1.

ATRIONVENTRICULAR VALVES (AV Valves)

a. MITRAL VALVE is also called the bicuspid valve because it contains two leaflets or cusps. It is on the
left side of the heart and allows the blood to flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle.
b. TRICUSPID VALVE has three leaflets or cusps and is on the right side of the heart, between the right
atrium and the right ventricle which stops the backflow of blood between the two
2. SEMILUNAR VALVES
a. AORTIC VALVE lies between the left ventricle and the aorta and has three cusps. During ventricular
systole, pressure rises in the left ventricle and when it is greater than the pressure in the aorta, the aortic
valve opens, allowing blood to exit the left ventricle into the aorta
b. PULMONARY VALVE (sometimes referred to as the pulmonic valve) lies between the right ventricle and
the pulmonary artery, and has three cusps. Similar to the aortic valve, the pulmonary valve opens in
ventricular systole, when the pressure in the right ventricle rises above the pressure in the pulmonary
artery. At the end of ventricular systole, when the pressure in the right ventricle falls rapidly, the pressure
in the pulmonary artery will close the pulmonary valve.


The kidneys are a pair of organs located in the back
of the abdomen. Each kidney is about 4 or 5 inches
long -- about the size of a fist.
The kidneys' function are to filter the blood. All the
blood in our bodies passes through the kidneys
several times a day. The kidneys remove wastes,
control the body's fluid balance, and regulate the
balance of electrolytes. As the kidneys filter blood,
they create urine, which collects in the kidneys' pelvis
-- funnel-shaped structures that drain down tubes
called ureters to the bladder.
Each kidney contains around a million units called
nephrons, each of which is a microscopic filter for
blood. It's possible to lose as much as 90% of kidney
function without experiencing any symptoms or
problems.





amyloplast - an organelle in some plant cells that
stores starch. Amyloplasts are found in starchy
plants like tubers and fruits.
ATP - ATP is short for adenosine triphosphate; it is
a high-energy molecule used for energy storage by
organisms. In plant cells, ATP is produced in the
cristae of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat
that surrounds the cell, but is inside the cell wall.
The cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing
some substances to pass into the cell and blocking
others.
cell wall - a thick, rigid membrane that surrounds a
plant cell. This layer of cellulose fiber gives the cell
most of its support and structure. The cell wall also
bonds with other cell walls to form the structure of
the plant.
centrosome - (also called the "microtubule
organizing center") a small body located near the
nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating
tubules. The centrosomes is where microtubules are
made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome
divides and the two parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell. Unlike the centrosomes in animal cells, plant cell
centrosomes do not have centrioles.
chlorophyll - chlorophyll is a molecule that can use light energy from sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide gas
into sugar and oxygen (this process is called photosynthesis). Chlorophyll is magnesium based and is usually green.
chloroplast - an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll. Photosynthesis (in which energy from
sunlight is converted into chemical energy - food) takes place in the chloroplasts.
christae - (singular crista) the multiply-folded inner membrane of a cell's mitochondrion that are finger-like projections.
The walls of the cristae are the site of the cell's energy production (it is where ATP is generated).
cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located.
Golgi body - (also called the golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle that looks like a
stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. The golgi body packages proteins and carbohydrates into
membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.
granum - (plural grana) A stack of thylakoid disks within the chloroplast is called a granum.
mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is infolded many
times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.
Nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced.
nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The nucleus controls many of the
functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded
by the nuclear membrane
ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis.
rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted
sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is
covered with ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transport materials through the cell and produces
proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi body, or inserted into the cell membrane).
smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and
convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). The
space within the ER is called the ER lumen. Smooth ER transport materials through the cell. It contains enzymes and
produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER buds off from rough ER, moving the newly-
made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body and membranes
stroma - part of the chloroplasts in plant cells, located within the inner membrane of chloroplasts, between the grana.
thylakoid disk - thylakoid disks are disk-shaped membrane structures in chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll.
Chloroplasts are made up of stacks of thylakoid disks; a stack of thylakoid disks is called a granum. Photosynthesis
(the production of ATP molecules from sunlight) takes place on thylakoid disks.
vacuole - a large, membrane-bound space within a plant cell that is filled with fluid. Most plant cells have a single
vacuole that takes up much of the cell. It helps maintain the shape of the cell.

Cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and
fat that surrounds the cell. The cell membrane
is semipermeable, allowing some substances
to pass into the cell and blocking others.
Centrosome - (also called the "microtubule
organizing center") a small body located near
the nucleus - it has a dense center and
radiating tubules. The centrosomes is where
microtubules are made. During cell division
(mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two
parts move to opposite sides of the dividing
cell. The centriole is the dense center of the
centrosome.
Cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the
cell nucleus in which the organelles are
located.
Golgi body - (also called the golgi apparatus
or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like
organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes
and is located near the nucleus. It produces
the membranes that surround the lysosomes.
The golgi body packages proteins and
carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles
for "export" from the cell.
Lysosome - (also called cell vesicles) round
organelles surrounded by a membrane and
containing digestive enzymes. This is where
the digestion of cell nutrients takes place.
Mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is infolded
many times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in
glucose into atp (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.
Nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
Nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal rna is produced. Some cells have more than
one nucleolus.
Nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The nucleus controls many of the
functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) and contains dna (in chromosomes). The nucleus is
surrounded by the nuclear membrane.
Ribosome - small organelles composed of rna-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough er) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted
sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the er is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough er is
covered with ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough er transports materials through the cell and
produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the golgi body, or inserted into the cell membrane).
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth er) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and
convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the er is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane).
The space within the er is called the er lumen. Smooth er transports materials through the cell. It contains
enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth er buds off from rough er,
moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the golgi body, lysosomes, and membranes.
Vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fills with food being digested and
waste material that is on its way out of the cell.











The main external structures of the female
reproductive system include:
Labia majora: The labia majora enclose and protect
the other external reproductive organs. Literally
translated as "large lips," the labia majora are
relatively large and fleshy, and are comparable to the
scrotum in males. The labia majora contain sweat and
oil-secreting glands. After puberty, the labia majora
are covered with hair.
Labia minora: Literally translated as "small lips,"
the labia minora can be very small or up to 2 inches
wide. They lie just inside the labia majora, and
surround the openings to the vagina (the canal that
joins the lower part of the uterus to the outside of the
body) and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the
bladder to the outside of the body).
Bartholin's glands: These glands are located
beside the vaginal opening and produce a fluid
(mucus) secretion.
Clitoris: The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a
small, sensitive protrusion that is comparable to the
penis in males. The clitoris is covered by a fold of skin,
called the prepuce, which is similar to the foreskin at
the end of the penis. Like the penis, the clitoris is very
sensitive to stimulation and can become erect.
The internal reproductive organs in the female include:
Vagina: The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body. It also is
known as the birth canal.
Uterus (womb): The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the home to a developing fetus. The uterus is
divided into two parts: the cervix, which is the lower part that opens into the vagina, and the main body of the
uterus, called the corpus. The corpus can easily expand to hold a developing baby. A channel through the cervix
allows sperm to enter and menstrual blood to exit.
Ovaries: The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of the uterus. The ovaries
produce eggs and hormones.
Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the uterus and serve as tunnels
for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm,
normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants into the lining
of the uterine wall.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Penis This is called the organ of
copulation. It features a long shaft and
the glans penis or the enlarged
bulbous-shaped tip. Once a male
individual becomes sexually aroused,
his penis exhibits erection and ready
for sexual intercourse. Erection is
feasible due to the filling of sinuses
within the tissues of the penis with
blood.
Scrotum It is a part of the male
reproductive system that features a
pouch-like structure located behind the
penis. Its purpose is to hold and protect
the testes. It is connected to the pelvic
cavity through the abdomen and
inguinal canal.
Testis Otherwise known as testicle, this part of the reproductive system serves as the gonad for male
individuals. Its main function is to produce sperm cells and male hormones such as androgens and testosterones.
Epididymis It is the coiled tubes that are characterized in a whitish mass that act as and storage of the sperm
cells before it passes on the vas deferens. It is also where the sperms mature.
Vas deferens Also known as a sperm duct, this thin tube is connected from the epididymis into the pelvic
cavity. It is approximately 43.2 centimeters long.
Accessory glands These glands are responsible for providing lubrication to the duct system and nourishing the
sperm cells. The three main accessory glands include seminal vesicle, the bulbourethral glands, and the prostate
gland.
o Seminal vesicles contain sac-like features that are joined to the vas deferens on a certain side of the
urinary bladder. It generates sticky and yellowish fluid that is rich from fructose, which provides motility
and energy to the sperm cell. Its secretion comprises 70 percent of the semen.
o The bulbourethral glands, or also known as Cowper glands, are two minute glands situated on both sides
of the urethra below the prostate gland. They generate a clear and slippery fluid.
o The prostate gland surrounds the ejaculatory ducts found at the base of the urethra. This gland is
responsible for mixing the sperm cells and the liquid produced by previous two glands. Also, it is
responsible in giving the semen a milky white in color.

1. Eyepiece: contains the ocular lens,
which provides a magnification power
of 10x to 15x, usually. This is where
you look through.
2. Nosepiece: holds the objective lenses
and can be rotated easily to change
magnification.
3. Objective lenses: usually, there are
three or four objective lenses on a
microscope, consisting of 4x, 10x, 40x
and 100x magnification powers. In
order to obtain the total magnification
of an image, you need to multiply the
eyepiece lens power by the objective
lens power. So, if you couple a 10x
eyepiece lens with a 40x objective
lens, the total magnification is of 10 x
40 = 400 times.
4. Stage clips: hold the slide in place.
5. Stage: it is a flat platform that supports
the slide being analyzed.
6. Diaphragm: it controls the intensity
and size of the cone light projected on
the specimen. As a rule of thumb, the
more transparent the specimen, less
light is required.
7. Light source: it projects light upwards through the diaphragm, slide and lenses.
8. Base: supports the microscope.
9. Condenser lens: it helps to focus the light onto the sample analyzed. They are particularly helpful when coupled with
the highest objective lens.
10. Arm: supports the microscope when carried.
11. Coarse adjustment knob: when the knob is turned, the stage moves up or down, in order to coarse adjust the focus.
12. Fine adjustment knob: used fine adjust the focus.