Designing with Ductile Iron to

Achieve Strength and Economy

The inherently strong structure of this relatively new and versatile metal makes
it an ideal choice for automotive and other high-performance castings.
excerpted from material provided by the
Ductile Iron Marketing Group
I
n 1948, ductile iron was first unveiled to
the engineering world. Treatment of
molten iron with a small but adequate
amount of magnesium causes the graphite
to precipitate as spheroids, rather than flakes
as in gray cast iron, giving the material an
inherently stronger structure. The material
is 4-12 times tougher than gray cast iron and
so ductile that it can be bent and twisted
without breaking.
The new ductile iron family bridged
the gap between gray iron and steel, of-
fering the processing advantages of gray
ironlow melting point, good fluidity and
castability, and ready machinability
combined with many of the engineering
advantages of steelhigh strength, duc-
tility and wear resistance.
Strength at Less Expense
Whether in an automobile component
or a water pipe, ductile iron has made
major inroads in every industrially devel-
oped country. Today, 16 million tons of
ductile iron castings are produced each
year worldwide, representing nearly one-
third of all U.S. casting shipments.
The motivating factor for using this
metal is the opportunity for greater strength
at less expense. Other reasons to select duc-
tile iron include its reliability in service, vi-
bration damping and surface hardenability.
In addition, since the modulus of elas-
ticity of ductile iron is somewhat lower than
that of steel, the stresses due to unavoidable
misalignment in parts such as gears will re-
sult in lower bending fatigue strength.
While not all foundries produce all
ductile iron grades, virtually all castings or
cast shapes can be made from an appro-
priate grade of ductile iron.
The Ductile Iron Family
The majority of ductile iron castings
are produced in one of the following three
types, which do not require heat treat-
ment. The parenthetical information rep-
resents the common notation for grades,
and the three numbers express tensile
strength in pounds per square inch, yield
strength and percent elongation (mini-
mum 2 in.), respectively:
ferritic ductile iron (60-40-18)
Composed of graphite spheroids in a
ferrite matrix (basically pure iron),
this grade exhibits high impact resis-
tance, relatively good thermal conduc-
tivity, high magnetic permeability, low
hysteresis loss, and good machinabil-
ity and corrosion resistance;
pearlitic-ferritic ductile iron (80-55-
06)Composed of graphite sphe-
roids in a mixed matrix of ferrite and
pearlite, this grade is probably the
most common and least expensive
grade of ductile iron, exhibiting
properties between those with fully
ferritic or fully pearlitic structures,
including good machinability;
pearlitic ductile iron (100-70-03)
Composed of graphite spheroids in a
matrix of pearlite (a fine aggregate of
ferrite and cementite), this grade is
relatively hard, displaying moderate
ductility, high strength, good wear
Metals Focus
Because the graphite in ductile iron pre-
cipitates as spheroids rather than flakes,
as in gray iron, they act as crack arrest-
ers, allowing the metal to bend without
breaking. Shown above is a ductile bar
machined flat from a casting and a simi-
lar bar that has been twisted, illustrating
the irons exceptional ductility.
Ductile iron is versatile enough to be used in a variety of applications from this
52-ton turbine casting used in hydro power generation (l) to this assortment of
fairly intricate truck parts.
167
This graph shows the tensile and hardness properties of ductile iron con-
forming to different grades of ASTM Specification A536.
resistance, moderate
impact resistance,
somewhat reduced
thermal conductiv-
ity, low magnetic
permeability, high
hysteresis loss and
good machinability.
The designer also may
encounter special situations
that call for the special
grades of ductile iron alloys:
austempered ductile
iron (ADI)This re-
cent addition to the
ductile iron family of-
fers a remarkable
combination of
strength, toughness
and wear resistance.
ADI is almost twice as
strong as the regular
ASTM grades of duc-
tile iron while still re-
taining high elonga-
tion and toughness
characteristics. In addition, ADI of-
fers exceptional fatigue strength,
enabling designers to reduce com-
ponent weight and costs. A closely
controlled heat treatment operation
(austempering) develops a unique
matrix structure of bainitic ferrite
(60%) and retained (high carbon)
austenite. The retained austenite is
thermally stable to extremely low tem-
peratures but is work hardenable and
will locally transform to martensite
under suitable conditions of stress;
martensitic ductile iron (quenched
and tempered)In the as-cast con-
dition the alloy is hard and brittle and
seldom used, however, tempered mar-
tensite has very high strength and wear
resistance. A 930F (500C) tempering
results in 300 Bhn and 1110F (600C)
tempering results in 250 Bhn;
austenitic ductile iron (also known as
ductile Ni-Resist)The outstanding
features of this grade are good cor-
rosion and oxidation resistance,
magnetic properties, strength and di-
mensional stability at el-
evated temperatures.
Production
Familiarizing oneself
with ductile iron design
advantages helps not only
to achieve engineering
elegance (uniform stress-
flow and optimum
economy) but also helps
the designer to decide
when the use of ductile iron
is preferable to an alterna-
tive material. The volume
changes that occur during
the cooling and solidifica-
tion of ductile iron are un-
like those in any other al-
loy. The volume of the liq-
uid decreases with decreas-
ing temperature until
slightly above the solidifica-
tion temperature. Upon
further cooling, the con-
traction stops and a definite
volumetric expansion starts. Unfortunately,
the expansion phase prevails through only
part of the solidification process. The ex-
pansion gives way to another contraction
phase, secondary shrinkage, which contin-
ues until all of the liquid metal solidifies.
The liquid iron temperature should be
high enough to provide for complete fusion
of the separate streams and to avoid the en-
trapment of small gas bubbles. Each section
thickness has its optimum pouring tem-
perature range. Ductile iron castings with 3
mm-thick walls may need to be poured as
Table 1. Short Summary of Ductile Iron Specifications
Specifying Spec. Class or Min. Min. % Heat Other Uses Typical
Body No. Grade Tensile psi Yield psi Elongation Treatment Requirements Applications
ASTM A536-80 60-40-18 60,000 40,000 18 May be For maximum Pressure-
Annealed shock resistant containing
parts to be used castings such
at sub-zero as valve &
temperatures. pump bodies.
ASTM A536-80 65-45-12 65,000 45,000 12 - Most widely used Machinery
grade for normal castings
service. subject to
shock and
fatigue loading.
ASTM A536-80 80-50-06 80,000 55,000 6 - Suitable for flame Crankshafts,
and induction gears and
hardening. rollers.
ASTM A536-80 100-70-03 100,000 70,000 3 Usually Best combination High strength
Normalized of strength, wear gears,
resistance and automotive
response to surface and machine
hardening. components.
ASTM A536-80 120-90-02 120,000 90,000 2 Quenched Maximum strength Pinions, gears,
and and wear rollers and
Tempered resistance. slides.
In all grades
in this
specification,
chemical
composition is
subordinate to
mechanical
properties.
However, the
content of any
element may
be specified
by mutual
agreement.
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
30
20
10
0
180 200 220 240 260 280 300 160
Tensile strength
Yield strength
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

M
P
a
E
l
o
n
g
a
t
i
o
n
,

%
Hardness, HB
160
120
80
40
100-70-03, air quenched
Grace 120-90-02, oil quenched
80-55-06, as-cast
65-45-12, annealed
60-40-18, annealed
Grade 60-40-18, annealed
65-45-12, annealed
80-55-06, as-cast
100-70-03, air quenched
120-90-02, oil quenched
168
hot as 2640F (1450C), while 100 mm thick
castings can be poured at between 2300-
2400F (1260-1320C). Production complex-
ity may increase when large differences in
section thickness exist in one casting. There-
fore, it is best to design with as little differ-
ence in wall thicknesses as possible.
Strength Required
The grade of ductile iron selected will
have a considerable effect on cost. Grade
65-45-12 is one of the least expensive, es-
pecially when considering machining
costs. Pearlitic-ferritic costs approximately
the same to cast but is somewhat less ma-
chinable. Pearlitic is still relatively inexpen-
sive and should be selected where its high
strength and good wear resistance are
needed. Ferritic and martensitic grades can
be the most expensive to cast, but they may
be the most economical choice if the par-
ticular material characteristics are impor-
tant. The evaluation of the higher cost aus-
tenitic grades must be considered indi-
vidually on the basis of their excellent cor-
rosion, erosion and oxidation resistance,
performance at elevated temperatures,
magnetic properties, low thermal
expansivity and other unique features.
Machining Cost
Strength, weight, service life and
other considerations may be overruled
on occasion to minimize machining
cost. The grades easiest to machine are
pearlitic and martensitic, followed by
austenitic and pearlitic-ferritic. The ma-
chinability of ferritic is superior to steel
with the same hardness, and the machin-
ability of austenitic ductile
iron is generally superior to
that of stainless steels.
Wall Thickness
In terms of wall thickness,
6 mm-or-heavier sections are
relatively easy to produce.
Thinner walls are increasingly
difficult to produce without de-
terioration in the as-cast con-
dition. Brittleness and high
hardness can be eliminated
through heat treatment, but
this is expensive and results in
distortion to various degrees.
Whenever practical, cast wall
thickness should be at least 6
mm to facilitate as-cast deliv-
ery. Otherwise, heat treatment
may be required, increasing
casting cost by 10-30%.
This graph shows the relationships between endurance ratio, tensile
strength and matrix microstructure for ductile iron. The fatigue
strength of a material is related to its tensile strength by an endur-
ance ratio, or the ratio of a fatigue limit to tensile strength.
Casting Soundness
Unlike most other alloys, the designer
should aim at simultaneous solidification of
the whole casting. This minimizes and
sometimes eliminates the need for risers
while improving casting yield. Conversely,
parts of a ductile iron casting that cool much
slower may require additional feeding. Some
examples of such isolated hot spots are:
cast-on heavy bosses;
cast-on heavy test coupons;
sharp internal corners;
joints between equally thick walls;
multiple joints (2 is better than 3, 3
is better than 4, etc.);
joints at acute angles (90 is best);
isolated heavy sections.
Dimensional Accuracy
With the exception of dimensional prob-
lems caused by patterns and coreboxes, gen-
erally the larger the casting the wider the tol-
erances that can be expected. To minimize
costs, designers should strive to specify no
more dimensional accuracy than what is
absolutely needed.
Dimensional inaccuracies from mold
deformation during pattern withdrawal are
minimized through proper tapering (draft)
of the pattern. A minimum draft of 1:100
suffices only for very shallow patterns. Deep
patterns may require as much as 5:100 for
maximum accuracy.
Mechanical Qualities
The effect of section size on proper-
ties is the result of changes in micro-
scopic structure, which is influenced by
cooling rate. Three prominent effects of
cooling rate are:
very high cooling rates may not per-
mit all the insoluble carbon to pre-
cipitate in the form of spheroidal
graphite. Instead, various amounts of
a hard and brittle component, iron
carbide (Fe
3
C), may form;
very slow cooling can result in
large-diameter, irregularly shaped
spheroids of graphite up to 1.5 mm
in diameter;
varying the cooling rate in the
1560-480F (850-250C) tempera-
ture range from very fast to very
slow produces different structures
from martensite (very fast cooling)
through pearlite, pearlite-ferrite to
all ferrite (slow cooling).
For design calculations, the engi-
neer must request test castings that
will cool at approximately the same
rate as the final product. Mechanical
tests on these castings will
yi el d t he most accurat e
prediction of properties.
The presence or absence of
carbides and the type of matrix
obtained in any given section
can be controlled by alloying or
heat treatment. The size of the
spheroidal graphite, on the
other hand, can be influenced
by, among other things, the
cooling rate of the casting,
which in turn can be deter-
mined by the shape or design
of the casting.
Safety-Critical
Applications
Both automobile steering
knuckles and plow-shares are
often made in ductile iron,
even though these castings
0.5
0.4
0.3
E
n
d
u
r
a
n
c
e

r
a
t
i
o
60 100 140 160
Tensile strength, 1000 psi
Pearlitic
Ferritic
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
Tensile strength, MPa
Tempered Martensite
This ductile iron roller bracket, used on a
large cement truck, replaced a nine-piece
steel weldment. The 12 x 12 x 8-in., 27-
lb casting was made by The Dotson Co.
Mankato, Minnesota, in grade 80-55-06
ductile iron using the green sand pro-
cess. Per part savings were approxi-
mately $15, and with an annual usage
of 8000 components, the customer
achieved an annual savings of $120,000.
169
Ductile Iron Data for Design
Engineers, Rio Tinto Iron & Titanium,
Chicago, IL (1990).
Design of Ferrous Castings,
American Foundrymens Society, Des
Plaines, IL (1984).
A Design Engineers Digest of
Ductile Iron, 7th Edition, Rio Tinto
Iron & Titanium, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada (1990).
A Tribute to Keith Millis and
the Unveiling of Ductile Iron 50
Years Ago, p. 33-66, modern
casting, Des Plaines, IL (Oct. 1998).
have different safety requirements. An en-
gineer must design with a degree of re-
quired safety in mind, and a foundry must
cast a quality component to meet those re-
quirements. Safety requirements, however,
must be applied judiciously, because in-
creasing part safety invariably increases
cost. The available controls include:
approximating the ultimate load car-
rying capacity of the material to vari-
ous predetermined degreesUnder
static loads, the maximum permissible
stress equals the yield strength. Usual
design stresses vary from 50-75% of
the yield strength (0.2% offset proof
stress). Parts exposed to frequently
varying loads should be designed so
as not to exceed the maximum endur-
ance limit for a particular stress level.
Design stresses of 50-100% of the en-
durance limit are customary, corre-
sponding to a very high and low mar-
gin of safety, respectively;
estimating the effect of potential emer-
gency overloads involves the determi-
nation of the most likely failure
mechanismExcessive static or dy-
namic loads may cause failure either
through deformation of the part or by
fracture. Depending on the use, one
failure mechanism will prove to be
safer than the other. For example, in a
pressure-tight container a major in-
crease in the internal pressure may
burst or deform the casting. A perma-
nent deformation will probably be the
safer failure mechanism. Dont indis-
criminately use the high-ductility
grade (ferritic). Pearlitic-ferritic can
withstand 70-80% higher loads;
Grade 120-90-02 can withstand 2.5
times more load, either static or dy-
namic, than ferritic. Beyond these lim-
its, grades 120-90-02, 100-70-03 and
80-55-06 will fail through fracture
while grade 65-45-12 and ferritic will
fail through permanent deformation
under much lighter loads.
Trust the Foundry
Foundries producing ductile iron are
well aware of choices in manufacturing pro-
cesses, the effects of chemical composition
and heat treatment, and the in-plant con-
trols necessary to produce a casting. Deci-
sions regarding fine details affecting
economy and performance require a better
understanding of the casting process and the
foundry involved. Its best to meet with the
foundryman during the design of the raw
or ideal part. Engineers may even be able
to see some good examples of castings simi-
lar to what they require.
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