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i
(x)
g
i
(x)
= I
Remember: if necessary, manipulate the limit expression so that LHopitals Rule can be used.
Note: an expression lim
xc
(x) may be manipulated into a form appropriate for LHopitals by
using (x) = c
In](x)
and applying the limit to ln (x) to find lim
xc
(x); however, the
conditions for Composite Function Continuity Theorem must be met.
Intermediate Value Theorem:
If a function (x) is continuous on an interval [a,b], and there is some number C such that
(o) < C < (b), then there is some number c such that (c) = C.
The Fundamental Trigonometric Limit:
lim
00
sin0
0
= 1
Note: this can be used to derive lim
00
cos 0-1
0
= u
Evaluation Techniques (rigid/explicit procedures not appropriate):
Remember: a limit exists IFF the left- and right-handed limits exist and are equal
Note: at any time, if a real number is determined as the value of the limit expression, [END]!
1. Attempt direct substitution
2. Simplify the limit expression as much as possible (factor and divide out terms, group
terms, etc.)
3. Multiply by 1 (e.g.
x-1
x-1
,
u
2
-4
u
2
-4
, ctc.)
4. Add zero (i.e. +[factor] [factor]) then factor
5. Try to apply one of the basic limit laws/theorems
6. Substitute in equivalent expressions (e.g. definitions, identities, etc.)
7. If an indeterminate form of
0
0
,
, or
-
-
is obtained and the conditions for LHopitals
Rule are present, use it (and you may repeatedly use it until a real number is produced so
long as the conditions for LHopitals Rule are present)
8. Attempt to use Squeeze Theorem
9. Split the limit into two a left-handed and right-handed limit and evaluate those
individually.
10. Integrate (no pun intended) other definitions involving limits (e.g. if the limit expression
is actually a derivative)
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 6 of 28
Q2.2A: Evaluate the following limit:
lim
x
n
4
x
x
n
4
_ sec
4
t Jt
x
n
4
Q2.2B: Evaluate the following limit:
lim
x0
(sinhx x)
x
3
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 7 of 28
Q2.2C: Evaluate the following limit:
lim
x0
(1 +ox)
1
x
Q2.2D: Evaluate the following limit:
lim
xu
+
(cos x)(In(x-u))
In(c
x
-c
c
)
Q2.2E: Evaluate the following limit:
lim
x
n
2
-
(tanx)
cos x
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 8 of 28
2.3 Finding the Derivative
Applications:
- Physics (force, velocity, accelleration, etc.)
- Implicit differentiation
- Optimisation and curve sketching
- Approximating the value of non-integer numbers
- Related rates problems
- Any task requiring instantaneous rates of change
Definition of the Derivative of a Function:
The derivative of the function y = (x) is given by:
Jy
Jx
=
i
(x) =
x
y = y lim
h0
(x +) (x)
Note: the derivative is the instantaneous rate of change of y = (x) at a given x
Definition of Differentiability:
A function (x) is differentiable at a point x = o if
i
(o) exists.
A function (x) is differentiable on an interval [a,b] if for every c (o, b), (c) exists.
A function (x) is a differentiable function if it is differentiable for every x in the domain.
Note: a function is diff. at a given point IFF both the left- and right-handed derivatives exist.
Basic Derivative Theorems:
Power Derivative Theorem: (x
n
)
i
= nx
n-1
; n R
Constant Derivative Theorem: |c(x)]
i
= c
i
(x)
Polynomial Derivative Theorem: P
n
i
(x) = no
n
x
n-1
+(n 1)o
n-1
x
n-2
++2o
2
x + o
1
Additivity Derivative Theorem: ( +g)
i
(x) =
i
(x) +g
i
(x)
Product Derivative Theorem: |(x)g(x)]
i
=
i
(x)g(x) +(x)g
i
(x)
Quotient Derivative Theorem: j
](x)
g(x)
[
i
=
]
|
(x)g(x)-](x)g
|
(x)
|g(x)]
2
; g(x) u
Reciprocal Derivative Theorem: [
1
](x)
i
=
]
|
(x)
|](x)]
2
; (x) u
Composite Function Derivative Theorem (Chain Rule):
|(g(x))]
i
=
J
Jg
Jg
Jx
Note: Chain Rule is used during implicit differentiation, and always applies when differentiating.
Continuity Implication from Differentiability:
If (x) is differentiable over an interval (a,b), then it is also continuous over that interval.
Note: the converse is not always true.
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 9 of 28
Extreme Value Theorem:
If (x) is continuous on an interval [a,b], then (x) has some absolute maximum, (c), and
some absolute minimum (J), within the interval, where c, J |o, b].
Fermats Theorem:
If (x) has a local max./min. at x = c, then:
(c) = u or (c) NE
Note: the converse is not always true.
Mean Value Theorem:
If (x) is continuous on |o, b] and (x) is differentiable on (o, b), then there is at least one
c (o, b) such that:
i
(c) =
(b) (o)
b o
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions:
d
dx
(sinx) = cosx
d
dx
(csc x) = csc x cot x
d
dx
(cos x) = sinx
d
dx
(sec x) = sec x tanx
d
dx
(tanx) = sec
2
x
d
dx
(cot x) = csc
2
x
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
J
Jx
[sin
-1
x
o
=
1
o
2
x
2
J
Jx
[cos
-1
x
o
=
1
o
2
x
2
J
Jx
[tan
-1
x
o
=
o
o
2
+x
2
Note: these can be obtained by forming a right angle triangle such that x = (y), where f is the
function for which the inverse is being sought and y is an interior angle of the triangle, then
taking the derivative of that expression.
Derivative of an Inverse Function:
J
Jx
-1
(x) =
1
i
(
-1
(x))
Derivative of an Exponential Function:
J
Jx
o
x
= o
x
ln o
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 10 of 28
Derivative of a Logarithmic Function:
J
Jx
log
a
x =
1
x ln o
Differentiation Techniques (rigid/explicit procedures not appropriate):
Note: [END] when a the desired form of the derivative is found!
1. Simplify the limit expression as much as possible (factor and divide out terms, group
terms, etc.)
2. Apply a derivative theorem/known trigonometric derivative
3. Multiply by 1 (e.g.
x-1
x-1
,
u
2
-4
u
2
-4
, ctc.)
4. Add zero (i.e. +[factor] [factor]) then factor
5. Substitute in equivalent expressions (e.g. definitions, identities, etc.)
Systematic Procedure to Calculate Differential Approximations for Numbers:
1. [START] Define a function (or use a given fcn.) y = (x), such that y = (x +x)
(x) is equal to the number for which the approximation is being made
2. Choose x Jx = [your chosen increment]
3. Find
d
dx
=
i
(x), which can be rearranged into Jy =
i
(x)Jx
4. Substitute values into Jy =
i
(x)Jx
|
x=c
and solve for Jy
5. Use y = |numbcr o intcrcst] Jy to approximate the number of interest. [END]
Q2.3A Evaluate the following:
J
Jx
|
1u
Inx
x
In10
]
Q2.3B Find
i
(x) where (x) = 4
t
2
Jt
sInx
x
2
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 11 of 28
Q2.3C Find
i
(x) where:
(x) = [lim
x0
(n+x)
2
-n
2
x
sInx
-249
Jx
Q2.3D Evaluate the following:
Jy
Jx
|
x=1,=1
or x = |(Sx +4y)]
2
, gi:cn
i
(7) =
1
4
Q2.3E Approximate the value of S1 using differentials.
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 12 of 28
2.4 Optimisation and Curve Sketching
Applications:
- Graphical visualisations of data and models
- Maximisation/Minimisation optimisation problems
Definition of Absolute/Local Maximum/Minimum:
For a function y = (x) that is defined for an interval [o, b], and for a c |o, b]:
There is an absolute maximum at (c) if (c) (x) for all x c in the domain.
There is an absolute minimum at (c) if(c) (x) for allx c in the domain.
There is a local maximum at (c) if (c) (x) for all x c, x |o, b].
There is a local minimum at (c) if (c) (x) for all x c, x |o, b].
Derivative Analysis and Shapes of Graphs:
For a function y = (x) that is differentiable on an interval (o, b), and for a c (o, b):
Quick Test 1: is increasing if
i
> u
is decreasing if
i
< u
Quick Test 2: If
i
< u to the left of and
i
> u to the right of x = c, (c) is a local min.
If
i
> u to the left of, and
i
> u to the right of x = c (c) is a local max.
If
i
is the same on both sides of x = c, then (c) is not a local min/max.
Quick Test 3: If
ii
> u on the interval, then is concave up.
If
ii
< u on the interval, then is concave down.
Quick Test 4: If
ii
(c) < u, then (c) is a local max.
If
ii
(c) > u, then (c) is a local min.
If
ii
(c) = u, this does not suggest anything conclusive about (c).
Systematic Procedure for finding Local Maxima/Minima:
Note: [END] whenever all the local maxima/minima have been found!
1. [START] Find all c
crit
by setting = u and solving for x or find where NE.
2. If Quick Test 4 conditions are met, use it.
3. If conditions for <2> are not met, but those for Quick Test 2, use it. But, it is more work
(we must consider sign of f above/below c
crit
, as well as continuity).
4. If conditions are not met for Quick Test 2 either, use the basic definition of a local
maximum/minimum (usually, this is the most work of all).
Systematic Procedure for finding the Optimal Value of a Function:
1. [START] Find the local maxima and minima.
2. Evaluate the endpoints of the function on the interval of interest.
3. Select the critical point that optimises the function in the desired manner. [END]
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 13 of 28
Systematic Procedure for Curve Sketching:
1. [START] Try to alter the form of the function to make it more manageable for curve
sketching, if possible (i.e. factoring)
2. Find the domain and range, endpoints, horizontal/vertical/slant/other asymptotes of the
function.
3. Find the x-intercept(s) and y-intercept(s).
4. Identify any special properties (i.e. even/odd function, periodicity).
5. Use QT1 and QT2 to identify intervals where the function is increasing/decreasing (and
from there, identify any local max./min. as well as abs. max./min.).
6. Use QT3 and QT4 to identify intervals where the function is concave up/down (and from
there, identify any points of inflection as well as confirm max./min. found in <4>).
[END]
Q2.4A Sketch the curve y = c
x
sinx , n x n.
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 14 of 28
Q2.4B Find an equation for the line through (3,5) that cuts off the least area from the first
quadrant (the first quadrant is defined byx u, y u).
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 15 of 28
2.5 Integral Operations
Applications:
- Physics (e.g. finding change in position from velocity, work done by a force, etc.)
- Areas between curves
- Volumes of revolution
- Differential equations (see 2.6 Solving Differential Equations)
- Any tasks involving calculation of: areas; change in a function using its derivative
Riemann Definition of the Definite Integral:
For a function (x) that is continuous, or is continuous except for a finite number of jump
discontinuities, on an interval [a,b], the net area under the curve (the definite integral) is:
_ (x)Jx
b
u
= lim
n
R
n
= (x
)x
=1
where R
n
is called the Riemann Sum, x
nt
b
where t
b
is the amount of time elapsed in units of b (b is a unit of time, e.g. month, year, etc.), n
is the number of compounds per b, and r is the interest rate per b.
1OLDE: First-Order Linear Differential Equation:
y
i
+P(x)y = (x)
where P(x), (x) are given, continuous functions. If we define an integration factor, I, to be:
I(x) = c
P(x)dx
Then the solution to the differential equation is:
y(x) =
1
I
_I
Note: alternatively, multiply both sides of the 1OLDE by I and then integrate.
2OLDE: Second-Order Linear Differential Equation:
P(x)y
ii
+(x)y
i
+R(x)y = 0(x)
where P(x), (x), R(x), 0(x)are given, continuous functions.
H2OLDE: Homogenous Second-Order Linear Differential Equation:
P(x)y
ii
+(x)y
i
+R(x)y = u
where P(x), (x), R(x) are given, continuous functions.
H2OLDE Theorem for Specific Solutions:
If y
1
(x), y
2
(x) are two possible solutions to the H2OLDE, then:
y(x) = c
1
y
1
(x) +c
2
y
2
(x)
is also a solution, for any constants c
1
, c
2
.
H2OLDE Theorem for General Solutions:
If y
1
(x), y
2
(x) are two linearly independent solutions of the H2OLDE, then:
y
gcn
(x) = c
1
y
1
(x) +c
2
y
2
(x)
is the general, complete solution to the H2OLDE, for constants c
1
, c
2
determined by the
boundary conditions.
Eulers Relation:
c
x
cos x +i sinx
Note: this is true by definition.
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 22 of 28
H2OLDE w/ CCs: Homogeneous Second-Order Linear Differential Equation with Constant
Coefficients:
oy
ii
+by
i
+cy = u
where o, b, c are constants. Then the associated characteristic or auxiliary equation is:
or
2
+br +c = u
wic yiclJs:
r =
b _b
2
4oc
2o
Now, we assume a solution is y(x) = c
x
because it satisfies the differential equation:
Case 1: b
2
4oc > u r
1
, r
2
are real and distinct (so, y
1
(x) and y
2
(x) are linearly
independent). By the H2OLDE Theorem for General Solutions:
y
gcn
(x) = C
1
c
1
x
+C
2
c
2
x
Case 2: b
2
4oc = u r
1
= r
2
and we need an alternative method to find two linearly
independent solutions. y(x) = xc
x
is an appropriate candidate, hence:
y
gcn
(x) = C
1
c
1
x
+C
2
xc
2
x
Case 3: b
2
4oc < u r
1
= o +i anu r
2
= o iB, where o =
b
2u
, =
4uc-b
2
2u
. Then, we
use y
gcn
(x) = C
1
c
1
x
+C
2
c
2
x
along with Eulers Relation to arrive at:
y
gcn
(x) = c
ux
(C
1
cos x +C
2
sin x)
Non-H2OLDE w/ CCs: Non-Homogeneous Second-Order Linear Differential Equation with
Constant Coefficients:
oy
ii
+by
i
+cy = 0(x)
where the associated complementary equation (an H2OLDE w/ CCs) is:
oy
ii
+by
i
+cy = u
The general, complete solution to the Non-H2OLDE w/ CCs is given by:
y
gcn
(x) = y
put
(x) +y
comp
(x)
where y
put
(x) is a particular solution to the Non-H2OLDE w/ CCS, and y
comp
(x) is the
general, complete solution to the complementary equation.
Systematic Procedure for solving Separable Differential Equations:
1. [START] Collect the terms with only x on one side, and collect the terms with only y on
the other side.
2. Integrate both sides (dont forget about constants!)
3. Simplify and isolate for y in terms of x (or vice-versa, depending on the task at hand).
[END]
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 23 of 28
Method of Undetermined Coefficients:
1. [START]Find the general, complete solution to the complementary equation (these can
always be found).
2. Attempt to solve the coefficients of a y
put
(x) in the form of 0(x) by substituting your
chosen y
put
(x) into the differential equation.
Note: In order for the left-hand side to be equal to the right-hand side, the
coefficients for each power of x must be the same (otherwise, the polynomials are
linearly independent and no solution can be found).
[END]
Method of Variation of Parameters:
1. [START] Find two solutions, y
1
and y
2
, to the complementary equation (these can
always be found).
2. Find y
put
(x) by setting y
put
(x) = u
1
y
1
+u
2
y
2
, where u
1
, u
2
are unknown functions
to be found in <3>.
3. Solve the following system of equations:
u
1
i
y
1
+u
2
i
y
2
= u
u
1
i
y
1
i
+u
2
i
y
2
i
=
0(x)
o
Note: if we cannot integrate u
1
i
, u
2
i
, we cannot solve the differential equation.
[END]
Systematic Procedure for solving Linear Differential Equations:
1. [START] Identify the type of linear differential equation (1OLDE, H2OLDE, H2OLDE
w/ CCs, non-H2OLDE w/ CCs).
2. Use one of the known theorems and/or methods associated with the particular situation
and solve for the differential equation. [END]
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 24 of 28
Q2.6A Solve the differential equation y
ii
2y
i
Sy = x +2, with the boundary conditions
y(u) = y
ii
(u) = u using Method of Undetermined Coefficients.
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 25 of 28
Q2.6B Find the solution of the differential equation y
i
Sx
2
y = 6x
2
.
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 26 of 28
3. Appendices
3.1 Trigonometric Identities
sin
2
x +cos
2
x = 1
sin(o _b) = sino cos b _cos o sinb (also yields double-angle, product identities)
cos(o _b) = cos o cos b sino sinb (also yields double-angle, half-angle, product identities)
tan(o _b) =
tano _tanb
1 tano tanb
cosh
2
x sinh
2
x = 1
sinh(o +b) = sinh o cosh b +cosh o sinhb
3.2 Numerical Methods to find the Roots of an Equation
3.2.1 Method of Successive Bisections
1. [START] Choose two values, o
1
, b
1
in the domain, such that (o) > u and (b) < u
2. Find midpoint between o and b, call it x
m
3. a) If (x
m
) > u, then for next step, o = x
m
b) If (x
m
) < u, then for next step, b = x
m
4. Repeat Steps <2> and <3> as many times as desired [END]
3.2.2 Newtons Method
1. [START] Guess x
1
as the x co-ordinate of a root.
2. Find (x
1
), (x
1
); find the eqn of the tangent line
a. y
tungcnt
(x) = (x
1
) + (x
1
)(x x
1
)
3. Find x
2
such that y
tungcnt
(x
2
) = u
4. Set u = (x
1
) + (x
1
)(x
2
x
1
) x
2
= x
1
](x
1
)
]
|
(x
1
)
5. Repeat x
n+1
= x
n
](x
n
)
]
|
(x
n
)
as many times as desired [END]
Note: with Newtons Method it is possible to produce a series of approximations for the x of the
root that do not converge. In this case, choose a new x that is offset from the present set, or
proceed to use Method of Successive Bisections.
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 27 of 28
3.3 Additive Series of Powers
i
n
=1
=
n(n +1)
2
i
2
n
=1
=
n(n +1)(2n +6)
6
i
3
n
=1
= _
n(n +1)
2
_
2
3.4 Inverse Function Relationships
Definition of the Inverse Function
For a function (x), the inverse of (x), denoted as
-1
(x) is defined as the function such that:
(
-1
(x)) =
-1
((x)) = x
where omoin
](x)
= Rongc
]
-1
(x)
and Rongc
](x)
= omoin
]
-1
(x)
Note: an inverse function may be geometrically interpreted as the reflection of the original
function across the line y = x.
Definition of the One-to-One (1-1) Function
A function (x) is said to be one-to-one IFF:
(x
1
) = (x
2
) implics x
1
must bc cquol to x
2
Note: a function is 1-1 on an interval IFF its inverse exists
Note: if function is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing on interval, then it is 1-1 on that
interval and the inverse function exists.
Systematic Procedure to find
-1
(x):
1. [START] Establish that (x) is one-to-one on the interval of interest
2. a) If you can guess via trial and error the value of
-1
(x), then test it:
does (
-1
(x)) = x? [END]
b) Start with y = (x) and try algebraic manipulation to yield x = g(y) and
set
-1
(x) = g(x). [END]
3.5 ln x and c
x
Relationships
Definition of ln x:
lnx = _
1
t
Jt
t
1
, wcrc x > u
c
Inx
= exp(lnx) = x
Note: ln x is the inverse function of c
x
Note: ln x = log
c
x, however this course focuses on calculus and so only the former is used.
Note: by FTC Part I, ln x is continuous and differentiable for x > u
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 28 of 28
Properties of ln x:
Operational Properties:
ln u = 1 c
0
= 1
ln ob = lno +lnb
ln _
1
b
] = ln b
ln
o
b
= ln o ln b
ln x