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Measurements
Base Quantities- physical quantities that cannot be broken down any further
Derived Quantities- physical quantities that are obtained by combining the base
quantities i.e. can be expressed as product or quotient of other
physical quantities.
Kinematics
Linear momentum - product of mass and velocity of an object and it acts in the same
direction as the velocity
Newton’s Laws
• FIRST LAW
– An object will remain at rest or continue to move in a constant velocity unless
acted upon by an external resultant force.
• SECOND LAW
– Rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the external
resultant force acting upon it and it occurs in the direction of the force.
Rate of momentum α F
(mv - mu) α F
t
m(v - u) α F
t
ma α F
F= kma , k =1
F = ma
• THIRD LAW
– If body A exerts a force on body B then body B exerts equal but opposite in
direction to force on body A
Mass – Measure of Body’s reluctance to change in its state of motion (i.e. its inertia).
(Constant and a scalar quantity)
Centre of Gravity – Point of which the whole weight of the body acts upon.
Upthrust – caused by the pressure that the fluid exerts on the object (on the top and
the bottom of an object)
– It is due to the difference in fluid pressure between the top and the bottom of
the object.
– Acts vertically upwards
– (Archimedes’ Principle) Equal to the weight of the fluid displaced when a
body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid.
➢ For an object immersed in a fluid the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced
– Can be applied generally of not just when the object has a regular shape.
Couple – consists of two equal and opposite forces whose lines of actions do not
coincide.
Torque of a couple – is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular
distance between the forces.
(No linear acceleration) -therefore producing a turning effect.
The Principle of Moments – states that for a body to be in rotational equilibrium the
sum of the clockwise moments about any point must be equal
to the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point.
Work – product of force and the distance moved in the direction of force.
Potential energy – is the stored energy available to do work due to its position or
shape.
Electric Fields
Electric Circuits
Conventional current – flows from the positive terminal of the battery to the
negative terminal (form a high potential to a low potential) i.e. in
the direction of flow of positive charge.
Flow of electrons – is from the negative terminal of the battery to the positive
terminal (form a low potential to a high potential) i.e. in the direction of
flow of electrons.
Resistivity – is numerically the resistance of a sample unit length and the cross
sectional area at a certain temperature.
Kirchoff’s Laws
• FIRST LAW (CONSERVATION OF
CHARGE)
– Charge entering each second = Charge leaving each second
(I.e. charge cannot be created nor destroyed)
Radioactivity
Nucleon number – is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the
atom.
Relative Atomic Mass – ratio of mass of an atom to 1/12 mass of a C-12 atom (unit
u)
Isotopes – atoms with the same proton number but different nucleon number.
➢ Isotopes have the same chemical properties as they have the same number of
electrons but have slightly different mass.
Radioactive decay –is the process by which unstable nuclei become more stable by
emitting α or β – particles or γ radiation.
Background count – Even in the absence of radioactive source, the GM tube will
register some counts it is caused by background radiation.
Fusion – Light atoms fuses together to make heavier atoms which can only occur if
energy is released.
– (Source of energy from the Sun and stars)
Fission – heavy atoms is broken into two roughly equal parts then energy is released.
– (Used in nuclear power station)
Mass defect – is the difference between the mass and its constituent’s particles
taken separately and the mass of the atom itself.
• Iron has the greatest mass defect thus it is the most abundant element.
• Theory: atom which has a high mass defect has a great deal of work to be done
on it in order to separate into it’s constituent nucleons (in a low energy state)
Binding energy – is the work done to separate the atom into several individual
protons, electrons and neutrons.
Half – life – the average time it takes for half of the atoms of any nuclide to decay.
Phases of Matter
Scenario:
• If large smoke particles were used.
– There will be less haphazard movement because the randomness of the
invisible air molecules and the smoke particles would be ‘averaged out’.
Evaporation – process by which liquid changes into water vapour without boiling i.e.
at any temperatures below its boiling point.
• More energetic water molecules escape from the surface of the liquid,
leaving behind the less energetic ones
• So the average EK of the remaining molecules will decrease
• Temperature depends on the average EK of the molecules
• Since the average EK decreases, the temperature of the liquid will drop
and the liquid cools down thus causes cooling.
Tension – forces act outwards in opposite directions and tend to lengthen the body.
Compression – forces act inwards in opposite directions and tend to shorten the
body.
Shear – forces act in opposite directions along parallel faces, producing a tendency
for parallel sections of the body to slide.
Torsion – a type of shearing which twists the body lengthwise.
Elastic Deformation – the material returns to original shape (length) once the
applied force is removed.
Plastic Deformation – the material does not return to its original shape (length)
once the applied force is removed and is permanently deformed.
Ultimate Tensile Stress – is the maximum stress that can be applied to a material
before it breaks.
Hysteresis – the stress-strain graph for loading is different from that for unloading.
Energy is absorbed in a loading / unloading cycle.
Creep – describes the very slow change in length or shape of certain metals even
when the applied stress does not change.
– Effect seems to depend on temperature.
Fatigue - describes the fracture which sometimes occurs in metal samples after they
have been subjected to a very large number of stress cycles.
Waves
2) Stationary / Standing
– do not travel along the medium
There are two types of stationary waves:
• Mechanical waves –produced by a disturbance (e.g. a vibrating body) in a
material medium and are transmitted by the particles of the
medium oscillating to and fro.
-can be seen or felt
Wavelength – the smallest distance between two points which are in phase with each
other.
Frequency - number of cycles passing a point per unit time of the source on the wave
or of the point of the wave.
Polariser - a piece of transparent material (e.g. Polaroid) or device which will only
allow the vibrations in a certain plane to pass through.
Constructive interference – at some points, when the waves are in phase with each
other, the resultant wave is of greater amplitude than any of
its constituents.
Destructive Interference – at some points, when the waves are completely out of
phase with each other, the resultant wave cancels out.
Otherwise:
-completely dark fringe will never be obtained
-the contrast pattern is reduced
-
2n+12λ
Stationary waves – formed when two progressive waves of the same speed,
amplitude and frequency travelling (in the same medium) in opposite
directions meet.
Nodes – position of destructive interference
– Where the amplitude is zero
End correction – at an open end of a column, the antinodes are slightly above the
end of the tube.