyperCard
to
d esign
an in teractive
program
on
Beethoven 's
Symphon y
n o. 9.
1995 to the
presen t
*
En han ced CDs are
read ily
available for
man y
forms of mu sic.
*
M akin g
M u sic an d
M akin g
M ore
M u sic,
as well as M u sic Ace an d M u sic Ace
2,
offer
gu id ed
in teractive in stru ction in mu sic
composition
an d
theory.
*
SmartM u sic an d In ton ation Train er
provid e accompan imen t su pport
an d
help
in the
teachin g
of in ton ation .
*
Ed u cators u se
programs
su ch as Peak an d Sou n d
Forge
to record an d
process
sou n d .
*
Teachin g
materials, record ed mu sic, an d
pu blished
mu sic become available on the
In tern et.
ton e series. Jean Fou rier
d eveloped
a
method of sou n d
syn thesis
that we
still teach
tod ay,
an d Herman n von
Helmholtz
began
his
pion eerin g
work
in acou stics.
Phase 2
(mid -1800s to
early
1900s):
Electricity.
The mechan ical achieve-
men ts of Phase 1 were
given
n ew life
an d refin emen t with the
d evelopmen t
of electrical
power.
The in ven tion of
the
telephon e by
Alexan d er Graham
Bell an d the
phon ograph by
Thomas
40
Ed ison
chan ged
ou r
expectation s
for
commu n ication s an d the
d elivery
of
mu sic in stru ction .4
Du rin g
this
time,
Herman Hollerith
d eveloped
the first
system
of
cod in g
d ata on
pu n ched
card s,
an d his
Tabu latin g
M achin e
Compan y
later became what is n ow
IBM . Thad d eu s Cahill
su ccessfu lly
fin an ced an d bu ilt the
Telharmon iu m,
a two-hu n d red -ton machin e that
employed rotatin g
wheels
passin g
n ear
magn ets
to
prod u ce
sou n d s that
were sen t
throu gh telephon e
lin es.
Cahill's
hope
for this ven tu re in 1906
was to sell mu sic d elivered as a service
to clien ts at d istan t sites-an in terest-
in g foreshad owin g
of the In tern et.
Phase 3
(early
1900s to mid -1950s):
The Vacu u m Tu be. This
phase
of hard -
ware
d evelopmen t
saw an extraord i-
n ary d evelopmen t
of n ew d evices.
Ed ison 's vacu u m-tu be
techn ology,
together
with
electromagn etic relay
switches,
provid ed
the basis for some
of the most
impressive early compu t-
ers,
su ch as the
ABC,
the
UNIVAC,
an d the
ENIAC,
which filled a room
the siz e of a
city
block. The
d evelop-
men t of n ew mu sical in stru men ts d u r-
in g
this
period
had con sid erable
impact
on electron ic mu sic an d mu sic
ed u cation . The vacu u m-tu be oscilla-
tor was a
great
boon to mu sic becau se
it led to the
d evelopmen t
of
ampli-
fiers,
n ew
phon ographs, tape
record ers, ju keboxes,
an d even
early
electric
gu itars.
Electron ic
perform-
an ce in stru men ts su ch as the
Hammon d
organ , Theremin ,
an d
On d es M arten ot were created an d
played
in
pu blic
to some level of su c-
cess. Electron ic mu sic was born d u r-
in g
this
period
an d was seen as a n at-
u ral
step
for
composers
su ch as
Hin d emith, M ilhau d , Hon egger,
Ibert,
M essiaen , Varese,
an d Stockhau sen -
all of whom u sed electron ic in stru -
men ts in their scores.
Phase 4 (mid -1950s to late 1970s):
Tran sistors.
Compu tin g
machin es an d
mu sic machin es were fu rther tran s-
formed in this
postwar period by
the
in ven tion an d
d evelopmen t
of the
tran sistor an d the semicon d u ctor.
Large
main frame
compu ters
like the
IBM 360 an d CDC 6000 became more
common an d
afford able,
while smaller
min icompu ters,
su ch as
Digital
Equ ipmen t Corporation 's PDP-8,
were
d eveloped . Compu ter-assisted
in str-
u ction from main frame
systems
was
u sed on su ch
campu ses
as the
Un iversity
of Illin ois an d Florid a State
Un iversity
Robert
M oog
an d Don ald
Bu chla
d eveloped
some of the first
commercially
su ccessfu l mu sic
syn -
thesiz ers. Schools an d in d ivid u als
cou ld
pu rchase
d evices like the ARP
2600 an d
experimen t
with sou n d
syn -
thesis. In
fact, d u rin g
this time
period ,
mu sic ed u cators
began
to
experimen t
with
prin ciples
of electron ic mu sic.
M USIC EDUCATORS
JOURNAL
Work with
an alog tape
to create n ew
composition s
was common . Sou n d
syn thesis
was stressed in
man y
mu sic
classes,
an d "mu sic con crete"-mu sic
created from
record in gs
of real-life
sou n d s-was seen as a
fascin atin g way
to
en cou rage
creative
thin kin g
in
mu sic.5
Phase 5
(late 1970s to the
presen t):
In tegrated
Circu its.
Du rin g
this
period ,
we witn ess the
growth
of
small,
bu t
powerfu l, person al compu ter systems.
Becau se of the effectiven ess of the
in tegrated
circu it an d the
compu ter
chip, compu tin g
machin es an d elec-
tron ic in stru men ts have
gotten
small-
er while
in creasin g
their
ability
to
process d igital
in formation . The
pop-
u lar
Apple
lie
person al compu ter
was
d eveloped
in the late
1970s,
an d ad d -
on ,
d igital-to-an alog
circu it card s
gave
the
compu ter
fou r-voice
polyphon y.
The IBM
corporation
soon followed
with its own
person al compu ter,
which was emu lated
by man y
com-
pu ter
man u factu rers in the
comin g
years.
In the
mid -1980s,
the M acin -
tosh
platform
with bu ilt-in sou n d
emerged
to
replace
the
Apple IIe,
an d
n ew IBM machin es followed . New
version s of both M acin tosh an d IBM -
type
machin es have become the d om-
in an t
compu ters
for mu sic
perform-
an ce an d ed u cation . Ad van ces in hard
d isk an d removable
storage
mad e it
possible
for more an d more ed u cators
to
experimen t
with their own
compu t-
er
programs. Developmen t
of laser-
d riven CD-ROM d rives (in the late
1980s)
that can
play
au d io CDs has
allowed these
person al compu ters
to
be
easily ad apted
to the mu sic class-
room.
As
compu ter techn ology d eveloped
in this mod ern
era,
so d id electron ic
mu sic in stru men ts. The M IDI
(M u sic
In stru men t
Digital
In terface)
protocol
was
d eveloped
in the mid -1980s an d
allowed mu sic d evices to tran smit
cod es that d escribed sou n d . The
sou n d resou rces in sid e these d evices
have
improved d ramatically
in recen t
years,
as
samplin g techn ology cap-
tu red in
chips
has allowed the in tern al
sou n d s of M IDI hard ware to rival
some of the best acou stic in stru men ts.
Sin ce the
begin n in g
of the
1990s,
mu sic ed u cators have u sed these
M IDI-based d evices to assist in mu sic
composition , performan ce,
an d listen -
in g-bu ild in g
on the trad ition of the
M oog
an d Bu chla machin es of the
past.
The Yamaha Disklavier
pian o,
with its bu ilt-in
record in g techn ology,
has offered an
in terestin g
ad d ition to
the
performan ce option s
of mu sician s
an d has con tin u ed the
lon g
trad ition
of
player pian os
that
began
in the
n in eteen th
cen tu ry.
Developmen ts
in mu sic
techn ology
owe mu ch to the
imagin ation s
an d achievemen ts
of
n ot
on ly
mu sician s,
bu t also
physicists, en gin eers,
in ven tors,
an d mathematician s
in terested in mu sic.
The
Importan ce
of Software
Con ten t
These
d evelopmen ts
in hard ware
mean
very
little to mu sic ed u cators
withou t software
d evelopmen t.
From
the earliest mu sic boxes to the recen t
han d held
compu ter,
there mu st be
somethin g
of worth in sid e to commu -
n icate to others if this
techn ology
is to
be u sefu l. The first three
phases
of
mu sic
techn ology d evelopmen t
(1600s
to the
mid -1950s) focu sed on hard ware
d evelopmen t,
with little or n o atten tion
to software
d esign
for mu sic
ped agogy.
M u sic
reprod u ction
was featu red with
little in terest in the actu al
teachin g
of
mu sic. This
chan ged
in Phase 4 of
hard ware
d evelopmen t
(late 1950s,
1960s,
an d
early
1970s)
when main -
frame
compu ters began
to in terest
those in acad emic circles.
Software Developmen t
in the
M ain frame
Era (mid -1950s to mid -
1970s).
Several forces
con verged
to
make some of the
very
first
compu ter-
based mu sic
teachin g
software. In
ad d ition to the
d evelopmen t
of the
phon ograph, tape
record er,
sou n d
reprod u ction d evices,
an d
compu ter
hard ware, high-level programmin g
lan gu ages began
to be created to
help
ru n the main frame
systems.
M u sician s
an d ed u cators on
major u n iversity
campu ses gain ed
access to hard ware
resou rces an d
began
to
experimen t
with
writin g
software. For
example,
in
1967,
Wolfgan g
Ku hn an d
Reyn old
Allvin of Stan ford
Un iversity
u sed a
pitch
extraction d evice an d a main -
frame
compu ter
to
help ju d ge
the
pitch accu racy
of melod ic
pattern s.
At
the
Pen n sylvan ia
State
Un iversity
in
1969,
Ned Deihl d id
early
work with a
large compu ter
on ear
train in g
for
in stru men talists.
Perhaps
some of the most
sign ifi-
can t work d on e at this time was at the
Un iversity
of Illin ois with the PLATO
system,
first
d eveloped by
Don Bitz er.
The PLATO
system
u sed a
large
com-
pu ter,
tou ch-sen sitive
screen s,
an d a
programmin g lan gu age
called TUTOR.
G. David Peters an d Robert Placek d id
experimen ts
in mu sic
teachin g,
an d the
PLATO
system
came in to
regu lar
u se
for
college
mu sic in stru ction in 1973.
Fred Hofstetter u sed a PLATO
system
at the
Un iversity
of Delaware in 1975
to
d evelop ear-train in g
materials. His
cu rricu lu m,
called
GUIDO,
con tin u ed
to be
d eveloped ,
an d its effectiven ess
was
exten sively
d ocu men ted .
These efforts are
historically impor-
tan t an d marked the tru e
begin n in g
of
compu ter-based
mu sic
teachin g
soft-
ware
d evelopmen t.
M u ch of the effort
was
fed erally fu n d ed ,
restricted to stu -
d en ts at
large
u n iversities,
an d had a
limited effect on mu sic
teachin g
in the
primary
an d
secon d ary
schools. On e
by-prod u ct
of these
years
was the 1975
establishmen t of the Nation al Con sor-
tiu m for
Compu ter-Based
M u sical
In stru ction
(NCCBM I),
which is n ow
the Association for
Techn ology
in
M u sic In stru ction (ATM I).
This
grou p
was,
an d con tin u es to
be,
a
major
force in the
application
of
techn ology
at all levels of in stru ction .6
Software Developmen t
in the
Age of
the Person al
Compu ter
(mid -1970s to
presen t).
The hard ware ad van ces in
person al compu tin g,
M IDI,
an d laser
techn ology
have
completely chan ged
the n atu re of mu sic
in stru ction ;
how-
ever,
this time
period
is
equ ally
impressive
for its
major
ad van ces in
mu sic software.
Du rin g
this
time,
mu sic
prod u ction
software for mu sic
prin tin g, sequ en cin g,
an d
d igital
au d io
emerged .
The
d rill-an d -practice
SEPT E M B E R 2 0 0 2 41
software that d omin ated the
past
era
con tin u ed ,
bu t n ew mu sic software
that u ses
gu id ed in stru ction ,
games,
simu lation ,
an d creative
exploration
has become d omin an t. In tern et-based
d elivery
of in stru ction has become a
recen t
d evelopmen t.
Du rin g
1978 to
1984,
often
referred to as the
"eight-bit" period
in
hon or of the first
person al compu ters
(su ch
as those created
by Apple, Atari,
an d Rad io
Shack),
David Williams an d
David Shrad er (an d their M icro M u sic
compan y) d eveloped
the first com-
mercial
library
of
compu ter-assisted
in stru ction
(CAI) software for u se
with these
"microcompu ters."
The
library
in clu d ed software to
su pport
melod ic,
rhythmic,
an d harmon ic d ic-
tation ;
error
d etection ;
an d mu sic
composition .
This
period
was
impor-
tan t for
primary
an d
secon d ary
school
ed u cation becau se school
systems
cou ld ,
for the first
time,
afford com-
pu ter techn ology
in ad d ition to
tape
record ers an d mu sic
syn thesiz ers.
Compu ter lan gu ages
su ch as BASIC
an d LOGO were
d esign ed
to ru n on
these home
compu ters
an d became
importan t
creative tools for stu d en ts
an d mu sic ed u cators in the
d esign
of
cu stom software.7
From 1984 to
1994,
the software
aspect
of mu sic
techn ology explod ed
in
ways u n paralleled
in
history.
The
d evelopmen t
of the M IDI
protocol
an d
prod u ction
of "sixteen -bit"
compu t-
ers,
su ch as the
Apple
M acin tosh an d
the n ewer version s of the IBM com-
pu ter
an d its
clon es,
allowed the cre-
ation of more
sophisticated
mu sic
in stru ction
programs.
Lau rie
Spiegel's
M u sic M ou se
program
became the first
improvisation -based
software that
tu rn ed the
compu ter
itself in to a
mu sical in stru men t. Ban d -in -a-Box
from PG M u sic became the first com-
mercial software to
provid e
au tomated
accompan imen ts
for
improvisation .
Practica M u sica from Ars Nova was
on e of the first mu sic
theory/au ral
skills
programs
to
in corporate option s
for stu d en ts an d
teachers-creatin g
a
kin d of
"flexible-practice"
software
that cou ld be
ad apted
to in d ivid u al
learn in g
n eed s. Each of these
pro-
grams
u sed the M IDI
protocol
to
help
the
compu ter
u se extern al
syn thesiz -
ers as sou n d sou rces as well as in ter-
active
partn ers
in the
learn in g process.
In ad d ition to these CAI
titles,
the
first
programs
for mu sic n otation were
pu blished .
The Delu xe M u sic Con stru c-
tion
Set,
created
by
Geoff
Brown ,
was
the first
popu lar mu sic-prin tin g pro-
gram,
followed soon
by
the
d evelop-
men t of the ENIGM A n otation
en gin e,
which became Cod a M u sic Techn olo-
gy's
Fin ale
program. Jack Jarrett's
M u sicPrin ter Plu s an d Don ald
Byrd 's
Nightin gale
also
emerged
arou n d this
time. Each of these
mu sic-prin tin g
programs
was aid ed
greatly by
M IDI
su pport
an d
by
the
d evelopmen t
of
laser-prin tin g techn ology,
which was
also
cau sin g major
ad van ces in d esk-
top pu blishin g
ou tsid e of mu sic.
Software for mu sic
sequ en cin g
was
d evelopin g
at the same
time,
allowin g
arran gers
an d
composers
to
d evelop
scores for commercial
mu sic,
televi-
sion ,
an d film more
effectively.
Programs
su ch as
Performer
from
M ark of the Un icorn an d
M u sicshop
an d Vision from
Opcod e
were soon
u sed
by
commercial mu sician s an d
mu sic ed u cators
wishin g
to
help
stu -
d en ts
experimen t
with mu sic
prod u c-
tion .
With
tod ay's afford able
person al compu ters,
even the
you n gest
child ren can
play alon g
with the
compu ter,
make
in creasin gly complex
d ecision s
abou t the
composition of
the
mu sic,
or listen to mu sic
in n ew an d
excitin g ways.
It was also
d u rin g
this
ten -year
period
that the au d io CD
greatly
in flu -
en ced the
d evelopmen t
of mu ltimed ia
software
prod u ction .
In
1989,
the
term
"hypermed ia"
was coin ed
by
Ted
Nelson ,
bu ild in g
on a mu ch earlier
id ea of in terrelated text sou rces.
Nelson 's id ea was to create a
learn in g
en viron men t that allowed software to
con n ect
graphics, sou n d ,
an d text in to
an
in tegrated
whole. In this same
year,
Robert Win ter
d esign ed
the first com-
mercial
prod u ct
in mu sic to u se this
id ea-an in teractive
program
on
Beethoven 's
Symphon y
n o.
9, u sin g
a
CD
record in g
con trolled
by
a software
program.
The software
program
was
Apple's HyperCard ,
a tool kit for the
d evelopmen t
of
hypermed ia pro-
grams,
written
by
Bill Atkin son .
HyperCard
was a
con ceptu al
break-
throu gh
for mu sic software
prod u c-
tion becau se it allowed mu sic ed u ca-
tors withou t
sign ifican t compu ter pro-
grammin g experien ce
to create
high-
qu ality
in teractive software that u sed
au d io
record in gs
on CD.
This, togeth-
er with
Apple Compu ter's d evelop-
men t of
Qu ickTime techn ology,
which
allowed the
captu re
an d
playback
of
d igital
vid eo as
part
of
compu ter
soft-
ware,
in spired
a n u mber of
profession -
ally
created in teractive CD-ROM s
d evoted to mu sic.8
The
period
from 1995 to the
pres-
en t has seen con tin u ed
d evelopmen t
of
hypermed ia
titles, referred to as
"mu ltimed ia"
experien ces.
For exam-
ple,
"en han ced CDs"-au d io CDs
with mu ltimed ia con ten t that can be
viewed
u sin g
a CD-ROM d rive-are
read ily
available for
man y
forms of
mu sic. In
ad d ition ,
software for mu sic
ped agogy
has in clu d ed n ew titles that
en cou rage
simu lation an d
gu id ed
in stru ction .
M akin g
M u sic an d
M akin g
M ore M u sic
by
M orton Su botn ick
pro-
vid e
su pport
for mu sic
composition ;
these
programs
assu me n o
kn owled ge
of mu sic n otation an d allow the stu -
d en t to d iscover mu sical stru ctu res
by
u sin g
a
d rawin g metaphor.
The role of
a
composer
is simu lated in
ways
that
help
teach the
processes
of
composi-
tion . Harmon ic Vision 's M u sic Ace an d
M u sic Ace 2 u se
gu id ed
in stru ction to
help
stu d en ts u n d erstan d mu sic theo-
ry
an d au ral skills in an in teractive en -
viron men t
u sin g
an imation . Child ren
are
gu id ed
in their
d iscovery
of
impor-
tan t mu sic
facts,
an d
opportu n ities
are
provid ed
to test
mastery
with
games
an d a
composin g space.
These
pro-
grams
can be tailored to meet the
n eed s of stu d en ts an d teachers an d
u se the latest in
compu ter-based
tech-
n ology, in clu d in g
software-based
sou n d
syn thesis.
M u sic
techn ology su pport
for the
mu sic stu d io has
sign ifican tly
in -
M USIC EDUCATORS
JOURNAL
42
creased in recen t
years.
Software su ch
as SmartM u sic an d In ton ation Train er
from Cod a have
provid ed accompan i-
men t
su pport
for in stru men talists an d
vocalists an d
helped
in the
teachin g
of
in ton ation . The
qu ality
of mod ern
person al compu ter d igital
au d io
record in g capabilities
has also
in creased ,
allowin g
ed u cators to take
ad van tage
of software that record s
performan ces d irectly
to d isc.
Software su ch as Peak from Bias an d
Sou n d
Forge
from Son ic
Fou n d ry
can
be u sed to record an d
process
sou n d
with an
impressive array
of
special
effects. M u sic can n ow be
easily
record ed , processed ,
an d "bu rn ed "
on to an au d io CD in on e's home.
Perhaps
the most
importan t
recen t
tren d for software has been the rise of
In tern et-based materials for mu sic
teachin g
an d
learn in g.9
As more
mu sic teachers
gain
skills in the d evel-
opmen t
of Web sites an d as more
schools
gain
access to the
In tern et,
mu sic
teachin g
materials
provid ed
on -
lin e at
an y
time of
d ay
or
n ight
have
begu n
to tran sform both con ten t an d
d elivery strategies.
In d ivid u als an d
compan ies
n ow
rou tin ely
d istribu te
record ed mu sic on the In tern et in the
form of M PG3 files. M u sic n otation
software
compan ies
su ch as Cod a an d
Sibeliu s
recen tly
an n ou n ced
proce-
d u res for
pu rchasin g pu blished
mu sic
d irectly
from an In tern et site.
Chan ges
in
Philosophy
A review of
d evelopmen ts
in hard -
ware an d software is
in complete
with-
ou t atten tion to the
u n d erlyin g
shifts
in how
techn ology
is u sed . The world
tru ly
is a more
complex place tod ay
than it was
thirty, twen ty,
or even ten
years ago. M u ltiple
cu ltu res an d valu e
systems flou rish,
kn owled ge
is
grow-
in g
at
expon en tial rates,
an d
chan ge
occu rs faster an d with more
profou n d
con sequ en ces
than at
an y
other time
in
history.
Con ten t is
becomin g
more
complex,
an d what we kn ow abou t
how child ren learn is a
major
con sid -
eration . Rote
learn in g, memoriz ation ,
an d
con vergen t thin kin g
are more
likely
to be
au gmen ted
or even re-
placed
with
d iscovery learn in g, prob-
lem
solvin g,
an d
d ivergen t thin kin g.
Cooperative learn in g, peer teachin g,
an d
project-cen tered learn in g
with the
teacher as a facilitator or mon itor are
becomin g
more valu ed than teacher-
d omin ated in teraction .
In the last ten
years,
mu sic ed u ca-
tors have u sed
techn ology
in a more
"con stru ction ist" con text. Stu d en ts
are
en cou raged
to "con stru ct" their
u n d erstan d in g
of mu sic
throu gh
their
experimen ts
while
bein g expertly
gu id ed by
teachers.10 The trad ition al
d rill-an d -practice techn iqu es
that
d omin ated the u se of
techn ology
u n til
the mid -1980s have been
comple-
men ted
by
mu ch more
powerfu l
soft-
ware that u ses
problem-solvin g
an d
role-playin g techn iqu es. Vid eo,
an i-
mation , text,
an d sou n d can u n ite to
su pport
a
symbolically
con stru cted
world that
represen ts reality
in in ter-
estin g
an d
mean in gfu l ways
for chil-
d ren . With
tod ay's
afford able
person al
compu ters,
even the
you n gest
chil-
d ren can
play alon g
with the
compu t-
er,
make
in creasin gly complex
d eci-
sion s abou t the
composition
of the
mu sic,
or listen to mu sic in n ew an d
excitin g ways.
It is n ot
ju st
the mu lti-
ple
med ia that are
sign ifican t,
bu t
their u se in
allowin g
child ren to thin k
an d feel
mu sically
Perhaps
the most
importan t
recen t tren d
for software
has
been the rise
of
In tern et-based
materials
for
mu sic
teachin g
an d
learn in g.
The Fu tu re
The ratio of cost-to-hard ware
capa-
bility
has n ever been more favorable
for mu sic ed u cators.
Compu ters
cost-
in g
less than a thou san d d ollars have
processin g power, memory,
an d stor-
age capacity
that rival room-siz e
main frame
compu ters
of
on ly
a few
d ecad es
ago. Digital
vid eo
d isplays
(DVD) will soon be
common place
in
schools,
replacin g projectors
an d
large
tu be screen s. DVD d rives are n ow
stan d ard on most
compu ters, allowin g
access to several times more
space
than the
average
CD-ROM . At this
time,
DVDs have n ot been
prod u ced
for mu sic ed u cation with the kin d of
con ten t that is
really
n eed ed . This,
however,
will
su rely chan ge
as the
prod u ction
of su ch software resou rces
becomes more
econ omically
feasible.
There is also
poten tial
for the
d evelop-
men t of
virtu al-reality
d evices that
allow child ren to
explore
mu sic cre-
ation in
powerfu l ways,
in teract with
mu sic while
listen in g,
an d
perform
in
n ew
ways
with in stru men ts n ot
imag-
in ed
cu rren tly.
1
Perhaps
the most
compellin g
cu r-
ren t
d evelopmen t
is the tren d for
hard ware d evices to become smaller
an d to commu n icate withou t wires.
Laptop compu ters
an d small
person al
d igital
assistan ts (PDAs)
may
soon be
as
u biqu itou s
in schools as lu n ch
boxes an d
backpacks.
It is n ot u n com-
mon
tod ay
to fin d these d evices trad -
in g
in formation
by u sin g in frared ,
satellite,
or other wireless techn olo-
gies.
Person al
record in g
d evices like
the M PG3
player
are
becomin g qu ite
afford able an d can be
programmed
to
con tain
compressed
version s of hu n -
d red s of
record in gs
from stan d ard
CDs or the In tern et.
It seems clear from these tren d s
that in formation in the form of text,
graphics, vid eo,
an d sou n d will be (1)
movin g
to a
d igital
format, (2) ren -
d ered with smaller an d more
powerfu l
machin es,
an d
(3)
u sed
exten sively by
mu sic teachers to assist child ren in
u n d erstan d in g
mu sic
by havin g
them
create mu sic more
in teractively
The
word s of William Fisher that
open ed
this article were
pu blished seven ty-six
years ago,
bu t
they
cou ld have been
written
yesterd ay
It has n ever been a
more
excitin g
time to be a mu sic
teacher.
Notes
1. William
Fisher,
"The Rad io an d
M u sic,"
M u sic
Su pervisors'
Jou rn al 12,
n o.
3 (1926): 8.
2. The time
period s presen ted
in this
article
are, by n atu re,
estimates an d shou ld
n ot be taken too
literally
Con tin u ed on
page
54
SEPT E M B E R 2 0 0 2 43
Cu ltu ral Tran sformation Cu ltu ral Tran sformation
Techn ology
an d M u sic
Techn ology
an d M u sic
Con tin u ed
from page
32
States,"
Harvard Ed u cation al Review
57,
n o. 4 (1988): 421-44.
5. Terese M .
Volk, M u sic, Ed u cation ,
an d M u lticu ltu ralism (New York: Oxford
Un iversity Press, 1988);
Patricia Shehan
Campbell, "M u sic, Ed u cation ,
an d
Commu n ity
in a M u lticu ltu ral
Society,"
in
Cross
Cu rren ts,
ed . M arie
M cCarthy
(College Park,
M D:
Un iversity
of
M arylan d , 1996);
M arie
M cCarthy,
"The
Birth of In tern ation alism in M u sic
Ed u cation , 1899-1938,"
In tern ation al
Jou rn al of
M u sic Ed u cation 21
(1993):
3-15.
6. Robert A.
Choate, ed ., Docu men tary
Report of
the
Tan glewood Symposiu m
(Washin gton ,
DC: M u sic Ed u cators
Nation al
Con feren ce, 1968).
7. M ichael L.
M ark,
"M ENC: From
Tan glewood
to the
Presen t,"
in Vision
2020: The
Hou sewright Symposiu m
on the
Fu tu re
of
M u sic
Ed u cation ,
ed . Clifford K.
M ad sen
(Reston ,
VA:
M ENC, 2000).
8. "M u sic in World
Cu ltu res," special
focu s issu e of the M u sic Ed u cators
Jou rn al
59,
n o. 2
(1972).
9.
James
A. Stan d ifer an d Barbara
Reed er,
Sou rce Book
of African
an d
Afro-
American M aterials
for
M u sic Ed u cators
(Washin gton ,
DC:
Con temporary
M u sic
Project,
1972).
10. See Stan d ifer an d
Reed er,
Sou rce
Book;
William M .
An d erson , Teachin g
Asian M u sics in
Elemen tary
an d
Secon d ary
Schools (Dallas:
Taylor Pu blishin g
Compan y, 1975);
an d
Sally M on sou r,
Son gs of
the M id d le East (M iami: Warn er
Bros.
Pu blication s, 1995).
11. William M . An d erson an d Patricia
Shehan
Campbell, ed s.,
M u lticu ltu ral
Perspectives
in M u sic Ed u cation
(Reston ,
VA: M u sic Ed u cators Nation al Con fer-
en ce, 1989).
A secon d ed ition was
pu b-
lished in 1996.
12. These articles are
compiled
in
Patricia Shehan
Campbell,
M u sic in
Cu ltu ral Con text:
Eight
Views on World
M u sic Ed u cation
(Reston ,
VA: M u sic
Ed u cators Nation al
Con feren ce, 1996).
13. Patricia Shehan
Campbell,
"M u sica
Exotica, M u lticu ltu ralism,
an d School
M u sic,"
The
Qu arterly Jou rn al of
M u sic
Con tin u ed
from page
32
States,"
Harvard Ed u cation al Review
57,
n o. 4 (1988): 421-44.
5. Terese M .
Volk, M u sic, Ed u cation ,
an d M u lticu ltu ralism (New York: Oxford
Un iversity Press, 1988);
Patricia Shehan
Campbell, "M u sic, Ed u cation ,
an d
Commu n ity
in a M u lticu ltu ral
Society,"
in
Cross
Cu rren ts,
ed . M arie
M cCarthy
(College Park,
M D:
Un iversity
of
M arylan d , 1996);
M arie
M cCarthy,
"The
Birth of In tern ation alism in M u sic
Ed u cation , 1899-1938,"
In tern ation al
Jou rn al of
M u sic Ed u cation 21
(1993):
3-15.
6. Robert A.
Choate, ed ., Docu men tary
Report of
the
Tan glewood Symposiu m
(Washin gton ,
DC: M u sic Ed u cators
Nation al
Con feren ce, 1968).
7. M ichael L.
M ark,
"M ENC: From
Tan glewood
to the
Presen t,"
in Vision
2020: The
Hou sewright Symposiu m
on the
Fu tu re
of
M u sic
Ed u cation ,
ed . Clifford K.
M ad sen
(Reston ,
VA:
M ENC, 2000).
8. "M u sic in World
Cu ltu res," special
focu s issu e of the M u sic Ed u cators
Jou rn al
59,
n o. 2
(1972).
9.
James
A. Stan d ifer an d Barbara
Reed er,
Sou rce Book
of African
an d
Afro-
American M aterials
for
M u sic Ed u cators
(Washin gton ,
DC:
Con temporary
M u sic
Project,
1972).
10. See Stan d ifer an d
Reed er,
Sou rce
Book;
William M .
An d erson , Teachin g
Asian M u sics in
Elemen tary
an d
Secon d ary
Schools (Dallas:
Taylor Pu blishin g
Compan y, 1975);
an d
Sally M on sou r,
Son gs of
the M id d le East (M iami: Warn er
Bros.
Pu blication s, 1995).
11. William M . An d erson an d Patricia
Shehan
Campbell, ed s.,
M u lticu ltu ral
Perspectives
in M u sic Ed u cation
(Reston ,
VA: M u sic Ed u cators Nation al Con fer-
en ce, 1989).
A secon d ed ition was
pu b-
lished in 1996.
12. These articles are
compiled
in
Patricia Shehan
Campbell,
M u sic in
Cu ltu ral Con text:
Eight
Views on World
M u sic Ed u cation
(Reston ,
VA: M u sic
Ed u cators Nation al
Con feren ce, 1996).
13. Patricia Shehan
Campbell,
"M u sica
Exotica, M u lticu ltu ralism,
an d School
M u sic,"
The
Qu arterly Jou rn al of
M u sic
Teachin g
an d
Learn in g 5,
n o. 2
(1994):
65-75. a
Teachin g
an d
Learn in g 5,
n o. 2
(1994):
65-75. a
Con tin u ed
from page
43
3. A Web site for
explorin g
virtu al
mu seu m sites is: www.mu sicamecan ica.
org/mu sica_mecan ica/a/in d ex.html.
This
location
provid es
lin ks to hu n d red s of
mu seu ms
in tern ation ally.
4. Reviews of the
very
first issu es of the
M u sic Su pervisors'Jou rn al reveal ad vertise-
men ts for d ifferen t mod els of the Victor
Talkin g
M achin e victrola an d for a series of
record in gs
from the firm that wou ld
become the RCA
record in g compan y
of
tod ay.
See
Cyn thia
A.
Hoover,
The
History
of
M u sic M achin es (New York: Drake
Pu blishers, 1975).
5. For more in formation on how this
phase
affected mu sic
teachin g,
see M u sic
Ed u cators Jou rn al 57,
n o. 5 (1971). This
first
special
focu s issu e on mu sic techn olo-
gy
featu res articles on
syn thesiz er u se, pro-
grammed in stru ction , films,
an d
compu t-
er-assisted in stru ction .
6. An excellen t review of these software
d evelopmen ts
with
large
main frame
sys-
tems can be fou n d in
John
M .
Ed d in s,
"A
Brief
History
of
Compu ter-Assisted
In stru ction in
M u sic," College
M u sic
Symposiu m 21,
n o. 2
(1981): 7-14.
7. For more in formation on this
period ,
see M u sic Ed u cators Jou rn al 69,
n o. 5
(1983). This is the M EJs secon d
special
focu s issu e d evoted to
techn ology,
an d it
featu res articles on the
microcompu ter,
syn thesiz ers,
an d mu sic
techn ology ped a-
gogy
8. For a
su mmary
of some of these
d evelopmen ts,
see M u sic Ed u cators Jou rn al
79,
n o. 3 (1992). This is the
M EJs
third
special
focu s issu e d evoted to
techn ology.
9. See Bill
Waters,
"Id eas for Effective
Web-Based
In stru ction ,"
M u sic Ed u cators
Jou rn al 85,
n o. 4 (1999): 13-17.
10. An excellen t sou rce on the emer-
gen ce
of con stru ction ism as a mod ern
phi-
losophy
for
learn in g
is: Yasmin Kafai an d
M itchell
Resn ick, ed s.,
Con stru ction ism in
Practice:
Design in g, Thin kin g,
an d
Learn in g
in a
Digital
World
(M ahwah, NJ:
Lawren ce
Erlbau m, 1996).
11. For a
glimpse
in to how this
might
occu r,
read abou t the work of Tod
M achover an d others at the M IT M ed ia
Lab,
where n ew
"hyperin stru men ts"
are
Con tin u ed
from page
43
3. A Web site for
explorin g
virtu al
mu seu m sites is: www.mu sicamecan ica.
org/mu sica_mecan ica/a/in d ex.html.
This
location
provid es
lin ks to hu n d red s of
mu seu ms
in tern ation ally.
4. Reviews of the
very
first issu es of the
M u sic Su pervisors'Jou rn al reveal ad vertise-
men ts for d ifferen t mod els of the Victor
Talkin g
M achin e victrola an d for a series of
record in gs
from the firm that wou ld
become the RCA
record in g compan y
of
tod ay.
See
Cyn thia
A.
Hoover,
The
History
of
M u sic M achin es (New York: Drake
Pu blishers, 1975).
5. For more in formation on how this
phase
affected mu sic
teachin g,
see M u sic
Ed u cators Jou rn al 57,
n o. 5 (1971). This
first
special
focu s issu e on mu sic techn olo-
gy
featu res articles on
syn thesiz er u se, pro-
grammed in stru ction , films,
an d
compu t-
er-assisted in stru ction .
6. An excellen t review of these software
d evelopmen ts
with
large
main frame
sys-
tems can be fou n d in
John
M .
Ed d in s,
"A
Brief
History
of
Compu ter-Assisted
In stru ction in
M u sic," College
M u sic
Symposiu m 21,
n o. 2
(1981): 7-14.
7. For more in formation on this
period ,
see M u sic Ed u cators Jou rn al 69,
n o. 5
(1983). This is the M EJs secon d
special
focu s issu e d evoted to
techn ology,
an d it
featu res articles on the
microcompu ter,
syn thesiz ers,
an d mu sic
techn ology ped a-
gogy
8. For a
su mmary
of some of these
d evelopmen ts,
see M u sic Ed u cators Jou rn al
79,
n o. 3 (1992). This is the
M EJs
third
special
focu s issu e d evoted to
techn ology.
9. See Bill
Waters,
"Id eas for Effective
Web-Based
In stru ction ,"
M u sic Ed u cators
Jou rn al 85,
n o. 4 (1999): 13-17.
10. An excellen t sou rce on the emer-
gen ce
of con stru ction ism as a mod ern
phi-
losophy
for
learn in g
is: Yasmin Kafai an d
M itchell
Resn ick, ed s.,
Con stru ction ism in
Practice:
Design in g, Thin kin g,
an d
Learn in g
in a
Digital
World
(M ahwah, NJ:
Lawren ce
Erlbau m, 1996).
11. For a
glimpse
in to how this
might
occu r,
read abou t the work of Tod
M achover an d others at the M IT M ed ia
Lab,
where n ew
"hyperin stru men ts"
are
bein g
created an d u sed in
in terestin g ways.
See: www.med ia.mit.ed u /-tod /
bein g
created an d u sed in
in terestin g ways.
See: www.med ia.mit.ed u /-tod /
PERFORM ING
WITH
UNDERSTANDING
The
Challen ge
of the
Nation al Stan d ard s
for M u sic Ed u cation
PERFORM ING
WITH
UNDERSTANDING
The
Challen ge
of the
Nation al Stan d ard s
for M u sic Ed u cation
Presen ts
key
id eas an d
practical su ggestion s
for
implemen tin g
the mu sic
stan d ard s
throu gh
performan ce.
In clu d es d is-
cu ssion of how the stan d ard s
apply
to the
performan ce
aspects
of all mu sic
pro-
grams,
the role of
bod ily
movemen t in
performin g,
mod el rehearsal
strategies
that
in corporate
the
stan d ard s,
an d effective
ways
to broad en the
performan ce
repertoire
to in clu d e mu sic
beyon d
that of the Western
trad ition . Based on a
Northwestern
Un iversity
M u sic Ed u cation
Lead ership
Semin ar. Ed ited
by
Ben n ett
Reimer. 2000. 216
pages.
pages.
ISBN 1-56545-118-X.
#1672.
$30.00/$22.50
M ENC members
To ord er, u se the M ENC Resou rces
ord er
form
on
page 71.
Presen ts
key
id eas an d
practical su ggestion s
for
implemen tin g
the mu sic
stan d ard s
throu gh
performan ce.
In clu d es d is-
cu ssion of how the stan d ard s
apply
to the
performan ce
aspects
of all mu sic
pro-
grams,
the role of
bod ily
movemen t in
performin g,
mod el rehearsal
strategies
that
in corporate
the
stan d ard s,
an d effective
ways
to broad en the
performan ce
repertoire
to in clu d e mu sic
beyon d
that of the Western
trad ition . Based on a
Northwestern
Un iversity
M u sic Ed u cation
Lead ership
Semin ar. Ed ited
by
Ben n ett
Reimer. 2000. 216
pages.
pages.
ISBN 1-56545-118-X.
#1672.
$30.00/$22.50
M ENC members
To ord er, u se the M ENC Resou rces
ord er
form
on
page 71.
M USIC EDUCATORS
JOURNA
M USIC EDUCATORS
JOURNA
II
54 54