.

gShort Story and its Aspects

A short story is a short work of fiction. Fiction as you know is a prose writing
about imagined events and characters. Prose writing differs from poetry. In that, it does
not depends on verses, meters or rhymes for its organization and presentation. Short
stories tend to be less comple than novels. !sually a short story will focus on only one
incident, has a plot, a single setting, a limited number of characters and covers a short
period of time.
"he following are formal aspects of Short Stories#$
%enre$ genre refers to a particular literary form.
"he following are few genre#
Science Fiction
&orror Fiction
'omance
Science Fiction$ it is a genre of fiction dealing with imaginary but more or less
plausible (or atleast non supernatural content such as future settings, futuristic science,
technology, space travel, time travel, etc..) eploring the conse*uences of scientific
innovation is one purpose of science fiction. "he setting for science fiction are often
contrary to known reality. A time setting in the, in alternative time line or in historical
past are certain peculiar settings science fiction. "he characters include robots, aliens, etc.
Horror Fiction$ it is a genre of literature which is intended or has the capacity to
frighten its reader including feeling of horror and terror. &orror can be either supernatural
or non$supernatural. "he trait of horror is that it provokes a response emotional
psychological or physical within each individual that causes someone to react with fear.
In order for that response to be triggered there are different techni*ues used such as
unreal figures (mummies) or more real situations and figures (serial killer) the whole
horror genre is build upon people fear the known and anieties. According &.P.
+ovescraft, ,"he strongest emotion of mankind is fear and oldest and strongest kind of
fear is fear of unknown.-
Romance- as a literary genre of high culture, romance a style of heroic roles and verse
narrative that was popular in aristocratic circles of high medieval and early modern
.urope. "here were fantastic stories about /arvel$ filled with adventures often of a
knight portrayed as having heroic *ualities who goes on a *uest. Popular literature also
drew on themes of romance, but ironic, satiric and mockery intent. 'omances re$worked
legends, fairy tales and history to suit the readers taste. 0haracters include knights,
distressed damsels, ragons and other romantic troops.
Theme
"heme in a piece of fiction is the controlling idea or its central insight. It is the authors
underline meaning or the main idea that he is trying to convey. "he short stories often 1ust
have one theme unlike novel which has multiple themes. "he theme of a story is usually
woven all the way through the story and the characters action, interactions and
motivations, or reflect the stories theme. "heme is what an author is trying to tell the
readers. "he title of the short story usually points to what the writer is saying.
.ample of common themes from literature are#
+ove is blind
"hings are not always as they appear to be.
2elieve in yourself.
3on4t 1udge a book by its cover.
"he primary theme of a work is the unifying message conveyed throughout the story to
its audience. "he moral of the story is not eactly a theme.
Plot$ the plot is how the author arranges events to develop his basic idea. It is
the se*uence of events in a story. "he plot is planned, logical series of events
having a beginning, middle and end. "he short story usually has one plot so it can
be read in one sitting.
"here are si essential parts of plot#
Introduction- the beginning of the story where the characters and the setting is
revealed. A 5arrative &ook is introduced which raises *uestion or statement that
grabs the reader4s attention.
Inciting Incident$ "he first ma1or action in the story that sets the story in
motion.
Rising Action$ this is where the events in the story become complicated and
the conflict in the story is revealed.
6) Foreshadowing$ A techni*ue for hinting at events that may occur later in
the plot.
7) Flashback $ "he insertion of an earlier event into the time order of a
narrative.
8) 0onflict$ It is what prevents the main character from getting what he or
she wants. "he plot is driven by clima and it is "&. /9S"
I/P9'"A5" F.A"!'. 9F "&. S"9':.

There are two types of conflict:
6) External $ A struggle with a force outside one;s self.
7) Internal $ A struggle within one;s self< a person must make some decision, overcome
pain, *uiet their temper, resist an urge, etc.
Types of external conflict
6. PERSON VS. PERSON (physical) $ "he leading character struggles with his
physical strength against other men, forces of nature, or animals.
7. PERSON VS. FATE (classical) $ "he leading character struggles against fate, or
the circumstances of life facing him=her.
8. PERSON VS. SOIET! (social) $ "he leading character struggles against ideas,
practices, or customs of other people.
>. PERSON VS. ENVIRON"ENT$ In this conflict, the protagonist is pitted
against nature (Robinson Crusoe) or a representation of it, often in the form of an
animal (Moby Dick).
?. PERSON VS. TEHNO#O$!- &umanity4s innate disbelief about the wonders
of technology has resulted in many stories in which antagonists use technology to
gain power or in which technology takes over or becomes a malign influence on
society (Brave New World).
@. PERSON VS. THE S%PERNAT%RA#- Superficially, conflict with the
supernatural may seem e*uivalent to conflict with fate or %od, or representative
of a struggle with an evocation of self (Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde) or nature (The
Birds). 2ut this category stands on its own feet as well.
Types of Internal Conflict
&' PERSON VS. SE#F (psychological) $ "he leading character struggles with
himself=herself< with his=her own soul, ideas of right or wrong, physical
limitations, choices, etc.
Sus(ense-"he feeling of ecitement and curiosity that keeps the reader turning the
pages< created by making the readers wonder how the conflict will be resolved
limax$ this is the highest point of interest and the turning point of the story.
"he reader knows what will happen netA Bill the conflict be resolved or not.
Falling Action- the events and complication begin to resolve them. "he readers
know what will happen net and the conflict will be resolved or not.
Resolution) *enouement$ this is the final outcome or untangling of events in
the story. It is helpful to consider clima as a threefold phenomenon.
6. "he main character receives new information
7. Accepts this information (realizes it but does not necessarily agree with it).
8. Acts on this information (makes a choice that will determine whether or not he or
she gains his ob1ective).
Se*uence of plot
haracter
"he plot can eist only with characters. "he main character is placed in a situation
that contains a problem we must overcome. "herefore, conflict eists. /ost stories
also have minor characters who either help or hinder the main characters attempt to
solve this problem. "here are two meanings for the word character
6. "he person in a work of fiction
7. 0haracteristics of a person
+inds o, characters
6. Flat characters- a character who does not go through a change throughout the
story is the flat character. "hese characters are usually one dimensional.
7. Round or *-namic haracters- a character affected by the events of the story is
the round character. "hese characters are usually fully developed in terms of
personality. "hey are described in more detail and their personalities emerge more
fully. 'ound characters usually become enlightened, learned, grow or deteriorate
by the end of the story.
8. Protagonist- he is the main character of the story around whom the plot revolves.
>. Stereot-(es character- a character who is so well known that little has to be said
about him or her is known as stereotype character. "hese characters are
immediately recognizable because of the role he = she play. For e.g. stepmother,
mad scientist, geek.
?. Antagonist- this character apposes the protagonist. 9ften he = she is an oppotent
to the main charcter and is sometimes write and 1ustified in his= her actions.
The characteristic of a person
In order for a story to seem real to the readers, its characters must seem real.
0haracterization is the information the author gives the readers about the characters
themselves. "he author will reveal a character in several ways.
6. &is = her physical appearance
7. Bhat he=she says, thinks, feels and reads
8. Bhat he=she does or does not do
>. Bhat other say about him=her and how others react to him=her
0haracters are convincing if they are consistent, motivated and life$like.
Point o, Vie.
It is defined as the angle from which the story is told. "here are different angles and
perspective to a story. Point of view signifies the way a story gets told$the mode
established by an author by means of which the reader is presented with the character,
dialogue, actions, settings and events in a work of fiction. "he following are the various
point of view#$
6. Innocent E-e - "he story is told through the eyes of a child (his or her
1udgment being different from that of an adult).
7. Stream o, consciousness- the story is told so that the reader feels as if they
are inside the head of one character and knows all their thoughts and reactions.
8. First Person- the story is told by the protagonist or one of the characters who
interacts closely with the protagonist or other characters (using first person
pronouns I, /e, etcC). "he reader sees the story through this persons eyes as
he=she eperiences it and only knows what he=she knows or feels.
>. Second Person- here the story gets told solely or atleast primarily as an
address by the second person pronoun D:ou4 who is represented as eperiencing
that which is narrated in the story.
?. Third Person- when the person telling the story is not a part of the action is
known as third person point of view.
@. Omniscient- the author can narrate the story using the omniscient point of
view. &e can move from character to character and from event to event. "he
author knows everything about the characters and events and can enter the mind
of any character at will. &e has a free access to thoughts, feelings and motivation
of his characters and introduces information where and when he chases. "here are
two main types of omniscient point of view#$
Omniscient #imited- the author tells the story in third person using pronouns
they, she, he, it, etc.. we know only what the character knows and what the author
allows him or her to tell us. Be can see the thoughts and feelings of characters if
the author choses to reveal them to us.
Omniscient o/0ecti1e- the author tells the story in the third person. It appears
as though a camera is following the character going anywhere and recording only
what is seen and heard. "here is no comment on the characters or their thoughts.
5o interpretations are offered. "he readers is placed in the position of spectator
without the author there to eplain. "he reader has to interpret events on his own.
Setting$ "he time and location in which a short story takes place is called the
setting. For some stories the setting is very important, while for others it is not.
"here are several aspects of a short story4s setting to consider how these settings
contribute to a story.
Aspects of a short story4s setting#
Place$ It is the geographical location, where is the action of the story taking
placeA
Time$ Bhen is the story taking placeA (&istorical period, time of day, year, etc.)
Weaher Condiion$ Is it rainyA SunnyA Stormy, etc..
!ocial Condiion$ Bhat is the daily life of the character likeA 3oes the story
contain local colour ( writing that focuses on the speech, dress, mannerism,
customs, etc of a particular place)
Mood or "mos#here$ Bhat feeling is created at the beginning of the storyA Is
it bright and cheerfulA 9r 3ark and FrighteningA
Tone2
"ine is the attitude of the writer who takes towards his or her sub1ect characters or
readers in an influential discussion, I.A. 'ichards defines tone as the epression of a
literary speakers ,attitude to his listeners.- "he tone of his utterance reflects his sense
of where he stands towards those he is addressing.- "he sense in which the term is
used in recent criticism is suggested by the phrase ,"one of voice-, is implied to non$
literary speech. "he way we speak is revealed by subtle clues, our conception of, and
attitude to the things we are talking about, our personal relation to our audition and
also our assumptions about the social level, intelligence and sensitivity of that auditor.
"he tone of a speech can be described as critical or approving, formal or intimate,
outspoken or reticent, arrogant or prayerful, angry or loving, serious or ironic and so
on through numberless possible nuances of relationship and attitude both to ob1ect
and audition. Some current critical uses of tone ,are broader of tone and co$inside in
reference, with what other critics refer to call wise.-
S-m/olism2
A literary symbol means something itself in the story but also suggest a wealth of
meaning beyond what it actually is. An ob1ect, a situation, and an action can all be
symbolic tools. In visual images a sign can convey meaning without any further
elaborate eplanation for e.g. the 'ed 0ross stands for medical profession, the
national flag stand for country. "hese are symbols where the visual stands for
something else other than what is conveyed directly. In one symbol the whole range
of meanings are compressed. In poetry, language is used sparingly, and hence
symbolism becomes an effective means of conveying, with minimal words, a
powerful sentiment or condition. Symbolism is the additional meaning over and
above the literal, obvious one of a character, ob1ect image. Symbols address larger
than what is immediately visible. Symbolism enables to open up the field of
information when the meanings of symbols can be multiple.
POETR!
Theme. The theme is one of the most important aspects of a poem. The purpose
of the theme is to make an important point about the topic. For instance, if the
subject is about love, the theme of the poem might be that love is doesnt last
forever. In modern and contemporary poetry, your poem can have almost any
theme.
Tone. The tone of the poem refers to your attitude toard your subject and
readers. !our tone can be informal or formal, serious or humorous, sad or happy.
!ou can identify your tone by the ay in hich you use diction, synta", rhyme,
meter, and so forth.

Poetic Devices
!ou can use several poetic devices to create meaning and make your poem
memorable, including#

Allusion. $eference to a historical figure, another literary ork, ork of art, or a
%uote from a famous person. Its purpose is to add meaning to the poem.

Hyperbole. &se of e"aggeration for emphasis. It is not to be taken literally.
'"ample# (e died laughing. It is old as the hills. (e drinks like a fish.

Paradox. ) statement that appears to be self*contradictory, but is actually true.
&se hen you ant to stimulate the reader to think about the meaning.

Oxymoron. ) form of parody here to contradictory terms are combined to
make a phrase. '"ample# (onest thief, coloured fire, darkly lit. &se hen you
ant to stimulate the reader to think about the meaning.

+ound ,evices
-esides communicating meaning, you can craft a poem to evoke an emotional
response. To do this, you can apply the folloing sound devices#

Alliteration. $efers to the repetition of one or more initial sounds, usually the
same consonant sounds, at the beginning of ords ithin a line of a poem. It is
the sound, not the letter that is important. '"ample# -right black*eyed creature,
brushed ith bron from $obert Frosts, To a .oth +een in /inter.

Assonance. $efers to the repetition of voel sounds ithin a line of poetry.
'"ample# -urnt the fire of thine eyes from The Tiger by /illiam -lake.

Onomatopoeia. &se of ords or phrases to imitate or suggest the sounds they
describe. '"amples include bu00, hisper, bang.

Symbolism
+ymbolism is the use of a specific object or an image to represent an abstract
idea. ) symbol is a ord or phrase that represents something other than its
literal meaning.

!ou can use different symbols, such as objects, things, and places, to e"press
deep meaning in a poem1most often abstract meaning.'"amples of symbolism
include a rose to represent love, a dove to represent peace, the ol symboli0es
isdom, the phoeni" symboli0es rebirth, and the cross to represent 2hristianity.
In the folloing poem, the poet, /illiam -lake uses the rose to represent all
that is beautiful, natural, and desirable. )nd he uses the orm to symboli0e
the evil that destroys natural beauty and love.
'"ample#
The Sick Rose
-y /illiam -lake
3 rose, thou art sick4
The Invisible orm
That flies on the night
In the holing storm,
(as found out thy bed
3f crimson joy,
)nd his dark secret love
,oes thy life destroy.


5ine and +ynta"
/hen riting free verse, you need to be aare that there are no rules about line
breaks. !ou have many options, unless you are riting metrical verse, or a
limerick, or (aiku poetry, and so forth. +o, you must rely on your on
judgement. !et, there are a fe guidelines. Tobreak a line, follo these
suggestions#
Emphasis. The most emphatic positions on a line are at the beginning or
end of the line. To emphasi0e an idea, place the idea at the beginning or
end of the line.
End stop. !ou can break a line of poetry ith a period, comma, or semi*
colon.
Pause. !ou can break a line to create a brief pause.
Enjambment. !ou can break a sentence, clause, or phrase into to
parts, and then move the second part of the unit to the ne"t line.
Rhyme. !ou can break a line of poety to create an end rhyme.
Meter. !ou can break a line of poetry to create a pattern of meter.
Imagery
Imagery refers to the ords in the poem that enable readers to see ith their
imagination. !ou can create a ord picture or image by using ords and
phrases that appeal to the senses, such as sight, hearing, touch, smell, and
taste. '"amples of imagery include the folloing# bare black branches, ind*
sept barren field, sun*soaked beach, green leaves, and rusty car.
Olactory ima!ery. &se to stimulate the sense of smell.
Tactile ima!ery. &se to stimulate the sense of touch.
"isual ima!ery. &se to stimulate the sense of sight.
Auditory ima!ery. &se to stimulate the sense of hearing.
#ustatory ima!ery. &se to stimulate the sense of taste.
&se imagery to communicate deep meaning, and to evoke an emotional
response.
$hyme
$hyme refers to the repetition of sound of to or more ords on a line of poetry.
There are many types of rhymes, but the most popular are end*rhyme, internal
rhyme, eye*rhyme and slant rhyme.

End$Rhyme. The end rhyme occurs at the end of lines of poetry. It is the most
common type of rhyme. This type of rhyme is popular in traditional and modern
poetry. 6erfect rhyme is an e"ample of end*rhyme1in that the ends of ords
sound the same and are spelled the same. 7True8blue, mountain8fountain9
%nternal Rhyme. The rhyme occurs ithin the line or lines of the poem.
'"ample# The +plendour falls on castle alls8)nd snoy summits old in
story8and the sno summits old in story# 8The long light shakes across the
lakes8)nd the ild cataract leaps in glory by )lfred 5ord Tennyson in -lo,
-ungle, -lo.
Eye$Rhyme. The eye*rhyme is based on similarity of spelling rather than the
sound of ords. 75ove8move8prove9
Hal$rhyme or slant rhyme. This type of rhyme is imperfect or appro"imate. It
is a rhyme in hich either the voels or the consonants of the stressed syllables
are identical as in eyes, light, years, yours.
$hyme +cheme
Rhyme Scheme. ) poems rhyme scheme refers to the ay in hich rhymes
are arranged in the poem. .ost often, letters are used to indicate hich lines
rhyme. For instance, if the first and second lines of a poem rhyme and the third
and fourth lines rhyme, then the rhyme scheme ould be aa, bb. It is important
to note that different types of poetry have their on uni%ue rhyme scheme. For
instance, a +hakespearean sonnet has the folloing rhyme scheme# abab, cdcd,
efef, gg.

Diction
The diction of a poem refers to the choice of ords you select to compose a
poem. 'ach ord can have more than one meaning. +o, hen choosing a ord,
take the folloing into account#
&enotation. The dictionary definition of the ord.
'onnotation. The implied meaning of the poem.

Figures of Speech
The most common types of figures of speech are#
Metaphor. ) figure of speech in hich you make an indirect comparison
beteen to different things ithout using the ords like or as. !ou
take to unlike things and claim they are the same, as in a is b.
'"ample# +he is a black indo spider.
Simile. ) figure of speech in hich you make a direct comparison
beteen to different things by using like or as. '"ample# (e dressed
like a derelict.
Personiication. ) figure of speech in hich the animals, ideas, or
inanimate objects are given human attributes, characteristics, or traits.
'"ample# The sky cried, the sun smiled, and the ind screamed:
Metonymy. ) figure of speech in hich a ord replaces another ord
that is closely associated ith it. '"amples# pint for beer, skirt for omen,
press for journalism
Synecdoche. ) figure of speech in hich you substitute a part of
something for its hole. '"amples# The /hite (ouse for Federal
government, cloth for member of the clergy, castle for home.
Alliteration$$"llieraion is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in
successive or closely associated words. .ample, Peter Piper picked a
peck of pickled peppers.
Assonance$$"ssonance (slant rhyme) is the resemblance of similarity in
sound between vowels followed by different consonants in two or more
stressed syllables in a line of poetry. .ample, then came the drone of a
boat in the cove.
H-(er/ole$$Hy#erbole is a figure of speech in which conscious
eaggeration is used for effect. .ample, I had a headache the size of a
washtub.
#itotes$$$ioes is a figure of speech in which something is epressed
with a negation of the contrary. .ample, "he soccer stadium was filled
with no small number of euberant fans. In /edieval .ngland public
hangings were no rare occurrence, and not a few of the citizens came to
see them.
Pathetic Fallac-$$A #aheic %allacy is a type of personification in which
inanimate nature is given human *ualities. .ample, .very flower en1oys
the air it breathes. "he happy sunshine streamed through the clouds into
the peaceful valley.
Ox-moron$$9ymoron is a figure of speech in which opposites are
paired for effect. .ample, 2ittersweet. Eumbo shrimp. 3eafening
silence.
Onomato(oeia$$&nomao#oeia is a poetic sound device in which words
are used that actually simulate the sounds they represent. .ample,
0rash. 2ang. Pop. Pow. 'attle.
A(ostro(he$$A literary a#osro#he is a type of personification in which
an author addresses an inanimate or non$living ob1ect or idea as if that
entity were alive and could converse with him. .ample, Feats; G9de on
a %recian !rnG in which he directly addresses the urn. Another eample is
Shelley;s G9de to the Best BindG in which he speaks directly to the wind.

Elements of Drama
/ost successful playwrights follow the theories of playwriting and drama that were established over two
thousand years ago by a man named Aristotle. In his works he Poeics Aristotle outlined the si elements
of drama in his critical analysis of the classical %reek tragedy &edi#us Re' written by the %reek
playwright, Sophocles, in the fifth century 2.0. "he si elements as they are outlined involve# "hought,
"heme, Ideas< Action or Plot< 0haracters< +anguage< /usic< and Spectacle.


&. Thought)Theme)Ideas
Bhat the play means as opposed to what happens (the plot). Sometimes the theme is clearly stated in the
title. It may be stated through dialogue by a character acting as the playwright4s voice. 9r it may be the
theme is less obvious and emerges only after some study or thought. "he abstract issues and feelings that
grow out of the dramatic action.

3. Action)Plot
"he events of a play< the story as opposed to the theme< what happens rather than what it means. "he plot
must have some sort of unity and clarity by setting up a pattern by which each action initiating the net
rather than standing alone without connection to what came before it or what follows. In the plot of a play,
characters are involved in conflict that has a pattern of movement. "he action and movement in the play
begins from the initial entanglement, through rising action, clima, and falling action to resolution.

4. haracters
"hese are the people presented in the play that are involved in the perusing plot. .ach character should
have their own distinct personality, age, appearance, beliefs, socio economic background, and language.

5. #anguage
"he word choices made by the playwright and the enunciation of the actors of the language. +anguage and
dialog delivered by the characters moves the plot and action along, provides eposition, defines the distinct
characters. .ach playwright can create their own specific style in relationship to language choices they use
in establishing character and dialogue.

6. "usic
/usic can encompass the rhythm of dialogue and speeches in a play or can also mean the aspects of the
melody and music compositions as with musical theatre. .ach theatrical presentation delivers music,
rhythm and melody in its own distinctive manner. /usic is not a part of every play. 2ut, music can be
included to mean all sounds in a production. /usic can epand to all sound effects, the actor4s voices,
songs, and instrumental music played as underscore in a play. /usic creates patterns and establishes tempo
in theatre. In the aspects of the musical the songs are used to push the plot forward and move the story to a
higher level of intensity. 0omposers and lyricist work together with playwrights to strengthen the themes
and ideas of the play. 0haracter4s wants and desires can be strengthened for the audience through lyrics
and music.

7. S(ectacle
"he spectacle in the theatre can involve all of the aspects of scenery, costumes, and special effects in a
production. "he visual elements of the play created for theatrical event. "he *ualities determined by the
playwright that create the world and atmosphere of the play for the audience4s eye.


(urher Consideraions o% he Playwri)h
Above and beyond the elements outlined above the playwright has other ma1or considerations to
take into account when writing. "he %enre and Form of the play is an important aspect. Some playwrights
are pure in the choice of genre for a play. "hey write strictly tragedy or comedy. 9ther playwrights tend to
mi genre, combining both comedy and tragedy in one piece of dramatic work.


Genre/Form
3rama is divided into the categories of tragedy, comedy, melodrama, and tragicomedy. .ach of
these genre=forms can be further subdivide by style and content.

Traged-
"ragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude. "he tragedy is
presented in the form of action, not narrative. It will arouse pity and fear in the audience as it witnesses the
action. It allows for an arousal of this pity and fear and creates an affect of purgation or catharsis of these
strong emotions by the audience. "ragedy is serious by nature in its theme and deals with profound
problems. "hese profound problems are universal when applied to the human eperience. In classical
tragedy we find a protagonist at the center of the drama that is a great person, usually of upper class birth.
&e is a good man that can be admired, but he has a tragic flaw, a hamartia, that will be the ultimate cause of
his down fall. "his tragic flaw can take on many characteristics but it is most often too much pride or
hubris. "he protagonist always learns, usually too late, the nature of his flaw and his mistakes that have
caused his downfall. &e becomes self$aware and accepts the inevitability of his fate and takes full
responsibility for his actions. Be must have this element of inevitability in tragedy. "here must be a cause
and effect relationship from the beginning through the middle to the end or final catastrophe. It must be
logical in the conclusion of the necessary outcome. "ragedy will involve the audience in the action and
create tension and epectation. Bith the clima and final end the audience will have learned a lesson and
will leave the theatre not depressed or sullen, but uplifted and enlightened.

omed-
0omedy should have the view of a ,comic spirit- and is physical and energetic. It is tied up in rebirth and
renewal, this is the reason most comedy end in weddings, which suggest a union of a couple and the
epected birth of children. In comedy there is absence of pain and emotional reactions, as with tragedy,
and a replaced use of mans intellect. "he behavior of the characters presented in comedy is ludicrous and
sometimes absurd and the result in the audience is one of correction of behaviors. "his correction of
behaviors is the didactic element of comedy that acts as a mirror for society , by which the audience learns
,don4t behave in ludicrous and absurd ways.- "he types of comedies can vary greatly< there are situation
comedies, romantic comedies, sentimental comedies, dark comedies, comedy of manners, and pure farce.
"he comic devices used by playwrights of comedy are# eaggeration, incongruity, surprise, repetition,
wisecracks, and sarcasm.

"elodrama
/elodrama is drama of disaster and differs from tragedy significantly, in that< forces outside of the
protagonist cause all of the significant events of the plot. All of the aspects of related guilt or responsibility
of the protagonist are removed. "he protagonist is usually a victim of circumstance. &e is acted upon by
the antagonist or anti$hero and suffers without having to accept responsibility and inevitability of fate. In
melodrama we have clearly defined character types with good guys and bad guys identified. /elodrama
has a sense of strict moral 1udgment. All issues presented in the plays are resolved in a well$defined way.
"he good characters are rewarded and the bad characters are punished in a means that fits the crime.

Tragicomed-
"ragicomedy is the most life like of all of the genres. It is non$1udgmental and ends with no absolutes. It
focuses on character relationships and shows society in a state of continuous flu. "here is a mi of
comedy and tragedy side by side in these types of plays.


Style/Mode/ ism
"he shaping of dramatic material, setting, or costumes in a specific manner. .ach play will have its own
uni*ue and distinctive behaviors, dress, and language of the characters. "he style of a playwright is shown
in the choices made in the world of the play# the kinds of characters, time periods, settings, language,
methods of characterization, use of symbols, and themes.


Dramaic !rucure
3ramatic structure involves the overall framework or method by which the playwright uses to
organize the dramatic material and or action. It is important for playwrights to establish themes but the
challenge comes in applying structure to the ideas and inspirations. !nderstanding basic principals of
dramatic structure can be invaluable to the playwright. /ost modern plays are structured into acts that can
be further divided into scenes. "he pattern most often used is a method by where the playwright sets up
early on in the beginning scenes all of the necessary conditions and situations out of which the later
conditions will develop. %enerally the wants and desires of one character will conflict with another
character. Bith this method the playwright establishes a pattern of complication, rising action, clima, and
resolution. "his is commonly known as cause to effect arrangement of incidents.

"he basic 0haracteristics of the cause to effect arrangement are#
0lear eposition of situation
0areful preparation for future events
!nepected but logical reversals
0ontinuous mounting suspense
An obligatory scene
+ogical resolution

Point o, Attac8
"he moment of the play at which the main action of the plot begins. "his may occur in the first scene, or it
may occur after several scenes of eposition. "he point of attack is the main action by which all others will
arise. It is the point at which the main complication is introduced. Point of attack can sometimes work
hand in hand with a play4s inciting incident, which is the first incident leading to the rising action of the
play. Sometimes the inciting incident is an event that occurred somewhere in the character4s past and is
revealed to the audience through eposition.

Ex(osition
.position is important information that the audience needs to know in order to follow the main story line
of the play. It is the aspects of the story that the audience may hear about but that they will not witness in
actual scenes. It encompasses the past actions of the characters before the play4s opening scenes progress.

Rising Action
'ising action is the section of the plot beginning with the point of attack and=or inciting incident and
proceeding forward to the crisis onto the clima. "he action of the play will rise as it set up a situation of
increasing intensity and anticipation. "hese scenes make up the body of the play and usually create a sense
of continuous mounting suspense in the audience.

The limax)risis
All of the earlier scenes and actions in a play will build technically to the highest level of dramatic
intensity. "his section of the play is generally referred to as the moment of the plays clima. "his is the
moment where the ma1or dramatic *uestions rise to the highest level, the mystery hits the unraveling point,
and the culprits are revealed. "his should be the point of the highest stage of dramatic intensity in the
action of the play. "he whole combined actions of the play generally lead up to this moment.

Resolution)O/ligator- Scene
"he resolution is the moment of the play in which the conflicts are resolved. It is the solution to the
conflict in the play, the answer to the mystery, and the clearing up of the final details. "his is the scene that
answers the *uestions raised earlier in the play. In this scene the methods and motives are revealed to the
audience.

Cae)ories o% Plo !rucure
0limatic vs. .pisodic
0limatic Structure
I. Plot begins late in story, closer to the very end or clima
II. 0overs a short space of time, perhaps a few hours, or at most a few days
III. 0ontains a few solid, etended scenes, such as three acts with each act comprising one long
scene
IH. 9ccurs in a restricted locale, one room or one house
H. 5umber of characters is severely limited, usually not more than si or eight
HI. Plot in linear and moves in a single line with few subplots or counter plots
HII. +ine of action proceeds in a cause and effect chain. "he characters and events are closely
linked in a se*uence of logical, almost inevitable development

.pisodic Structure
I. Plot begins relatively early in the story and moves through a series of episodes
II. 0overs a longer period of time# weeks, months, and sometimes years
III. /any short, fragmented scenes< sometimes an alternation of short and long scenes
IH. /ay range over an entire city or even several countries
H. Profusion of characters, sometimes several dozen
HI. Fre*uently marked by several threads of action, such as two parallel plots, or scenes of
comic relief in a serous play
HII. Scenes are 1utaposed tone to one another. An event may result from several causes, or no
apparent cause, but arises in a network or web of circumstances

9utline of Playwriting
Along with the basic understanding of these *ualities the playwright must take the aspects of
unity into great consideration. At the center of every play there should be unity. !nity in playwriting
means harmony among the component parts. Included in the net section of this pro1ect is an informative
outline that can help a perspective playwright achieve unity in their work. It also aids in the process of
starting the initial development of a play and adds credibility to the work. Some of these important aspects
and considerations listed in the outline have been covered in some detail thus far, but others should be
strongly considered before a playwright puts pen to paper or hands to keys.

"hese important aspects include the following#
I. 'esearch and Fnowledge of#
a. "hemes and Sub1ect /atter .plored
b. !nity in the %enre=Form and 0larity of Style=/ode of the Intended Bork
c. Fnowledge of the "ime Period Presented
d. 'esearch of Any other 'elevant data presented in the play
II. Inspiration#
a. Painting=Photo that encapsulates the Borld of Play
b. /etaphor that describes the themes at work in a single sentence
c. Any other 'elevant Ideas of inspiration
III. 0oncepts#
a. Iuestions you should be able to answer#
i. Bhat does the play representA Bhat is its themeA Bhy is it importantA Bhy
does it deserve to be witnessedA Bhat is the moralA Bhat universal truth does it
illustrateA Bhat ecites you, the playwright, about the workA Bhat aspects of
the drama fires your imaginationA Bhat makes you feel zealous and
impassionedA Bhat moves youA Bhat about the material gives you a deep
feeling of satisfactionA Bhat in the play makes it worthy of an audience4s
attentionA Bhy is it compellingA
IH. Predominant .lements# Bhat is the leading element in your dramatic workA
a. "heme$ Waiin) %or $e%y by 0lifford 9dets is a thesis play directly promoting the theme
that the common man will continue to be oppressed until he succeeds in organizing into
unions. It is nearly a propaganda play. 0haracter and dialogue serve the theme
eclusively. "he spectacle is limited to a bare stage. "he language is didactic to the point
of preachiness.
b. Plot$The Tavern by %eorge /. 0ohan is a play in which the predominant element is
almost eclusively plot. "he action hurls itself relentlessly at the audience. 0haracter is
continuously subservient to plot. "he theme, crime does not pay, is apparent from the
beginning, and the spectacle re*uires on an upstage door and a winter wind (eample of
/usic) so powerful it drives all the players to the wall.
c. 0haracter$All the plays of 0hekhov have the predominant element of character. 9ne
could barely choose plot as the secondary element. It is also unlikely that one would
choose language, because language in 0hekhov is intentionally commonplace. "here is
"heme in 0hekhov, but it is subservient to character, it lays *uiet and low in the play and
rises gracefully and gently to the surface.
d. Spectacle$Barnum by /ark 2ramble and /ichael Stewart won a number of prizes in
5ew :ork, despite the fact that it has no plot, no characters of conse*uence, and no
significant language< its theme, at best, could be stated, A circus causes sweat. "he sheer
intensity and speed of the spectacle, the unrelenting energy, the nonstop sensation of
movement, sound, and color< the surprises, the acrobatic feats, dances, magic, and
razzmatazz overwhelmed and gratified audiences.
e. +anguage$*nder he Milk Wood by 3ylan "homas is subtitled ,A Play for Hoices.- It is
a demonstration of the most miraculous parade of words in the spoken .nglish. It is
poetry at its most dazzling. "he theme is vague at best. As for plot, it is a patchwork of
incidents involving sity$four characters in a tiny Belch town in the course of a summer
day. "he characters are sketched, not developed. "he predominant element in this play is
clearly the most radiant language ever assembled. Spectacle would ruin this work.
f. /itures$/ost commonly you will find that the ma1ority of plays have mitures of all of
the elements of drama. "he eamples cited above are plays demonstrating one
predominant element almost to the eclusion of the others. /any playwrights tend to
utilize a bit of all the elements. 9ne of the greatest eceptions and eamples of
incredible use of all the elements is the plays of Shakespeare. "he reason his plays tower
above all others is that he fuses the elements of theme, plot, character, spectacle, and
language so magnificently. In Shakespeare we can marvel at the great skill with which
these elements have been united.

H. 9utlining# 2eginning, /iddle, and .nd
a. 2eginning#
i. Prologue and or start of play with introduction of characters, date, place,
time, setting, and eposition and inciting incident introduced
ii. Point of attack, introduce primary conflict and central dramatic *uestion
b. /iddle#
i. 0haracters pursue ob1ectives and encounter obstacles
ii. Answers sought< goals of characters conflict with other characters
iii. 0haracters attempt to overcome obstacles and challenges
iv. 0haracters plan tactics, succeed, fail, attack, retreat, surprise, and are
surprised, encounter ma1or reversals and a crisis is reached
c. .nd#
i. 0haracters engage in final conflict (clima of play)
ii. 0haracters main ob1ective achieved of lost
iii. 0entral dramatic *uestion is answered, theme or ideas of play confirmed.
'esolution where order is established
Concl!sion
Artistic consideration in playwriting re*uires selection and arrangement. Art is skill ac*uired by
eperience, study, and clear observations. Playwrights must consciously set about making choices with a
competent plan and creative imagination. 9nly then than we consider the playwrights work as a viable
start to the theatrical process. 2efore anyone begins to write a play it is important to understand the medium
for which you intend on writing. Briting for the stage demands an understanding of two fundamentals# the
essence of drama and the nature of theatre.